The Lahore Resolution, 1940

The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim rule in India. The Muslims’ disappointment from the Congress leadership decided to open a new phase of history. Quaid-i-Azam’s article in Time and Tide concluded that Muslims are a nation. No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940 are remarkable: “If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India, the Muslim will have to demand for division of the country.”

The Lahore Resolution:

The Muslim League held its annual session at Lahore on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore Resolution was moved by Maulvi FazlulHaq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his valuable remarks about the political circumstances of India and the Muslims stand. He said: “Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without recognizing this reality. Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus and Muslims are placed under one democratic system, this would mean Hindu Raj.”

Text of the Resolution:

• They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable for the Muslims. • No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their approval and consent. • Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be constituted as Independent States where the constituent units will be autonomous and sovereign. • Protection of minorities would be given priority.

Separate Electrodes

An electorate is a group of voters, namely, all the officially qualified voters within a particular country or area or for a particular election.A joint electorate is one

where the entire voting population of a country or region is part of a single electorate, and the entire electorate votes for the candidates who contest elections.In the case of separate electorates, the voting population of a country or region is divided into different electorates, based on certain factors such as religion, caste, gender, and occupation. Here, members of each electorate votes only to elect representatives for their electorate. Separate electorates are usually demanded by minorities who feel it would otherwise be difficult for them to get fair representation in government. Separate electorate for Muslims means that Muslims will choose their separate leader by separate elections for Muslims. In India’s pre-independence era, when the Muslims in India demanded fair representation in power-sharing with the British government along with the Hindus in 1906, the British government provided for a separate electorate system for the Muslims in Government of India Act 1909. As a result, of the total 250 seats of the Bengal Legislative Assembly, 117 seats were kept reserved for the Muslims. Accordingly, the general elections of 1937 were held on the basis of the extended separate electorates, where only the Muslims voted for the 117 seats, in Bengal.

The 1937 Elections:

The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate. The Congress projected itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the society. The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from the other Muslim organizations. The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U.P., C.P., Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats. The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind. It was mostly due to the organizational problems and opposition by local Muslim groups.

Formation of Provincial Governments: In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces. In NWFP, KhudaiKhidmatgar and Congress formed a coalition government. In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League could not form the governments. The

Muslim League desired to be in government in the U.P. but the Congress consented to a conditional support: 1. Dissolve AIML Parliamentary Board 2. AIML members not to function as a separate group 3. AIML members to express allegiance to the Congress Definitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the Muslim League. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue.

Provincial Elections: February 1946

In the provincial elections, the ML won most of the Muslim seats: Punjab: 79 out of 86 Muslim seats Bengal 113 out of 119 Muslim seats Sindh 28 out of 35 Muslim seats NWFP 17 out of 38 Muslim seats The ML also showed an impressive performance in the Muslim minority provinces. The ML formed its ministry in Sind, KhudaiKhidmatgar (Dr. Khan) in NWFP, coalition government by ML in Bengal, and Unionist (20), Akalis and the Congress in Punjab (Khizr Hayat Tiwana).

The Cabinet Mission: March 1946 The British Labour government sent a mission to formulate some acceptable constitutional settlement. Sir Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander deliberated with the governors, members of the Executive Council and then the Indian political leaders on different proposals. Maulana Azad as the president of the Congress stressed to establish federal government and Jinnah repeated the Two Nation Theory as a universal reality. On April 19, 1946, all the newly elected Muslim members pledged in the Delhi Convention to shatter the Hindu dream of united India. In the second Simla Conference (May 15, 1946) the ML wished two legislative assemblies while anti-ML political parties favoured strong centre.

Recommendations of the Cabinet Mission: May 1946

1. Indian Union comprising British India and princely states. 2. Centre to deal with foreign affairs,defence, communication, taxation.

3. Rest of the subjects with provinces. 4. There will be a legislature and executive comprising representatives of provinces and states. 5. No legislation on communal affairs if the majority of the two communities are not present and voting in favour. 6. Provinces will be divided into three groups: A: Hindu majority provinces e.g. UP, CP, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa. B: Muslim majority provinces in NW e.g. Punjab, NWFP, Balochistan and Sindh. C: Bengal and Assam. Each group could decide what to be managed jointly and what should be managed by provinces themselves. They could decide if the group desired to frame constitution. 7. After ten years, a province by a vote of its legislature could ask for review of relationship with the Union. It implied that a group or province could quit the Indian Union. 8. CA to be elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Seats to be divided into three categories: General, Muslim, and Sikh on the basis of population in provinces. Separate Electorate. 9. Interim Government to be set up.

Forms of Government Democracy Supreme power is given to the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation. Democratic countries have free elections where all citizens have a vote.

Monarchy Rule by a single person (a king or queen), who is the permanent head of state. The term is now used to refer to countries with hereditary rulers. This means that rule is passed down from parent to child. Constitutional monarchies are more common today. Under this system, the powers of the king or queen are restricted to those granted in the constitution. Most constitutional monarchies use a parliamentary system in which the king or queen may have strictly ceremonial duties. They often have a elected prime minister who is the head of government

Examples of countries with monarchies today Saudi Arabia Brunei Qatar Oman Great Britain (Constitutional Monarchy)

Dictatorship A government in which a single leader or party exercises absolute control over all citizens and every aspect of their lives. In most cases, this absolute power is exercised in a cruel way.Other names for a dictatorship include: Autocracy, Military Junta, Right Wing, Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism or Fascism Examples of Dictatorships todayNorth KoreaLibya Myanmar (Burma)

Analysis of constitutions of 56-62 and 73 Pakistan became independent of the United Kingdom in 1947. Under Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Government of India Act, 1935 became, with certain adaptations, the working constitution of Pakistan. But the need of a constitution to be framed by the elected representatives of the people was all the more necessary for the free citizens of a sovereign state. There were three constitutions beginning by 1956 constitution, then 1962 constitution and then the last was 1973 constitution. The first Constituent Assembly was formed under the ‘Independence Act’ and was entrusted with the task to formulate a constitution for Pakistan. After assuming charge as Prime Minister, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali along with his team worked day and night to formulate a constitution for Pakistan. His efforts led to the first constitution that was enforced in the country on March 23, 1956. Pakistan's status as a dominion ended and the country was declared an Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Thereupon the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan became the interim National Assembly and Governor General Iskander Mirza was sworn in as the first President of Pakistan. One of the main features of the Constitution was its Islamic character. The president, who was required to be a Muslim of at least 40 years of age He was to set up an organization for Islamic research with the aim of establishing a true Islamic society. The Objectives Resolution was, however, only made the preamble of the Constitution and not included in its main text.

The President had the power to appoint the Prime Minister from amongst the members of the National Assembly. However, his appointee had to take a vote of confidence from the Assembly within two months of his appointment. The President also had the power to remove the Prime Minister if he felt that the Prime Minister had lost the confidence of the majority of the National Assembly members. The Constitution of 1956 provided for parliamentary form of government with a unicameral legislature. The Constitution recognized the concept of One Unit, and the seats were divided equally between the two wings of the country. Thus the principle of parity was introduced. For the first ten years, five additional seats were reserved for women for each wing. National Assembly was to meet at least twice a year with at least one session at Dhaka. The Constitution offered direct elections under adult franchise. Every citizen of Pakistan with minimum age of 21 was allowed to vote in the elections. The Constitution of 1956 proved to be short lived as on 7 October 1958, President Iskander Mirza staged a coup d'état. He abrogated the constitution, imposed martial law and appointed General Muhammad Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator. The 1962 constitution provided for a federal system with the principle of parity between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Both the provinces would run their separate provincial governments. The President was the head of the state as well as the head of the Government. . The minimum age was 35 years and he could not hold the position for two consecutive terms and the term, was of five years. The President had the power to appoint Provincial Governors, Federal Ministers, Advocate General, Auditor General and Chairmen and Members of various administrative commissions. Principle of Basic Democracy was introduced for the first time in the country and the system of indirect elections was presented. Only 80,000 Basic Democrats were given the right to vote in the presidential elections. The Eighth Amendment later increased this number to 120,000. Half of them were to be from the Eastern Wing, the rest from the Western Wing of the country.

According to the Constitution of 1962, the Executive was not separated from the Legislature. The President exercised veto power in the legislative affairs and could even veto a bill passed by the National Assembly with a two-third majority. He had the power to issue ordinances when the Assembly was not in session. The President had the power to dissolve the National Assembly. Federal form of government was introduced in the country with most of the powers reserved for the Central Government. There was a federal list of subjects over which the provinces had no jurisdiction. Governors were to enjoy the same position in the provinces, which the President was to enjoy in the centre. Islamic clauses were included in the Constitution. These could not be challenged in any court of law. The state was named the ‘Republic of Pakistan’, but the first amendment added the word "Islamic" to the name. The word "Islam" and not "Quran and Sunnah" was used in the Islamic clauses to give a liberal touch to the Constitution. Both Urdu and Bengali were made the national languages of Pakistan and English was declared as the official language of the country for the first ten years. When Ayub Khan handed over After assuming charge as Prime Minister, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali along with his team worked day and night to formulate a constitution for Pakistan. His efforts led to the first constitution that was enforced in the country on March 23, 1956. power to Yahya Khan, Martial Law was enforced in the country and the Constitution was terminated on March 25, 1969. There was no restriction of religion for a person holding the office of the Speaker of the National Assembly. Secondly, if the President resigns from his office or vote of no-confidence passes against him, then according to the Constitution the Speaker would act as the President of the State till the election of new President. Under these special circumstances, a non-Muslim might get the chance to be an acting President of Pakistan... The 1973 Constitution was the first achievement of Bhutto Government. The National Assembly approved the 1973 Constitution on April 10, 1973, and it came into effect on August 14. Bhutto took over as the Prime Minister of Pakistan from this date and FazalIlahi Chaudhry was appointed as the President of Pakistan.

The Constitution was parliamentary in nature. President was to be the Head of the State. The head of the Government, according to the Constitution, was the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet was accountable to the National Assembly for his actions. The Prime Minister would be elected by the majority of the National Assembly. The President was to be a Muslim above 45 years of age and was to be elected by a joint sitting of members of the Parliament for 5 years. He could be re-elected but could not hold office for more than two terms. The President was to act on the advice of the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The President could be removed on the grounds of physical or mental incapacity or impeached on charges of violating the Constitution or gross misconduct. The President was authorized to appoint the Attorney General, Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts, and the Chief Election Commissioners. The 1973 Constitution set up a bicameral legislature at the Centre consisting of two Houses, the National Assembly and the Senate. The National Assembly consisted of 200 seats elected directly for duration of five years. The President on the advice of the Prime Minister could dissolve the National Assembly. The Senate was to consist of 63 members; each province was to elect 14 members. In the Provincial Government, each province will have a Governor appointed by the President. The Provincial Assembly for each province consisted of 240 seats for the Punjab, 100 seats for Sindh, 80 seats for N W F P., and 40 seats for Baluchistan. The 1973 Constitution provided a free and independent Judiciary. The Constitution guaranteed a right to the citizens; to be protected by law, and imposed two duties on them, loyalty to the Republic and obedience to the law. National Finance Commission(NFC), Council of Common Interests(CCI) and National Economic Council(NEC) were included in the constitution for the first time. In light of the previous experience, the Constitution of 1973 was more Islamic in character than the previous ones. The Constitution recognized Islam as the

religion of the country and enjoined upon the State to serve the cause of Islam and to bring all existing laws in conformity with Islam. The Constitution of 1973 remained in force for nearly four years. It was, however, suspended by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law in the country on July 5, 1979

Foreign Policy of Pakistan

Features & Highlights No state can live in isolation. There is a need of interaction. The linkages between internal & external environment are very necessary to create harmonious relations among the peoples living in the different regions. The national interests and identity, economic reasons, peace and stability are the motives of foreign policy of a country. Pakistan functions at different levels: Bilateral and Multilateral. It is also a member of the UN and other international organizations.

Features of Foreign Policy: The main aims of features of ‘Foreign Policy’ are protection of- independence, Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity. Primary concern is the SECURITY through diplomacy and military security arrangements. National mobilization regarding Pakistan’s security vis-à-vis India influenced foreign policy options. Strong defense is indispensable for survival.

Relations with All States: Pakistan has good relations with almost all the nations of the world on the basis of mutuality of interests, cordiality, peace and non-interference in internal affairs. Pakistan believes that problems to be resolved peacefully.

Relations with Major Powers: The nature of relations with major powers has varied. United States Pakistan-US relations have been generally friendly but problems developed from time to time on nuclear issue, arms sales, Kashmir etc. China

China proved to be a reliable and consistent friend over the periods of decades. Pakistan supported China diplomatically in the UN and the Outside. Both the countries have developed close relations in all the areas including economic development and industrialization, defense, science and technology, environment and trade. Russia Pakistan has working relations with Russia but frequent problems remained unsolved during the period of Cold War. Russia remained favorable to India at the cost of its relations with Pakistan. On Kashmir issue, her attitude has been pro India. Some economic relations strengthened the bilateral relations when Russia provided economic and technological assistance to Pakistan in establishing steel mill in Karachi. In post-Cold War era, Pakistan is trying to normalize the relations. The recent tour of President Musharraf is a step towards this goal. Economic

Issues, Trade, Investment: Greater importance is attributed to the issues like economic development, direct foreign investment and trade relations in international relations. Foreign policy is linked with foreign assistance from the World Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank, International Development Bank and other sources. Economic relations are both bilateral and multi-lateral. Technology, trade, access to market and investment are keys to the cordial relations between the two countries. Pakistan is also trying to establish its relations with other countries on the same footings.

Muslim States: Being Islamic country, Pakistan has been always in search of good relations with the Muslim countries. It has been a central point in the ideology of Pakistan even before Independence. Solidarity with the Developing States: Pakistan had been concerned with the issues and problems of the states of Asia, Africa and Latin America. As it is developing countries it is well aware of the problems of under development, poverty, disease, famine, civil strife and border disputes, refugees and drug addiction.

Pakistan always emphasized on the UN and developed countries to help them. Peace cannot be maintained if humanity is suffering. Cooperation among developing countries in the areas of economic and technical assistance, trade and diplomacy support to these causes should be enhanced. United Nations: Pakistan joined the UN on Sept. 30, 1947. It has commitment to the UN Charter and active in UN bodies. Pakistan has enjoyed the Security Council membership for 6 times. It has been a part of UN Peace-Keeping Missions all over the world. Anti-Colonialism, Right of Self Determination: As we have been suffering from colonial rule we always support decolonization for Asia and Africa. Pakistan always opposed racial discrimination in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), South Africa, Namibia etc. It always supported right of self-determination for Kashmir, Palestine, Afghanistan and others. Arms Control: Pakistan believes that arms races to be controlled, resources to be used for human development. It has spoken for this cause in the UN and the outside. It opposed arms race not only at the superpower level but also at the regional and bilateral levels both for conventional and non-conventional arms. It stressed that the root causes of arms races should be curtailed. Nuclear Policy: Pakistan has been champion of peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Pakistan avoided nuclear explosions despite having the knowledge and capability of processing Uranium, Plutonium. It was only for the sake of deterrence and reaction to India’s nuclear explosions. Relations with India: The most problematic area of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relationship with India. The relations have been strained since independence in 1947. There were periods of normal relations but generally it remained troubled marked with distrust and conflict. This bitterness caused three major wars in 1947-48, 1965 and 1971. Limited conflicts and trouble at LoC (Line of Control) along with propaganda war are common practices. Tension escalated when the troops on the border from both sides faced each other throughout 2002. India was not ready to open dialogue. But now there is a hope of bilateral dialogue on Kashmir

and other issues. It is the only way to bring prosperity and peace for 1.2 billion people of South Asia. Kashmir: Main source of conflict between India and Pakistan is Kashmir dispute. It should be resolved under the UN Resolutions. But India has declared it as integral part of it. Instead of having plebiscite, she has blamed Pakistan for initiating insurgency in Kashmir since 1989. India claims that it is engineered by Pakistan and equates this with terrorism. Control of Terrorism: Pakistan is an active participant in global efforts to contain terrorism. Pakistan withdrew support to Taliban and joined hands with the international community. She also acted against terrorists within Pakistan, as it was victim of terrorism & sectarianism. Pakistan believes that to eradicate terrorism first the root causes of the problem should be removed. Concluding Remarks: Pakistan has been an active member of the international community. It has been balancing the diverse pressures through diplomacy, engagement and compromises for the betterment of humanity.

Roll of Pakistan in regional and international organizations

OIC The Organization of Islamic Cooperation is an international organization consisting of 57 member states. The organization states that it is "the collective voice of the Muslim world" and works to "safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony“. In line with OIC strong stance against the occupation of Palestine by Israel, Pakistan has continuously adopted a stance against Israel, while maintaining moral solidarity with Palestine Military Cooperation Pakistan is though to have developed its atomic bomb programme with millions of dollars of contributory aid from (mostly) Saudi Arabia and Libyan oil wealth

Pakistan has always used OIC as a platform to gather support on the Kahmir conflict against the Republic of India. In 1969 King Hassan of Morocco invited the Government of India for the 1969 Summit in Rabat As a goodwill gesture of China's veto power in support of Pakistan at the UN Security Council, for example the Chinese opposition of UNSC resolution at Pakistan's behest demanding a ban on the militant organization Jama'at-ud-Da'wah following the 2008 Mumbai attacks, Pakistan assured China, that the OIC will not pass any resolution condemning China's 'strike hard' campaign against the Uighur Muslim minority. Pakistan therefore act as a contact point for China's engagement with the OIC.

UN The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization with the stated aims of promoting and facilitating co-operation in International law, International Security, Economic Development , Social Progress, Human Rights, Civil Rights, Civil Liberties, Political Freedoms, Democracy, and the achievement of lasting world peace. Pakistan officially joined the United Nations (UN) on 30 September 1947 just over a month after its independence from the British Empire. Today, it is a charter member and participates in all of the UN's specialized agencies and organizations. Pakistan maintains a permanent mission to the UN, which is currently headed by Ambassador Abdullah Hussain Haroon in New York. There is a second mission based at the UNO office in Geneva, Switzerland. The Pakistani military has played a key role in the UN's peacekeeping programme in different parts of the world, most prominently in Somalia , Sierra Leone, Bosnia, Congo and Liberia. The UN continues to remain a keen observer of the Kashmir conflict between Pakistan and India, centringaround the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. Since the transfer of power to both countries in 1947 of the divided territory, the UN has played an extensive role in regulating and monitoring the dispute.

Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) ECO currently is engaged in energy crisis resolution and meetings are being held in Tehran. And by resolving this problem all the members will facilitated by it specially Pakistan. Because besides the potentiality of the country in many a sectors still

they are not operating at an efficient level which is required according to the current need of the scenario. Pakistan’s potential in telecommunication, agriculture, food, industry, trade and many other sectors made it significant as it can play its role for the betterment of rest of the member nations by providing them with assistance financially and technically both.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an organization of South Asian nations, which was established on 8 December 1985. The government of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka formally adopted its charter. Since the Association's start, Pakistan has been a supporter of SAARC objectives and has remained an active player on the SAARC platform. It has contributed meaningfully to the establishment institutions and progress of the Association. Pakistan supported a step by step approach for enhancing cooperation and stresses the need for better coordination of programs and consolidation of the progress made so far.