nanotechnology standards final

7/31/2019 Nanotechnology Standards Final

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PAS 136:2007

Terminology fornanomaterialsICS 01.040.71; 71.100.99

NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW

PUBLICLY AVAILABLE SPECIFICATION


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ContentsForeword iii

Introduction 1

1 Scope 1

2 General 23 Molecular entities 4

4 Structural entities 4

5 Synthesized materials 5

6 Production of raw material 6

7 Production of constructed material 7

Bibliography 9

Summary of pages

This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover,

pages i to iv, pages 1 to 9 and a back cover.


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2 General

2.1 agglomeratecollection of loosely bound particles or aggregates or mixtures of the

two where the resulting external surface area is similar to the sum of the

surface areas of the individual components

NOTE The forces holding an agglomerate together are weak forces, for

example van der Waals forces, as well as simple physical entanglement.

[ISO/TS 276871)]

2.2 aggregateparticle comprising strongly bonded or fused particles where the

resulting external surface area may be significantly smaller than the

sum of calculated surface areas of the individual components

NOTE The forces holding an aggregate together are strong forces, for

example covalent bonds, or those resulting from sintering or complex

physical entanglement.

[ISO/TS 276871)]

2.3 mesoporouspossessing pores with at least one dimension between 2 nm to 50 nm

NOTE The termnanoporous is preferred to mesoporous.

2.4 nanomaterialmaterial having one or more external dimensions in the nanoscale or

which is nanostructured

NOTE Nanomaterials can exhibit properties that differ from those of the

same material withoutnanoscale features.

2.5 nano-objectdiscrete piece of material with one or more external dimensions in the

nanoscale

NOTE This is a generic term for allnanoscale objects.

[ISO/TS 276871)]

2.6 nanoparticlenano-object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale

NOTE If the lengths of the longest and the shortest axes of thenano-object

differ significantly (typically by more than three times) the terms

nanorod ornanoplate are intended to be used instead of the term

nanoparticle.

[ISO/TS 276871)]

2.7 nanoporouspossessing pores with at least one dimension in the nanoscale

NOTE The term nanoporous is preferred tomesoporous.

1) In preparation.


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2.8 nanoscalesize range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm

NOTE 1 Properties that are not extrapolations from larger size will

typically, but not exclusively, be exhibited in this size range.

NOTE 2 The lower limit in this definition (approximately 1 nm) has no

physical significance but is introduced to avoid single and small groupsof atoms from being designated as nano-objects or elements of

nanostructures, which might be implied by the absence of a lower limit.

[ISO/TS 276872)]

2.9 nanostructurenanoscale structure

2.10 nanostructuredpossessing a structure comprising contiguous elements with one or

more dimension in the nanoscale but excluding any primary atomic or

molecular structure

NOTE 1 An example of a primary atomic or molecular structure is the

arrangement of atoms in a crystalline solid.

NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere of

approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in a nanostructured material,

will intersect more than one element of the structure.

2.11 primary structurefirst level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder

NOTE For example, a sequence of mer units in a polymer or amino acids

in a peptide molecule.

2.12 secondary structuresecond level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder

NOTE For example, a formation of inter-polymer bonds such as

hydrogen bonding to give rise to beta sheets and barrel regions.

2.13 supramoleculeordered array of molecules, held together through non covalent

interactions, which exhibits at least aprimary structure

2.14 tertiary structurethird level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder

NOTE 1 For example, the surface topography of a protein

macromolecule.

NOTE 2 Higher levels of ordering are possible.

2) In preparation.


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3 Molecular entities

3.1 cage compoundpolycyclic compound having the shape of a cage

[IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology 1994, 66, 1092 [2]]

3.2 fullereneclosed-cage structure having more than 20 carbon atoms consisting

entirely of three-coordinate carbon atoms

NOTE A fullerene with 60 carbon atoms (C60) is sometimes called

buckminsterfullerene.

[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci. 35, 969-978 [3]]

3.3 graphenesingle sheet of trigonally bonded (sp2) carbon atoms in a hexagonal

structure

4 Structural entities

4.1 carbon nanotubenanotube consisting of carbon

NOTE This term is commonly used to refer to a seamless tube constructed

from graphene that can be either a single-wall carbon nanotube

(SWCNT), comprising a single layer of carbon atoms, or a multi-wall

carbon nanotube (MWCNT), comprising multiple concentric tubes.

4.2 micelle

aggregation of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquidNOTE 1 The surfactant molecules are often sequestered into hydrophilic

and hydrophobic regions.

NOTE 2 Micelles are commonly spherical but can also be branched, rods

or worm-like.

4.3 nanoclusternon covalently or covalently bound group of atoms or molecules whose

largest overall dimension is typically in the nanoscale

4.4 nanofibreflexible nanorod

[ISO/TS 276873)]

4.5 nanoplatenano-object with one external dimension in the nanoscale and the two

other external dimensions significantly larger

NOTE 1 The smallest external dimension is the thickness of the

nanoplate.

NOTE 2 The two significantly larger dimensions are considered to differ

from the nanoscale dimension by more than three times.

NOTE 3 The larger external dimensions are not necessarily at the

nanoscale.

[ISO/TS 276873)]

3) In preparation.


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4.6 nanopowdermass of dry nanoparticles

4.7 nanorodnano-object with two similar external dimensions in the nanoscale

and the third dimension significantly larger than the other two external

dimensions

NOTE 1 The largest external dimension is the length of the nanorod and

is not necessarily in the nanoscale.

NOTE 2 The two similar external dimensions are considered to differ in

size by less than three times and the significantly larger external

dimension is considered to differ from the other two by more than three

times.

NOTE 3 A nanorod can take any cross-sectional shape consistent with the

dimensional limits of the definition.

[ISO/TS 276874)]

4.8 nanotubehollownanorod

[ISO/TS 276874)]

4.9 self assembled monolayerplanar two dimensional supramolecular array formed at an interface

NOTE An example of a self assembled monolayer is a Langmuir-Blodgett

film.

5 Synthesized materials

5.1 aerogelnanoporous low density (less than 5 mgcm3) fractal solid

5.2 dendrimerrepeatedly branched macromolecule

NOTE Dendrimers can be configured as a sphere, partial sphere or

wedge structure (i.e. dendritic wedge).

5.3 dendrondendrimer containing a single chemically addressable group

NOTE The single chemically addressable group is known as the focal

point.

5.4 macromoleculemolecule with high relative molecular mass comprising multiple

repetitive units derived from molecules of lower relative molecular mass

[derived from IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 1996,

68, 2289 [2]]

5.5 nanocompositemultiphase structure in which at least one of the phases has at least one

dimension in the nanoscale

[derived fromPure and Applied Chemistry, pp 1985!2007 [4]]

4) In preparation.


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5.6 sol-gelcolloidal system in which a porous network of interconnected particles

spans the volume of a liquid medium

NOTE Particles in a sol-gel are oftennanoparticles.

5.7 zeolite

nanoporous crystalline solid with a well defined pore structure

6 Production of raw material

6.1 bottom upprogressing from small or subordinate units to a larger and functionally

richer unit

[derived from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English

Language [5]]

6.2 chemical vapour synthesisproduction method where vapour, introduced to a reaction chamber by,

for example, pyrolysis, reduction, oxidation or nitridation, condenses to

form particles

NOTE 1 Also referred to as chemical vapour growth.

NOTE 2 One application is the synthesis ofcarbon nanotubes.

[derived from PAS 71:2005, definition 6.5]

6.3 electrospinningtechnique used to produce nanofibres from a reservoir of reactive

precursor species expelled through a nozzle, the tip of which is held at

high voltage, the fibres being collected on a grounded plate

6.4 flame pyrolysissynthesis method where flame heat is used to vaporize feedstock

material and initiate chemical reaction to produce particles

NOTE Particles produced by flame pyrolysis are oftennanoparticles.

[derived fromNanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [6]]

6.5 laser pyrolysisgas phase synthesis method where a flowing reactive gas is heated

rapidly with a laser

[PAS 71:2005, definition 6.19]6.6 nanolithography

process of defining an arbitrary pattern with minimum feature sizes of

less than 100 nm

6.7 nanoprintingpreparation ofnanomaterials or nanostructures using techniques

allied to printing

6.8 plasma processinguse of plasma to effect changes in materials


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6.9 plasma synthesisuse of high energy plasma to vaporize materials, and promote reactions,

for the production of other material

NOTE Materials produced by plasma synthesis are often

nanomaterials.

6.10 self assemblyassembling of components to create a new level of organization without

external input

6.11 sol-gel processingproduction process involving the conversion of a sol to a gel, which is

then desiccated to produce particles or a film


6.12 templatinguse of a preformed entity to impart structural and positional ordering

6.13 top downprocess that progresses from larger units to smaller units

[derived from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English

Language [5]]

7 Production of constructed material

7.1 atomic layer deposition (ALD)deposition process based on sequential pulsing of chemical precursor

vapours, with each pulse forming one atomic layer

7.2 cluster beam depositionprocess of thin film formation from a beam of atomic or molecular

clusters

NOTE 1 Typically the beam used is supersonic.

NOTE 2 This form of deposition is often used to produce structures with

a high degree of porosity for gas sensing applications.

7.3 evaporation induced self assemblyuse of a dilute precursor solution to form surface patterning or

structures on a substrate following evaporation of the solvent

7.4 high shear rate processingmechanical dispersion, deagglomeration, disaggregation or liquidparticle generation process using shear mixing forces to produce

nanomaterials

7.5 high strain rate processingmechanical processing using strain to produce nanomaterials

7.6 mechanical alloyingprocess consisting of the repeated bonding, fracturing and rebonding of

elemental or master alloy powders by highly energetic collisions in a

mill under an inert atmosphere or vacuum

NOTE This process can be used to produce alloyednanomaterials.



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7.7 molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)technique of growing single crystals in which beams of atoms or

molecules are made to strike a single-crystalline substrate in a vacuum,

giving rise to crystals whose crystallographic orientation is related to

that of the substrate

NOTE 1 The beam is defined by allowing the vapour to escape from theevaporation zone to a high vacuum zone through a small orifice.

NOTE 2 Nanostructures can be grown in this method by exploiting

strain, e.g. InAs dots on GaAs substrate.

[McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms [7]]


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NOTE The scanning sequence is usually by row, always scanned in the

same direction with a beam flyback taking place after the end of each

row.

4.1.4.13 vector scanwriting strategy in which the beam is only scanned over the address

grid points contained within individual elements of the pattern

4.1.4.14 serpentine (boustrophedan) scanwriting strategy for individual pattern elements where pixels are

exposed in rows (or columns) in alternate directions

4.1.4.15 areal current densitymeasure of the intensity of the beam given by the number of particles

(ions or electrons) charge per unit area per second times the charge

carried by each particle

4.1.4.16 areal dosecharge density delivered to the substrate when scanning a

2-dimensional pattern element

4.1.4.17 line dosecharge delivered to the substrate during a single pass line scan,

normally defined in terms of Coulombs per cm

4.1.4.18 gammameasure of the contrast of a photographic process

NOTE It is normally defined for a positiveresist as the maximum value

of slope of a plot of the remaining thickness versus the logarithm to

base 10 of the dose.

4.1.4.19 spot sizefor aGaussian beam the diameter, which contains between 12% and88% of the integrated current of the beam

4.1.4.20 blankersdevice that is between the charge source and the stage that allows or

disallows the charged particles to continue to the stage

4.1.4.21 step sizedistance between two adjacent points in the address grid

4.1.4.22 stagetable carrying the sample (wafer) that can be moved to allowfield

stitchingand alignment

4.1.4.23 field stitchingability to accurately join small scanned areas together side by side in

order to pattern a larger area

4.1.4.24 address grid2-dimensional array of points in the plane of the substrate plane onto

which the final focused beam can be positioned

4.1.4.25 main fieldportion of the above grid which is addressable directly with the main

field deflector systemNOTE Usually at slow speed but high accuracy.


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4.2.2.2 extreme ultra violet (EUV) lithographyreduction printingis used to produce an image in resist using

radiation of wavelength in the 10 to 100 nm range

NOTE Usually reflective optics are used to focus the radiation (see

4.2.2.5, Note 2).

4.2.2.3 deep ultra violet (DUV) lithographywavelength of the radiation used to produce an image in resist is in

100 to 200 nm range

4.2.2.4 immersion opticstechnique of immersing the wafer coated photoresist in a suitable liquid

that is used to reduce the effective wavelength employed to transfer the

image to the resist

NOTE The effective wavelength is decreased by the refractive index of

the liquid.

4.2.2.5 optical lithography

process in which electromagnetic radiation of greater than 100 nm isused to produce an image in the resist

NOTE 1 This distinguishesoptical lithography from x-ray orEUV

lithography in which shorter wavelengths are used

NOTE 2 Foroptical lithography to achieve the resolution required for

the sub 100 nm regime of interest in nano-fabrication requires the use of

particular techniques, for example immersion and assist features in the

mask. At the time of writing, primaryoptical lithography in which a

focused beam of light is scanned in order to write an arbitrary pattern has

not been demonstrated in the sub 100 nm regime. Opticalprinting using

amask prepared by electron beam lithography has demonstrated sub 100

nm resolution. In suchoptical lithography, pattern defined in themask,

then called areticle, is reduced in size by the optical lenses in this opticalreduction printer.

4.2.2.6 optical proximity correctiondenotes the correction of the original pattern so as to ensure that the

aerial image recorded in the photoresist is as good an approximation as

possible to the desired final pattern

NOTE This is done by the addition ofassist features to the pattern in the

originalmask orreticle.

4.2.2.7 assist featurespatterned layer of material, usually transparent, that is present on the

mask or reticle, in addition to the pattern of light absorbing material

NOTE Its purpose is to adjust the phase of the transmitted light.

4.2.2.8 projection optical printing tooltool in which an image of the mask is projected onto the resist on the

wafer

NOTE Usually such tools that are capable of sub 100 nm resolution use

reduction optics that is a reduced image of the originalmask is project

onto theresist. In this case themask is usually called areticle.

4.2.2.9 reticlemask that is a magnified version of the pattern, used in reduction

projection printing

NOTE Also spelt as reticule.


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Copyright

Copyright subsists in all BSI publications. BSI also holds the copyright, in the UK, of

the publications of the international standardization bodies. Except as permitted

under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 no extract may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means ! electronic,

photocopying, recording or otherwise ! without prior written permission from BSI.

This does not preclude the free use, in the course of implementing the standard, of

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Email: [email protected].

PAS 135:2007

389 Chiswick High Road

London

W4 4AL


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Bibliography

Standards publications

PAS 71:2005, Vocabulary Nanoparticles

BS ISO 18115:2001,Surface chemical analysis Vocabulary

ISO/TS 27687, Terminology and definitions for nanoparticles2)

Other publications

[1]Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th edition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2007.

[2] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

4th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.

[3] DECKMAN, H.W., J.H. DUNSMUIR,Natural lithography,

Appl.Phys. Lets 41, 377-379 (1982).

[4] McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.

6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

[5] Institute of Nanotechnology Glossary. http://www.nano.org.uk/

nano/glossary.htm#d

[6] XIA, Y.N., G.M. WHITESIDES,Soft lithography.Annual Review of

Materials Science 28: 153!184, 1998.

Further reading

PAS 130, Guidance on the labelling of manufactured nanoparticles

and products containing manufactured nanoparticles

PD 6699-1,Nanotechnologies Part 1: Good practice guide for

specifying manufactured nanomaterials

PD 6699-2,Nanotechnologies Part 2: Guide to safe handling and

disposal of manufactured nanomaterials

A Brief History of !Pixel" Richard F. Lyon. Paper EI 6069-1.

IS&T/SPIE Symposium on Electronic Imaging 15-19 January 2006,

San Jose, CA, USA.

2) In preparation.


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PAS 135:2007

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PUBLICLY AVAILABLE SPECIFICATION PAS 71:2005

Vocabulary Nanoparticles

ICS 01.040.07; 07.030

12&23


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PAS 71:2005

BSI 25 May 2005 i

ContentsPage

Preface ii

Foreword iii

Introduction 1

1 Scope 1

2 General terms 1

3 Particle names: generic 2

4 Particle names: chemically specific 6

5 Nanoparticle systems 7

6 Production methods 8

7 Production mechanisms 11

8 Particle characteristics 13

9 Particle volume and diameter 14

10 Measurement and analysis techniques 15

11 Abbreviations 19Bibliography 23

Index 24


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BSI 25 May 2005 1

Introduction

This Publicly Available Specification (PAS) has been commissioned by the UK Department of Trade andIndustry (DTI) for the purposes of developing and encouraging the use of a common language fornanoparticle technologies. Nanotechnology is an emergent technology that is developing quickly and willgain increasing importance over the next 20 years. This PAS is intended to seed further developments anddiscussions in formal standards making and inform the production of other nanotechnology standards.

The market sector of nanoparticle technologies is of current interest to the general nanotechnologycommunity both in the UK and internationally and has been the subject of much discussion in recent years.This PAS was commissioned partly in response to demands by UK industry to lay down standards for thefuture. The intention is to bring together the current disparate vocabularies of nanoparticle technologies.The main difference between a PAS and a full British, European or International Standard, is that a PASis created in a consultative process across industry rather than gaining the full consensus of a selectedtechnical committee. This PAS will be withdrawn once it is superseded by a full consensus document onthe subject. Until then it will be updated at regular intervals to cover new developments in the field.

The remit of this PAS is to document and, to a lesser degree, comment on the current use of basicnanoparticle terms and definitions in current use by manufacturers, suppliers, academia, regulators andgovernments and to give recommendations for usage as required. It also includes terms defining commonproduction methods and analytical techniques currently employed by those working with nanoparticles.

It does not cover nomenclature systems for nanoparticle or fullerene-based materials, as this is a highlyspecialized subject and there is no current consensus in the nanotechnology or nanoscience community onhow to approach such a system.

There remain areas of terminology where confusion between researchers, developers and users ofnanoparticles have arisen; these could be greatly reduced by adopting the following good practice:

Ambiguous terminology: due to the interdisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies, the definition of sometechnical terms might be different for those with backgrounds in different science or engineering fields andindustry sectors. Whilst this PAS aims to provide a single definition for each term, there were some terms

that had more than one widely used meaning. When using a term for which this vocabulary shows morethan one meaning, it is recommended that qualifying information as to which meaning is intended isstated.

Means of determination: many of the measurable parameters of nanoparticles can be experimentallydetermined by more than one technique. These techniques can be based on fundamentally differentprocesses, require differing degrees of interpretation or lead to different results. When such information iscommunicated, in addition to any normally reported degree of confidence or data distribution that may bequoted, it is recommended that the means by which the information was derived/determined is stated.

Thanks are due to the leading UK and international nanotechnologists involved in the development andreview of this PAS for enabling it to be produced in a timely manner.

1 Scope

This Publicly Available Specification lists terms and definitions currently in use in the field ofnanoparticles. It is intended to facilitate communications between organizations and individuals inindustry and those who interact with them. This document does not include a nomenclature system fornanoparticles.

2 General terms

2.1nanomaterialmaterial with one or more external dimensions, or an internal structure, on the nanoscale, which couldexhibit novel characteristics compared to the same material without nanoscale features

NOTE Novel characteristics might include increased strength, chemical reactivity or conductivity.

[PAS 71 Steering Group]


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2.2nanoparticle

particle with one or more dimensions at the nanoscale[PAS 71 Steering Group]

NOTE 1 Also referred to as nanoparticulate, although this term is more often used adjectivally.

NOTE 2 Novel properties that differentiate nanoparticles from the bulk material are typically developed at a critical length scaleof under 100 nm.

2.3nanoscalehaving one or more dimensions of the order of 100 nm or less

NOTE Also referred to as nanosize.


2.4

nanosciencestudy of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, whereproperties differ significantly from those at a larger scale

[Nanoscience and nanotechnologies [1]]

2.5nanostructuredhaving a structure at the nanoscale

NOTE Agglomerates and aggregates ofnanoparticles are examples of nanostructured particles.


2.6nanotechnology

design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controllingshape and size at the nanoscale

[Nanoscience and nanotechnologies [1]]

3 Particle names: generic

3.1acicular particleneedle shaped particle

[BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]

3.2agglomerate

group of particles held together by relatively weak forces, including van der Waals forces, electrostaticforces and surface tension

[Occupational Ultrafine Aerosol Exposure Characterization and Assessment [2]]

strongly bonded aggregate

[IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology [3], 1991, 63, 1231]

group of strongly associated particles that cannot easily be re-dispersed by mechanical means


NOTE 1 It is recommended that when the term agglomerate is used that it be specified whether the bonding is strong (where elementsrequire chemical as well as physical means for separation) or weak (where only physical means are required).

NOTE 2 Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this termaccording to the industry context.


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3.3aggregate

heterogeneous particle in which the various components are not easily broken apart[Occupational Ultrafine Aerosol Exposure Characterization and Assessment [1]]

assemblage ofprimary particles exhibiting an identifiable collective behaviour (e.g.chemical nature of the aggregated primary particles, texture of the aggregate, resistance to mechanicalseparation upon grinding)

NOTE 1 Strongly bonded aggregates are called agglomerates.

NOTE 2 The definition ofprimary particle used is that from reference [2].

[Adapted from [3] by PAS 71 Steering Group]

weakly associated group of particles that can be re-dispersed by mechanical means


NOTE 3 Attention is drawn to the contrasting definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this term

according to the industry context.

3.4bulk nanoparticlesnanoparticles produced by industrial-scale processes

NOTE Examples include carbon black, titanium dioxide and fumed silica.


3.5dendrimersynthetic, three-dimensional macromolecule built up from a monomer, with new branches added in a step-by-step fashion until a symmetrical branched structure is created

NOTE Where there is perfect branching, the particle is referred to as a dendrimer; where the branching is imperfect, it is referred

to as hyperbranched.[PAS 71 Steering Group]

3.6dendritic particleparticle with a highly branched structure

NOTE 1 Similar to nanostructured material, i.e. agglomerates or aggregates.

NOTE 2 Also referred to as a branched-chain aggregate.


3.7engineered nanoparticlesnanoparticlesmanufactured to have specific properties or a specific composition


3.8floc assemblage of particles, which, having been initially dispersed, have become loosely coherent

NOTE Also referred to as flocc and flocculate.


3.9fumecloud of airborne particles, including nanoparticles of low volatility, arising from condensation of vapoursfrom either chemical or physical reactions



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4 BSI 25 May 2005

3.10fumed powder

powder recovered from a fume[BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]

3.11incidental nanoparticlesnanoparticles formed as a by-product of man-made or natural processes, e.g. welding, milling, grindingor combustion


3.12milled powderpowder produced by comminution in a mill


3.13nanoclustergroup of atoms or molecules whose largest overall dimension is typically in the range of a few nanometres


3.14nanocorecentral part of a nanoparticle encapsulated (or coated) in a dissimilar nanomaterial


3.15nanocrystalnanoscale solid formed with a periodic lattice of atoms, ions or molecules


3.16nanopowderdry nanoparticles


3.17nanofibrenanoparticle with two dimensions at the nanoscale and an aspect ratio of greater than 3:1

NOTE Types of nanofibres include nanowhiskers, nanorods and nanowire.


3.18nanohornnanoscale cone with a curved axis


3.19nano-onionnanoparticle composed of concentric molecular shell structures

NOTE Also referred to as a nested nanoparticle.



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3.20nanoribbon

nanofibre with an approximately rectangular cross-section, where the ratio of the longer to the shorterdimensions of the cross-section is greater than 2:1

NOTE Also referred to as a nanobelt.


3.21nanorodstraight solid nanofibre


3.22nanoropenanofibres in a twisted conformation


3.23nanotubehollow nanofibre


3.24nanowireconducting or semi-conducting nanofibre


3.25primary particlesmallest identifiable subdivision in a particulate system

[Particle Size Characterization [4] and The Use of Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology [5]]

particle introduced into the air in a solid or liquid form, or formed through nucleation from the vapourphase


NOTE Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this termaccording to the industry context.

3.26quantum dotnanoscale particle that exhibits size-dependent electronic and optical properties due to quantumconfinement


3.27secondary particleparticle formed through aggregation or agglomeration of primary particles


particle formed through chemical reactions in the gas phase (gas to particle conversion)


NOTE Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this termaccording to the industry context.

3.28

ultrafine particlenanoparticle

NOTE This is a variant in common use by those dealing with industrial products and air pollution measurement.



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4 Particle names: chemically specific

4.1carbon black! elemental carbon in the form of near-spherical particles with major diameters less than 1 m, generallycoalesced into aggregates

[ISO 1382:2004, Rubber Vocabulary]

4.2carbon nanotubenanotube consisting of one or several graphene sheets rolled up into a seamless tube, forming a single-or multi-walled tube

[Frost & Sullivan [6]]

NOTE Can be either a single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT), comprising a single layer of carbon atoms (single molecule) arrangedin a cylinder, or a multi-wall nanotube (MWNT), comprising multiple concentric tubes with diameters significantly greater than aSWCNT.

4.3fullereneany closed-cage structure having more than twenty carbon atoms consisting entirely of three-coordinatecarbon atoms

[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci. [7], 35, 969-978]

NOTE Also referred to as buckyball and buckminsterfullerine.

4.4fumed silicabulk powdered form of silicon dioxide produced from thermal pyrolysis, which could have primaryparticles sized at the nanoscale

NOTE The definition ofprimary particle used is that from reference [2].


4.5grapheneindividual layers of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-like lattice, found in graphite, a crystallineform of carbon

[Dictionary and Atlas of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology [8]]

4.6inorganic fullerene-like material (IFLM)nanoparticle with a layered fullerene-like structure but composed of non-carbon atoms

[J. Chem. Edu [9], 81, 673-676]

4.7inorganic nanotubenanotube composed of non-carbon atoms

[J. Chem. Edu [9], 81, 673-676]


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5 Nanoparticle systems

5.1aerosolmetastable suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas; particles generally occur within the range of lessthan 1 nm to greater than 100 m in diameter


5.2aerosol, accumulationassociated with coalescence or coagulation of particles within the nucleation range into larger particles;distribution modes typically extend from 50 nm to 1 m, but are not confined to these limits


5.3aerosol, nucleation

aerosol dominated by particle formation from the gas phase, such as through nucleation from asupersaturated vapor; distribution modes typically extend from less than 1 nm to 50 nm, but are notconfined to these limits


5.4colloidsubstance consisting of particles not exceeding 1 m dispersed in a fluid


5.5heterodisperse systembulk powder or suspension containing particles with a range of sizes


5.6homogenous suspensionsuspension in which the particles are uniformly distributed


5.7hydrosolsol in which water forms the dispersion medium

[The Use of Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology [5]]

5.8

monodisperse systembulk powder or suspension containing primary particles with a very narrow size distribution

NOTE The definition of primary particle used is that from reference [2].


5.9nanocompositecomposite in which at least one of the phases has at least one dimension on the nanoscale

[Pure and Applied Chemistry [10], pp 1985!2007]

5.10nanophasediscrete phase, within a material, which is at the nanoscale



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5.11organosol

sol in which an organic liquid forms the dispersion medium[The Use of Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology [5]]

5.12solliquid dispersion containing particles of colloidal dimensions


5.13ultrafine aerosolaerosol consisting predominantly of ultrafine particles


NOTE Also referred to as nanoaerosol.

6 Production methods

6.1atomizationtechnique sometimes used for producing solid particles by dispersion of molten material, solution orsuspension sprayed under conditions such that it breaks down and then solidifies or dries as a finelydivided powder or aerosol

NOTE 1 Typically used to make particles down to a size of 2 m, i.e. larger than nanoscale.

NOTE 2 Also referred to as nebulization.


6.2attritionform ofcomminution, where reduction in size is caused by erosion resulting from the collision of particleswith other particles or surfaces


NOTE Also referred to as ultrafine grinding and nanosizing.

6.3bottom-up processingadditive process to create nanostructures from atoms and molecules


6.4calcinationproducing or modifying powder by heating to a high temperature in a dry environment


6.5chemical vapour synthesisproduction method where vapour is formed in a reaction chamber by, for example, pyrolysis, reduction,oxidation or nitridation and condenses to form particles

NOTE 1 Also referred to as chemical vapour growth.

NOTE 2 One application is the synthesis of carbon nanotubes.



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6.6colloidal production methods

established wet chemistry precipitation processes, also used to produce nanoparticles, in which solutionsof different ions are mixed under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure to form insolubleprecipitates, which can remain in liquid suspension for distribution and use, or may be used as slurries orcollected by filtering or spray drying to produce a dry powder

[Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [11]]

6.7comminutionreduction of particle size by fracture


NOTE See also attrition.

6.8

electro-explosionprocess for the production ofnanoparticles whereby a wire is fed into a reactor, and subjected to a high-current, high-voltage microsecond pulse to cause it to explode

[Adapted from Nanosized Alumina Fibers [12] by PAS 71 Steering Group]

NOTE Also referred to as exploding wire aerosol generation.

6.9electrohydrodynamic atomizationtechnique able to produce monodisperse droplets of a defined size in the micrometer range: liquid issupplied to a nozzle, and an electric field generated between the nozzle and a counterelectrode; when theelectrical stress overcomes the surface tension of the liquid, a cone is formed, from which a thin jet emerges,which breaks up into monodisperse droplets

[American Physiological Society [13]]

6.10electrospinningfabrication process using an electric field to control the deposition of polymer nanofibres onto a targetsubstrate


6.11Electrostatic Spray Assisted Vapour Deposition (ESAVD)production method involving spraying atomized precursor droplets across an electric field where thedroplets undergo combustion and chemical reaction in the vapour phase


6.12

flame pyrolysisgas phase synthesis method where flame heat is used to vaporise feedstock material and initiate thechemical reactions to produce nanoparticles


6.13fluidized bed processingfabricating or coating with another material while in a reactor that uses a suspension of particles in anupward flow of fluid (or downward flow if the particles are less dense than the fluid)


6.14functionalization

attachment of chemical functional groups to a surface[PAS 71 Steering Group]


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6.15furnace flow processing

method ofgas phase synthesis that produces particles from a saturated vapour for substances having ahigh vapour pressure at intermediate temperatures


6.16gas phase synthesisall methods where the materials to be processed go through a gas phase; specifically a production methodbased on ! nucleation of a supersaturated vapour and subsequent particle growth by condensation,coagulation and coalescence


NOTE Examples include Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) and Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) techniques.

6.17

high energy millingform ofattrition production that relies on the use of high levels of kinetic energy to break down materialinto finer and finer sizes


6.18laser ablation processingnanoparticle synthesis method using the energy from a (typically pulsed) laser to erode material from thesurface of a target


6.19laser pyrolysisgas phase synthesis method where a flowing reactive gas is heated rapidly with a laser


6.20mechanical alloyingalloying process that can be used to produce nanomaterials, consisting of the repeated bonding, fracturingand rebonding of elemental and master alloy powders by highly energetic collisions in a mill under an inertatmosphere or vacuum


6.21molecular self assemblyprocess that produces nanostructures by spontaneous aggregation into larger stable structures, driven byminimization of Gibbs free energy


6.22plasma processingmethod ofgas phase synthesis using a plasma reactor to deliver the energy required to cause evaporationor initiate chemical reactions

NOTE The main types of plasma used are Direct Current (DC) plasma jet, DC arc plasma and Radio-Frequency (RF) inductionplasma.


6.23sol-gel processingproduction process involving the conversion of a sol to a gel, which is then dessicated to produce particles



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6.24solution phase templating

method for producing well defined structures in solution using molecular self assembly in conjunctionwith a template


6.25sonochemistrycolloidal production method controlled by acoustic cavitation generating high temperatures and pressureswithin highly localized regions in the liquid, where molecular precursors undergo chemical reactions dueto the application of ultrasound


6.26sonicationphysical method to aid the dispersion ofnanoparticles in liquid by use of high-frequency sound waves


NOTE Also referred to as ultrasonic agitation and ultrasonication.

6.27thermal spraying and coatingprocess for creating nanoparticles and nanostructured coatings where a powder or wire is partiallymelted using gas or plasma flames and then deposited onto a surface to give a thin layer


6.28top-down processingsubtractive process for producing nanostructures from bulk materials

[PAS 71 Steering Group]6.29virus templatingproduction process using linear form of a virus as a structural template to direct the formation of inorganicnanowires

[Website of the American Chemistry Society [15]]

7 Production mechanisms

7.1aerosol scavengingremoval of particles from the air by other particles through inertial, gravitational or diffusive processes


7.2aggregation, orthokineticaggregation induced by hydrodynamic motions, such as stirring, sedimentation or convection


7.3aggregation, perikineticaggregation induced by Brownian motion


7.4cementation

binding together of particles by precipitation at their points of contact



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7.5coagulation

specific type ofagglomeration in which formation ofaggregates is induced by theaddition of an electrolyte to a suspension


7.6coalescenceformation of homogeneous particles through the collision and subsequent merging or mixing of constituentmaterial


7.7deflocculationbreaking down of a floc

[BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]7.8flocculationaggregation of particles into a floc


7.9granulationprocess of combining particles into larger agglomerates / granules


7.10heterocoagulation

aggregation of dissimilar particles; in ceramic applications, the formation ofaggregates by the cohesionbetween particles of different materials (e.g. alumina and silica)

NOTE Also referred to as heteroagglomeration, heteroflocculation.


7.11Ostwald ripeninggrowth of larger crystals from those of a smaller size that have a higher solubility than the larger ones

[Compendium of Chemical Terminology [3]]

7.12solution precipitationcommon type of chemical reaction in solution chemistry where two or more solutions are combined

resulting in a reaction that produces an insoluble product or a precipitate[PAS 71 Steering Group]

7.13solvothermal reactionchemical reaction or transformation in a solvent under supercritical conditions or near such a pressure!temperature domain

[Journal of Materials Chemistry [16]]


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8.11Point of Zero Charge (PZC)

pH at which the negative and positive charges are balanced, so there is no net charge on the colloid[Introduction to modern colloid science [19], p 22]

NOTE May also apply to non-colloids.

8.12specific surface arearatio of the surface area to the mass of a nanopowder


8.13zeta potentialelectrostatic potential at the slipping plane (which marks the region where the liquid moleculessurrounding the particle first begin to move with respect to the surface) relative to the potential in the bulk

solution[Introduction to modern colloid science [19], p 22]

9 Particle volume and diameter

9.1aerodynamic diameterdiameter of a spherical particle with a density of 1 000 kg/m3, that has the same settling velocity as theparticle under consideration; related to the inertial properties ofaerosol particles


NOTE 1 Generally used to describe particles or agglomerates larger than 300 nm ! 500 nm (where the actual size depends on thedensities of the particle and the medium).

NOTE 2 See equivalent diameter.

9.2envelope volumevolume of a particle such as would be obtained by tightly shrinking a film to contain it

[PAS 71 Steering Group, adapted from BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]

9.3equivalent diameterdiameter of a sphere which behaves like the observed particle relative to or deduced from a chosen property


NOTE Different properties include aerodynamic, diffusion, hydrodynamic, mobility, perimeter, surface and volume.

9.4

Feret!s diameterdistance between two parallel tangents on opposite sides of the image of a particle

NOTE Used to calculate the aspect ratio of a particle.


9.5hydrodynamic diameter (cumulants mean)effective diameter of a particle in a liquid environment

NOTE 1 The hydrodynamic diameter measured by dynamic light scattering is referred to as the Z-average mean.



9.6isometric particleparticle with the same measurement in three dimensions



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9.7mobility diameter

diameter of a spherical particle with the same mobility as the particle under considerationNOTE 1 The particle is generally smaller than 300 nm ! 500 nm in diameter, the actual size depending on the densities of the particleand the medium.



9.8particle sizesize of a particle as determined by a specified measurement method

NOTE See the introduction to this PAS.


10 Measurement and analysis techniques10.1aerosol diffusion chargingmethod in which the Fuchs surface area of an aerosol is measured directly, by passing electrically neutralparticles through a unipolar ion cloud and measuring the resulting aerosol charge

NOTE When the charging rate is low, aerosol charge is proportional to the Fuchs surface area.


10.2Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)technique for imaging surfaces by mechanically scanning their surface contours using a microfabricatedprobe, in which the deflection of a sharp tip sensing the surface forces, mounted on a soft cantilever, ismonitored as the tip is moved across the surface

NOTE Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM).


10.3Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)technique in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of Auger electronsemitted from a surface

NOTE AES instruments can achieve lateral resolutions as low as 5 nm.

[BS ISO 18115, Surface chemical analysis Vocabulary]

10.4BET analysis

characterization technique based on the model developed by Brunauer, Emmet and Teller that allows thesurface area of powders to be determined by gas adsorption

NOTE Typically nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used but gases such as krypton or argon may be used for low surface area materialsbecause of their greater sensitivity (mass gain per unit area).


10.5coincidencedetection of two or more particles as a single particle

[BS 2955:1993 andParticle Size Characterization [4]]

10.6Condensation Particle Counter (CPC)most widely used type of instrument for detecting and counting nanoparticle aerosols, which operatesby condensing vapour onto sampled ultrafine particles to grow them to a size range that can be detected bya standard optical counter



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10.7Differential Mobility Analysis (DMA)

method of establishing the size distribution of aerosols, based on the principle of the mobility of a chargedparticle in an electric field


10.8Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS)technique where inelastic interaction of an electron beam with atoms in a sample results in an energydistribution spectrum that contains compositional and chemical bonding information


10.9Electron Probe MicroAnalysis (EPMA)spatially-resolved elemental analysis based upon electron-excited x-ray spectrometry with a focusedelectron probe and an electron interaction volume with micrometer to sub-micrometer dimensions

[ISO/DIS 23833, Microbeam analysis Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) Vocabulary]

NOTE Covers both Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) and Energy Dispersion Spectrometry (EDS).

10.10epiphaniometerinstrument used to measure the Fuchs surface area ofaerosols directly: the aerosol is passed through acharging chamber where lead isotopes created from a decaying actinium source are attached to the particlesurfaces; the particles are transported through a capillary to a collecting filter; the amount of radioactivitymeasured is proportional to the particle surface area

[Adapted from Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [11] by PAS 71 Steering Group]

10.11Field Flow Fractionation (FFF)

method of separating particles in a fluid flowing in a channel by applying a field perpendicular to the flow,e.g. a transverse flow or thermal field


10.12Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry (GDMS)method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the mass-to-charge quotient and abundance ofions from a glow discharge generated at a surface


NOTE See also Glow Discharge Spectrometry.

10.13Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectrometry (GDOES)

method in which an optical emission spectrometer is used to measure the wavelength and intensity of lightemitted from a glow discharge generated at a surface


NOTE See also Glow Discharge Spectrometry.

10.14Glow Discharge Spectrometry (GDS)method in which a spectrometer is used to measure relevant intensities emitted from a glow dischargegenerated at a surface

NOTE This is a general term which encompasses GDOES and GDMS.


10.15halodark or light false perimeter of a particle image

[Particle Size Characterization [4]]


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10.16Ion Beam Analysis (IBA)

method to elucidate composition and structure of the outermost atomic layers of a solid material, in whichprincipally monoenergetic, singly-charged probe ions, scattered from the surface, are detected and recordedas a function of their energy or angle of scattering, or both

NOTE LEISS, MEISS and RBS are all forms of IBA in which the probe ion energies are typically in the ranges 0,1 keV to 10 keV,100 keV to 200 keV and 1 MeV to 2 MeV, respectively. These classifications represent three ranges in which fundamentally differentphysics is involved.


10.17isoelectric point (IEP)pH at which dispersed particles show no electrophoretic mobility and the zeta potential has a value ofzero


10.18isoionic pointpH of a solution at which a particle or molecule contains as many negative charges as positive charges


10.19Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)technique for imaging surfaces in transmission or reflection by mechanically scanning an optical probemuch smaller than the wavelength of light over the surface whilst monitoring the transmitted or reflectedlight

NOTE 1 Also referred to as Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM).

NOTE 2 Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM).

[PAS 71 Steering Group]10.20PhotoEmission Electron Microscopy (PEEM)technique that involves shining linearly or circularly polarized X-rays onto the sample surface, allowingthe distribution of electrons emitted from the surface to be imaged

NOTE Has particular applications in magnetic domain imaging; allows the user to derive all three components of magnetization.


10.21Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (PCS)method of measuring diffusion diameter from Brownian motion


NOTE Also referred to as Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and quasi-electric or self-beat light scattering.

10.22Raman effectscattering of light with a change in frequency characteristic of the scattering substance, representing achange in the vibrational, rotational, or electronic energy of the substance that can be used to giveinformation on its chemical bonding or mechanical stress state


10.23Raman spectroscopyspectroscopy in which the Raman effect is used to investigate molecular energy levels

[OED [20]]


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10.24Selective Area Electron Diffraction (SAED)

diffraction of electrons from an area of the sample selected by an aperture[PAS 71 Steering Group]

10.25Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)technique that produces magnified images of a specimen by scanning its surface with an electron beam

NOTE 1 SEMs typically have a spatial resolution of 1 to 10 nm.

NOTE 2 The instruments may be used to obtain the size, shape, structure and, in some cases, compositional information from singleor collections of particles.

NOTE 3 Some instruments have added detectors, such as an energy dispersive detector, that allow the composition of the sample tobe determined with spatial resolutions below 1 m, channelling detectors that allow crystal orientations or strain to be measured, orbackscatter detectors that provide atomic contrast.


10.26Scanning Mobility Particle Sizing (SMPS)technique for detecting and counting nanoparticles, which gives both size and number information, andis capable of measuring aerosol size distribution from 3 to 800 nm; operates by charging particles andseparating them based on their mobility when passing between electrodes

NOTE 1 The size distribution is expressed in terms of particle mobility diameter.


10.27Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)family of techniques for imaging a surface, using the interaction of a physical probe with the surface

NOTE See alsoAFM, STM and NSOM.


10.28Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM)technique for revealing the apparent electron-density-related atomic structure of surfaces, using a needle-like probe near the object under observation; a tunnelling current, which is measured, is generated byaltering the potential at the tip of the probe; a 3D representation of the sample surface is generated byrastering the surface of the object and mapping the distance for constant current level at various points

NOTE STMs have also been used to produce changes in the molecular composition of substances.


10.29Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the mass-to-charge quotient and abundance ofsecondary ions emitted from a sample as a result of bombardment by energetic ions

NOTE SIMS is, by convention, generally classified as dynamic, in which the material surface layers are continually removed as theyare being measured, and static, in which the ion areic dose during measurement is restricted to less than 1016 ions/m2 in order to retainthe surface in an essentially undamaged state.


10.30Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS)technique for measuring the scattering of neutrons at small angles with respect to the incident beam

NOTE May be used to determine the spatial distribution of adsorbed species on a particle.



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10.31Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (TXRF)

method in which an X-ray spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of fluorescence X-raysemitted from a surface irradiated by primary X-rays under the condition of total reflection


10.32Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)technique using electrons that can image through very thin samples in transmission or, for thickersamples, the outline profile in projection

NOTE 1 TEM typically requires samples 100 to 200 nm thick if internal details are required. Thicker samples may be viewed withhigher energies such as 200 or 300 keV electron beams.

NOTE 2 TEM can be used to image lattice planes and individual points with resolutions better than 0.2 nm.


10.33Ultra-Violet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS)method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of photoelectronsemitted from a surface irradiated by ultra-violet photons


10.34X-Ray Diffraction Line Broadening (XRDLB)technique for measuring the size and strain of individual crystals under about 0.1 m, where the Debyerings (X-ray lines) generated by the procedure are broadened

NOTE Strain in the material may also cause X-ray line broadening.


10.35X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of Auger andphotoelectrons emitted from a surface irradiated by X-ray photons

NOTE XPS instruments can achieve a lateral resolution as low as 5 m.


11 Abbreviations

AES Auger Electron Spectroscopy

AFM Atomic Force Microscopy

AIM Atomic Imaging and Manipulation

ALE Atomic Layer EpitaxyATM Asynchronous transmission mode

ATOFMS Aerodynamic Time Of Flight Mass Spectrometer

BCC Body-Centred Cubic

BEEM Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy

BET Brunauer, Emmett and Teller method of measuring surface area

BSEI Backscattered Electron Image

Cermet Ceramic-Metal Composite

CFU Colony Forming Units

CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

CMP Chemical Mechanical Polishing

CNT Carbon NanoTube

CPC Condensation Particle Counter


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CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition

DFT Density Functional Theory

DMA Differential Mobility Analyzer

EDS Energy Dispersive Spectrometry

EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis

EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry

EELS Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy

EHDA Electrohydrodynamic Atomization

EIA Energetic Ion Analysis

ELPI Electrical Low Pressure Impactor

EPMA Electron Probe MicroAnalysis/Analyzer

ESAVD Electrostatic Spray Assisted Vapour Deposition

ESCA Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical AnalysisESEM Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope

EUV Extreme Ultra-Violet

EXAFS Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure

FABMS Fast Atom Bombardment Mass Spectroscopy

FCC Face-Centred Cubic

FDA Force Discrimination Assay

FEG-SEM Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope

FEL Free Electron Laser

FET Field-Effect Transistor

FRET Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer

FWHM Full Width, Half MaximumGDS Glow Discharge Spectrometry

GDOES Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectrometry

GDMS Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry

GMR Giant Magneto-Resistance

GSD Geometric Standard Deviation

HDS HydroDeSulfurization

HEISS High Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry

HFET Heterojunction Field-Effect Transistor

HREELS High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy

HREM High-Resolution Electron Microscopy

HVOF High Velocity Oxygen Fuel

IBA Ion Beam Analysis

IEP IsoElectric Point

IFLM Inorganic Fullerene-Like Materials

IHP Inner Helmholtz Plane

IP Ionization Potential

LEISS Low Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry

LFM Lateral Force Microscopy

LISA Lithographically Induced Self-Assembly

MBE Molecular Beam Epitaxy

MD Molecular DynamicsMEISS Medium Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry

MEMS MicroElectroMechanical Systems


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MFM Magnetic Force Microscopy

MMAD Mass Median Aerodynamic Diameter

MRM Magnetic Resonance Microscopy

MS Mass Spectrometry

micro-TAS micro(scale)-Total Analysis System

nano-TAS nano(scale)-Total Analysis System

MWNT Multi-Walled NanoTube

NCSL NanoCrystal Super Lattices

NDR Negative Differential Resistance

NEMS NanoElectroMechanical Systems

NIL NanoImprint Lithography

nM nanoManipulator

NMR Nuclear Magnetic ResonanceNQR Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance

NSOM Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy

OHP Outer Helmholtz Plane

OPC Optical Particle Counter

OMPVE OrganoMetallic Vapour Phase Epitaxy

PEELS Parallel Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy

PEEM PhotoEmission Electron Microscopy

PVS Physical Vapour Synthesis

PZC Point of Zero Charge

QCA Quantum Cellular Automata

QMOS Quantum Metal Oxide SemiconductorRBS Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry

RTD Resonant Tunnelling Diode

SAM Self-Assembled Monolayer

SAM Scanning Auger Microscope

SAMMS Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports

SCM Scanning Capacitance Microscopy

SECM Scanning ElectroChemical Microscopy

SEED Self-Electro-optic Effect Device

SEI Secondary Electron Image

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

SET Single Electron Transistor

SFA Surface Force Apparatus

SFM Scanning Force Microscope

SIMS Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry

SMPS Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer

SNMS Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry

SNMS Sputtered Neutral Mass Spectrometry

SPM Scanning Probe Microscopy

STEM Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope

STM Scanning Tunnelling Microscope

STS Scanning Tunnelling SpectroscopySWCNT Single-Walled Carbon NanoTube

SWNT Single-Wall NanoTube


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TDM Two Dimensional Material

TEM Transmission Electron Microscope

TEOM Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance

TOFMS Time Of Flight Mass Spectrometry

TXRF Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy

UPS UltraViolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy

UV/VIS UltraViolet/VISible light

VCSEL Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser

WDS Wavelength Dispersive Spectrometry

WDX Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry

XMCD X-ray Magnetic Circular Dicroism

XPS X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy


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Terminology fornanoscale measurementand instrumentationICS 01.040.17; 17.040.99

NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW

PUBLICLY AVAILABLE SPECIFICATION


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ContentsForeword iii

Introduction 1

1 Scope 1

2 General terms 13 Nanoscale measurement methods 2

4 Abbreviations 13

Bibliography 14

Summary of pages

This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover,

pages i to iv, pages 1 to 14, an inside back cover and a back cover.


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PAS 133:2007

IntroductionMany authorities predict that applications of nanotechnologies will

ultimately pervade virtually every aspect of life and will enable dramatic

advances to be realized in most areas of communication, health,

manufacturing, materials and knowledge-based technologies. Even if

this is only partially true, there is an obvious need to provide industry

and research with suitable tools to assist the development, application

and communication of the technologies. One essential tool in this

armoury will be the harmonization of the terminology and definitions

used in order to promote their common understanding and consistent

usage.

This terminology includes terms that are either specific to the sector

covered by the title or are used with a specific meaning in the field of

nanotechnology. It is one of a series of terminology PASs covering many

different aspects of nanotechnologies.

This terminology attempts not to include terms that are used in amanner consistent with a definition given in the Oxford English

Dictionary [1] and terms that already have well established meanings

and to which the addition of the prefix !nano" changes only the scale to

which they apply but does not otherwise change their meaning.

The multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies can lead to confusion

as to the precise meaning of some terms because of differences in usage

between disciplines. Users are advised that, in order to support the

standardization of terminology, this PAS provides single definitions

wherever possible.

1 ScopeThis Publicly Available Specification (PAS) lists terms and definitions

used in measurement and/or instrumentation for characterization at the

nanoscale and characterization of nanoscale properties by mean of

average measurement.

This is applicable to but not limited to terms used in the measurement

of chemical, functional and structural properties at the nanoscale.

It is intended for use by technologists, regulators, non-governmental

organizations (NGOs), consumer organizations, members of the public

and others with an interest in the application or use of nanotechnologiesin the subject area.

2 General terms

2.1 microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)systems with dimensions in the microscale that can respond to an

electric (mechanical) stimulus and generate or produce a mechanical

(electric) response

NOTE MEMS may be used innanometrology as they might be sensitive

tonanoscale properties.


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2.2 nanomaterialmaterial having one or more external dimensions in the nanoscale or

which is nanostructured

NOTE Nanomaterials can exhibit properties that differ from those of the

same material withoutnanoscale features.

2.3 nanometrologyscience of measurement ofnanoscale properties

NOTE Nanoscale properties can be measured with probes larger

than 100 nm.

2.4 nanoscalesize range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm

NOTE 1 Properties that are not extrapolations from larger size will

typically, but not exclusively, be exhibited in this size range.

NOTE 2 The lower limit in this definition (approximately 1 nm) has no

physical significance but is introduced to avoid single and small groups

of atoms from being designated as nano-objects or elements ofnanostructures, which might be implied by the absence of a lower limit.

[ISO/TS 27687 1)]

2.5 nanostructuredpossessing a structure comprising contiguous elements with one or

more dimension in the nanoscale but excluding any primary atomic or

molecular structure

NOTE 1 An example of a primary atomic or molecular structure is the

arrangement of atoms in a crystalline solid.

NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere, of

approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in ananostructured material

will intersect more than one element of the structure.

3 Nanoscale measurement methods

3.1 Scanning probe methods

3.1.1 atomic force microscopy (AFM)technique for imaging surfaces by mechanically scanning their contours

using a microfabricated probe, in which the deflection of a sharp tip

sensing the surface forces, mounted on a soft cantilever, is monitored

as the tip is moved across the surface

NOTE Part of the family of microscopies referred to asScanning Probe

Microscopy (SPM).

[PAS 71: 2005, definition 10.2]

3.1.2 contact modeatomic force microscope mode in which the probe or the sample height

is adjusted to keep a constant repulsive force between the probe and the

sample

[derived from BS ISO 18115:2001,Surface chemical analysis

Vocabulary]

1) In preparation.


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3.1.3 electrostatic force microscopy (EFM)AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used to map both topography

and electrostatic force between the tip and the sample surface


Vocabulary]

3.1.4 force-distance curvepairs of force and distance values resulting from a mode of operation of

anAFM in which the probe is set at a fixed (x,y) position and the force

measured as the probe tip is moved towards or away from the surface


Vocabulary]

3.1.5 intermittent modeAFM mode where the probe is operated with a sinusoidal

z-displacement modulation such that the probe tip makes contact with

the sample for a fraction of the sinusoidal cycle


Vocabulary]

3.1.6 lateral force microscopy (LFM)AFM mode measuring the torsional deformation of the cantilever

NOTE The lateral deformation usually depends on the friction between

the tip and the surface.

3.1.7 magnetic force microscopy (MFM)AFM mode measuring the force acting between the magnetic field of

the sample and the magnetic dipoles of a cantilever coated with

ferromagnetic materials

3.1.8 magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM)scanning probe method which combines the three-dimensional imaging

capabilities of magnetic imaging with the high sensitivity and resolution

ofatomic force microscopyby mechanically detecting magnetic

resonance signals between a permanent magnet and the spin

magnetization of the atoms

3.1.9 nanoprobeprobe used to facilitate measurement at the nanoscale

3.1.10 non-contact mode

atomic force microscope mode in which the probe oscillates above thesurface and experiences an attractive force during this oscillation


Vocabulary]

3.1.11 scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM)AFM mode where an AC bias is applied to a conducting probe in contact

with a semiconductor sample generating capacitance variations in the

sample which can be detected using a GHz resonant capacitance sensor

NOTE SCMmeasures the change in electrostatic capacitance between

the surface and the probe.


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3.1.12 scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM)AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used in an electrolyte

solution to measure both topography and electrochemical current


Vocabulary]

3.1.13 scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM)AFMnon-contact mode which measures the relative potential between

the surface and a conductive probe by determining the probe bias for a

null alternating current


Vocabulary]

3.1.14 scanning probe microscopy (SPM)method in which a probe is scanned over the surface of a sample,

usually coupled to a feedback loop. A generic term for all devices using

physical interaction between a probe tip and a sample surface for

sub-micrometer imaging

NOTE 1 Amongst this family those mentioned in note 2 can be used for

nanofabrication, for example, the physical probe can be used to move or

place atoms on a surface, change the chemistry of a surface, or remove

material from a surface in a controlled manner leaving a textured

surface.

NOTE 2 Established types ofscanning probe microscopy that can be

used for nanofabrication include:

! AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy);

! MFM (Magnetic Force Microscopy);

! SNOM (Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (or NSOM

Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy) );

! SECM (Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy);

! STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscopy).

3.1.15 scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)technique for revealing the apparent electron-density-related atomic

structure of surfaces, using a needle-like probe near the object under

observation; a tunnelling current, which is measured, is generated by

altering the potential at the tip of the probe; a 3D representation of the

sample surface is generated by rastering the tip over the surface of the

object and mapping the distance for constant current level at various

pointsNOTE STMs have also been used to produce changes in the molecular

composition of substances.

[PAS 71:2005, definition 10.28]

3.2 Ion beam analysis methods

3.2.1 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the

energy distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface

[BS ISO 18115, definition 3.5]


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3.2.2 elastic recoil detectionmethod in which measurement of the elastic scattering of ions is used

to analyse for light elements in a solid

NOTE For carbon materials, the method is often used to determine the

hydrogen content, for example, in a-C:H.

3.2.3 focused ion beam (FIB)beam of ions (usually gallium) focused through a set of electrostatic

lenses to create a small spot on a substrate

NOTE 1 The beam removes material from the substrate through physical

sputtering. The beam spot can be scanned across the surface to create a

pattern. Nanometer scale resolution can be obtained in this process.

NOTE 2 Also know asFIB milling.

NOTE 3 The generated secondary electrons (or ions) can be collected to

form an image of the surface of the sample.

NOTE 4 FIB is particularly used for site-specific analysis, deposition

and ablation of materials.

3.2.4 ion beam analysis (IBA)method to elucidate composition and structure of the outermost atomic

layers of a solid material, in which principally mono-energetic, singly

charged probe ions, scattered from the surface are detected and

recorded as a function of their energy or angle of scattering, or both


3.2.5 Rutherford back scattering (RBS)method in which the scattering of high energy ions is used to determine

compositional and structural information about a solid

NOTE The technique can be used, for example, to determine thevariation of sp3fraction and the density of a carbon film.

3.2.6 secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the

mass-to-charge quotient and abundance of secondary ions emitted

from a sample as a result of bombardment by energetic ions


3.3 Electron beam methods

3.3.1 electron energy dispersionmethod where inelastic interaction of an electron beam with atoms in a

sample results in an energy distribution spectrum from which

compositional and chemical bonding information can be derived

[derived from PAS 71, Vocabulary Nanoparticles]

3.3.2 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)method in which the energy distribution spectrum of electrons

inelastically scattered as they pass through a material is used to

determine compositional and structural information about the material

NOTE For carbon materials, it is a well established method for probing

the existence of sp2 and sp3 hybridized atoms.


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3.3.3 energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX)electron-excited x-ray spectrometry with a focused electron probe and

an electron interaction volume with sub-micrometer dimensions

NOTE Allows spatially-resolved elemental analysis in TEMandSEM.

[derived from BS ISO 23833:2006,Microbeam analysis

nanotechnology standards final

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