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Motor LearningSchmidtsTheoryMotor LearningOccursIn StagesDefine Learning andMotor LearningFeedbackTransfer ofLearningPracticeConditionsProceduralLearningDeclarative and Associative LearningAdamsTheoryMap of EssentialConceptsDM McKeough 2009Motor Learning Variables

Motor LearningDefine learning and motor learningDeclarative and associative learningProcedural learningAdams theory of motor learningSchmidts theory of motor learning Motor learning occurs in stages Transfer of learningFeedbackPractice conditionsMotor Learning variables

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Motor Learning 1/4The aspect of Motor Control concerned with the acquisition of novel action or movement

As applied to patients, Motor Learning is the re-acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of altered morphology (sensory, motor, or cognitive impairment) Last ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

Motor Learning Questions for PT 2/4 How can I best structure practice (therapy) to insure learning?

How can I ensure that skills learned in one context (PT) will transfer to another (home)?

Will simplifying a task result in more efficient learning?Last ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

What is Learning? 3/4Definition: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to practice.Motor learning: a set of processes associated with practice leading to a permanent change in the capacity for skilled actionLearning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled actionLearning results from practiceLearning cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from behavior (performance)Learning produces a permanent change in behaviorLast ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

Performance Learning 4/4 Motor Performance is the temporary change in movement behavior seen during a practice sessionMay be due to performance conditionsFacilitation Fatigue

Motor Learning is a permanent change in movement behavior measured after a retention periodMotor Learning is only due to practiceLast ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

Types of LearningDeclarative LearningFacts or Knowledge that can be expressed in declarative sentences10 lock the brakes, 20 remove foot rest, 30 scoot forward, etc Controlled by the cortexPractice can transform declarative learning to procedural learningAssociative learning: discover the cause and effect relationship between variablesDuring my sit-to-stand transfer, I fell backward because I began standing before I had my nose over my toes.

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Types of Learning 1/2Procedural LearningOccurs without attention or conscious thoughtWalking, swimming, riding a bikeDevelops slowly through very high repetitionExpressed through improved performance on a taskControlled by the cerebellumTherefore performance is still possible in the absence of cortex (brain injury, dementia)Last ViewedMotor LearningExit

Types of Learning 2/2Procedural LearningInvolves learning the rules for moving or movement schemaSome of the rules for performing a transfer include: Anterior displacement of line of gravity into a new base Produce extensor force > gravity (hip and knee components should proceed and end simultaneously)Learning the rules of performance enables successful performance of action in variable performance environments (transfer of the strategy)Last ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Theories of Motor Learning 1/2Adams Closed-loop Theory (1971)Sensory FB is used for the ongoing production of skilled movementMovement errors are detected by comparing movement produced FB with a memory of the intended movementMemory trace used in the selection and initiation of a movementPerceptual trace, built-up over practice, becomes the reference of correctnessLast ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Theories of Motor Learning 2/2Adams Closed-loop Theory Clinical ImplicationsAccuracy of a movement is proportional to the strength of the perceptual tracePatient must practice the movement repeatedly to develop and strengthen the perceptual traceLimitationsAccurate movement can occur in the absence of FBWould require a separate perceptual trace for every possible movementLast ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

Theories of Motor Learning 1/4Schmidt Schema Theory Schema is an abstract representation stored in memory following multiple presentations of a class of objects (tasks)Emphasizes open-loop control processes and generalized motor program conceptMotor programs do not contain the specifics of a movement but rather contain general rules for a specific class of movementsLast ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Theories of Motor Learning 2/4Schmidt Schema Theory Recall schema used to select a specific response (Adams memory trace )Recognition schema used to evaluate response correctness (Adams perceptual trace)Movement is regulated by a negative FB systemWhat is fed back to the controller is an error signal (e.g. thermostat, toilet, muscle spindle)Last ViewedMotor LearningExit

Theories of Motor Learning 3/4Schmidt Schema Theory Decision process involves formulating an error signal and feeding it back to the recognition schema which becomes more refined with practiceWith increased variability of practice, the recognition schema becomes more generalized and strongerLast ViewedMotor LearningExit

Theories of Motor Learning 4/4Schmidt Schema Theory Clinical ImplicationsOptimal learning occurs with variable practice conditionsLimitationsToo vague to testInconsistent experimental supportStrong support with childrenInconsistent findings with adultsCannot account for one-trial learning (In the absence of a schema)Last ViewedMotor LearningExitConcept Map

Motor Learning Occurs in StagesCognitive stageAssociative stageAutonomous stageLast ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Motor Learning Occurs in StagesThree-Stage Model (Fitts and Poser 1967)Cognitive: Learning what to doAssociative: Refining the movement patternAutonomous: Developing skillTwo-Stage Model (Gentile 1987)Early stage: Getting the idea of the movement (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 1)Late stage: Fixation/ diversification (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 2 & 3)

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Motor Learning Occurs in StagesWhat is the take home message here?Motor learning probably occurs in stagesActivity of the learner is different in the different stagesActivities of the instructor should be different in the different stages


Cognitive Stage 1/4Performers activityLearner is getting the idea of the task, developing a cognitive mapAssesses own abilitiesDevelops strategiesLearns regulatory constraintsSelectively attends to regulatory constraintsFormulates a motor programChanges performance to successively approximate taskVisual FB (KR) most important Performers learning focus Learning what to do


Cognitive Stage 2/4Intervention Strategies Instruction Highlight purpose of task in functionally relevant contextDemonstrate task accurately, at ideal speed (best model is another learner at same stage)Draw attention to regulatory constraintsHave performer verbalize strategy and regulatory constraintsMay require manual guidance or assistanceBreak complex tasks into component parts (progressive-part technique) Last ViewedStagesExit

Cognitive Stage 3/4Intervention Strategies Transfer Transfer information in from other known motor skillsHighlight similarities to other learned tasks Practice schedule/ conditions Distributed practice to avoid fatigue (safety)Limit distracters or interferenceStress slow, controlled movementRandomize practice among 2 or more variables Last ViewedStagesExit

Cognitive Stage 4/4Feedback Positively reinforce correct performance Provide FB along appropriate sensory channelsAugment visual FB (mirror, video)Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variableAVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT Practice environmentClosed Last ViewedStagesExit

Associative Stage 1/4Performer Activities Performer practices movementSpatial and temporal aspects of movement are becoming better organizedExtraneous movement errors decreaseDependence on visual FB decreases, on proprioceptive FB increases (KR KP)Cognitive monitoring decreases Performers learning focus Refining the movement pattern(The goal of this phase is to improve the organization of the motor program)


Associative Stage 2/4During stage 2, closed skills become more consistent and open skills become more diversifiedLast ViewedStagesExit

Associative Stage 3/4Intervention Strategies Instruction Help performer develop own decision-making abilitiesFacilitation or guidance may be counterproductive Practice schedule/ conditions Random practice of 2 or more tasks in larger blocks of trialsRepeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errorsIntroduce elements of real world performance scenarios including distracters and interference as appropriate Last ViewedStagesExit

Associative Stage 4/4Intervention StrategiesFeedback Identify movement errors, intervene when errors become consistentAugment KP (reference of correctness)Increase detail or specificity, decrease total amountAllow brief period of introspection between performance and FB Practice environment Closed environment with ITV or open environmentLast ViewedStagesExit

Autonomous Stage 1/3Performer Activities Most patients are discharged prior to this stagePractice task in different performance environmentsSpatial and temporal components become highly organizedMovement becomes increasingly autonomous requiring little cognitive control Performers learning focus Developing skill (Consistent goal attainment) Last ViewedStagesExit

Autonomous Stage 2/3Intervention Strategies Practice environment Use performance conditions with all appropriate distracters and interference (open, actual speed and accuracy)Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors Feedback Confirm/ augment the performers analysis of the performanceIncrease detail or specificityDecrease total amount Last ViewedStagesExit

Autonomous Stage 3/3Intervention StrategiesPractice schedule/ conditions Task sequence remains random with even larger blocks of trials Last ViewedStagesExit

Transfer of LearningThe role of transfer in rehabilitation.

Transfer of learning (training): it is not known what is being transferred (task specificity).

If it is the process for solving a type or class of motor problem, then experience solving similar problems should assist in transferring the learning.Last ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Feedback 1/3Types of FBIntrinsic FBProprioception about the movement process (KP)Extrinsic FBInformation about the result of the movement (KR)

Role of FB in motor learningSome argue that it is the most powerful determinant of learningLast ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Feedback 2/3DefinitionInformation about the consequences of action (movement)FrequencyContinuous FBIntermittent FBFaded FBBandwidth FBTypeKRKPPositive FBNegative (error) FBSpecificityGeneral FBSpecific FB


Characteristics of Good FB 3/3TimelyAllow brief period of introspection between performance and FB AccuratePositively reinforce correct performanceBalance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variable Appropriate level of detail/ SpecificProvide FB along appropriate sensory channelsIncrease detail or specificityConfirm/ augment the performers analysis of the performance Augmented KRAugment visual FB (mirror, video)Augmented KPReinforce/ refine reference of correctnessTotal amountDecrease across stagesAVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT Last ViewedConcept MapMotor LearningExit

Practice 1/4ScheduleMassed vs Distributed PracticeDistributed in early stage, massed in later stageConditions Constant vs Variable PracticeConstant practice improves performanceVariable practice improves learning and transferRole of practice in motor learningWinstein argues that practice is the most powerful determinant of learningLast ViewedMotor LearningExit

Practice Conditions 2/4Random vs Blocked PracticeRandomizing practice conditions promote best learning and transfer

Whole vs Part PracticeTask specificity says the best practice is the test itselfIf utilizing a part technique, the part must be a naturally occurring component of the wholeLast ViewedMotor LearningExit

Practice Conditions 3/4TransferAmount of transfer is determined by the similarity between the two tasks or the two environmentsThe more closely the demands of the practice environment resemble those in the performance environment, the better the transfer

Guided vs Discovery PracticeExperimental results are equivocal about whether guidance produces better learningLast ViewedMotor LearningExit

Practice Conditions 4/4Mental PracticeCan produce large positive effects on performance of the task (Rawlings 1972)During mental practice the same brain areas (primary and supplementary motor areas) are active that are active during the physical performance of the taskResearch results indicate combination of physical and mental practice produces best results of all Last ViewedMotor LearningExit

Motor Learning VariablesStages of motor learning: Fitts & Posner/ GentileTypes of movement goals: movement pattern/ environmental resultEnvironment: closed/ openTask specificity: Gentiles taxonomyFeedback: frequency, type (KR/ KP, +/-), specificityPractice schedule: distributed/ massedTransfer of learning: transfer-in/ transfer-outPractice conditions: constant/ variable, blocked/ random, whole/ part, guided/ discoveryMental practice


The End DM McKeough 2009Concept Map

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