Report No. 1 3450-MAG

MadagascarTowards a School-Based Strategy for ImprovingPrimary and Secondary EducationApril 7, 1995

Population and Human Resources DivisionCentral Africa and Indian Ocean Department

ica Re,gion

Document of the.World Bank

Document of the World Bank

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CURRENCY EQUIVALENCY

Currency Unit: Malagasy Franc (FMG)Average Exchange Rate

1992: US$ 1.00 = 1864.0 FMG1993: US$ 1.00 = 1913.8 FMG1994: US$ 1.00 = 3871.1 FMG

GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFA Auto-Formation Assistee (Assisted Self-Training)

BEPC Brevet d'Etudes du Premier Cycle (Lower Secondary Cycle Diploma)

CAP Certificat d'Aptitude Pedagogique (Teaching Capacity Diploma)

CEPE Certificat d'Etudes Primaires Elementaires (Primary Level Diploma)

CEG College d'Enseignement General (Lower Secondary School)

CRESED Credit de Renforcement du Secteur de l'Education (Education Sector ReinforcemnentCredit)

GER Gross Enrollment Ratio

IDA International Development Association

UPE Universal Primary Education

MEN Ministere de I'Education Nationale (Ministry of National Education)

MIP Ministere de l'instruction Publique (Ministry of Primary and SecondaryEducation)

NER Net Enrollment Ratio

PNAE Programme National d'Amelioration de I'Education (National Education Impro ementProgram)

UERP Unite d'Etudes et de Recherche Pedagogiques (Curriculum and Research Deve]opmentUnit)

UNDP United Nations Development Program

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE ...................................................... v

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................... vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... ..................... 1............. The Economic and Political Context ..... .................. . 2The Education System's Response ..... ................... . 3Scope of the Study ...... ...................... . 4Organization of the Report ..... .................... . 5

CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE, ACCESS AND INTERNAL EFFICIENCY IN PRIMARYAND SECONDARY EDUCATION ..... ................. . 7Structure and Organization ..... .................... . 7The Current Quantitative Performance of Primary and Secondary Education ... . 7Access .............................................. 8Internal Efficiency ........................................ 9Madagascar Compared with the Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa .............. 9Strategic Considerations .................................... 9

CHAPTER 3: THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION ........... ... 1........ 11Student Outcomes .......................... 1.............. 11School Process Elements .................................... 14

CHAPTER 4: THE QUALITY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ................... 19Student Outcomes ................ ................ 19School Process Elements .................................... 19

CHAPTER 5: THE PUBLIC FINANCING OF EDUCATION ..................... 23Public Funding of the Education Sector ........................... 23Macro-Economic Perspective on Trends in Public Revenues ........... ... 24Allocations to Primary and Secondary Education from the Education Budget ... 24Expenditure Patterns within Primary and Secondary Education ....... .... 25Other Sources of Financing for the Education Sector ........ ........ . 25

CHAPTER 6: ELEMENTS OF A STRATEGY TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OFEDUCATION .......................................... 27Macro-Economic Context ...................... ........... . 27Constraints ............................ ............... 27Implementation Issues ........................ ........... . 28School-Related Elements of the Strategy .......................... 29A Positive Climate for Effective Implementation: Clear Objectives and Local

Control ... . 31The Cost of Reform ....................................... 31Financing Quality Improvements ............................... 33Financing Quantity Increases ................................. 35Issues to Resolve to Define a School-Based Strategy ................... 36

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TEXT TABLESTABLE 1 Enrollment Development Since 1980 3TABLE 2 Efficiency Indicators for Primary and Secondary Schools Compared with

Other African Countries 10TABLE 3 Test Results of Pupils at End Year of Primary School, May 1991 14TABLE 4 Simulated Additional Resource Requirements for Primary Education by 2000 33

CHARTSCHART 1 Hypothetical Network of Priority Factors that Determine Primary

School Effectiveness (Before Research) 12CHART 2 Conceptual Framework for a Strategy for the Reform of Primary Education

(After Research) 13

ANNEXES .37ANNEX 1 Educational System Structure (1993) ........................ 38ANNEX 2 Organization of the Ministry of Education ..................... 39ANNEX 3 Basic Education Statistics (Tables 3.1 - 3.7) .................... 40ANNEX 4 A.Note on, Research Methodologies ......................... 46

B.Key Factors That Determine School Effectiveness .... .......... 48ANNEX 5 Financial Statistics (Tables 5.1 - Tables 5.6) ................... 50ANNEX 6 Goals and Objectives (Primary Level) ....................... 56ANNEX 7 Financial Simulations (Tables 7.1 - 7.4) ...................... 57

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PREFACE

This report analyzes the results of research on primary and secondary education in Madagascarin order to identify the school-level factors which have the most influence on student learning and onwhether students stay in school. Also included are crude estimates of the resources that will be neededand which might be available to invest in providing or establishing these factors by the year 2000. I)raftsof the report were discussed with the Govermment of Madagascar in July 1994 and January 1995.

The study is based on a conceptual framework of school quality developed by a Technical Groupin the Ministry of National Education and coordinated by the Ministry's Unit6 d'Etude de RecherchePedagogiques. The Technical Group conducted qualitative field research in 36 schools using thisframework and wrote case studies on each school. Their observations and findings add a richness ofdetail to this sector study that strengthen the report's findings. This report was written by WardHeneveld (Human Resource Division, Africa Technical Department -- AFTHR), and Daniele Jaekel(AFTHR) and Gabriel Carceles (Consultant) assisted with the preparation and analysis of the statisticaland financial information in the report. Report processing was finalized with assistance from MesdamesDonna McGreevy and Francoise Ryckebusch. Mr. Ulrich Thumm and Mr. David Berk are theDepartment Lead Economist and Managing Division Chief, respectively, for the operation. Mr. MakhaNdao (AF4PH) and Mr. Adrian Verspoor (ESP) are the peer reviewers.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

i. Primary and secondary education in Madagascar has suffered greatly during the economic declineof the eighties which continued through the political transition of the early nineties. The new governmentfaces many difficult choices with significant political risks if education's contribution to human resourcedevelopment is to improve. Conditions that need to be met in order to ensure successful sectoral reforminclude sustained appropriate macro-economic policies, investments in effective government that providessecurity, good management and popular participation. Within the context of the country's current andprojected economic conditions and of current efforts in the reform of education, this sector studyexamines the quality of primary and secondary education and the internal efficiency of the system, andidentifies the elements of a strategy that would focus on the schools to improve the quality of education.

ii. The study defines educational quality as changes in the environnent in which children learn andlearning gains that result from these changes. It draws on Madagascar's education statistics and researchon primary and secondary education to analyze how well schools are doing. Central to the study are casestudies of 12 primary, 12 junior secondary (CEG), and 12 senior secondary (lycee) schools that aTechnical Group from the Ministry of Education (MEN) conducted in 1993/94. The results of thisresearch at the primary level are compared with two other studies, one on determinants of academicachievement in French, Malagasy, and Mathematics and one on the reasons that children drop out ofprimary school.

System Performance: Deteriorating Access. Poor Internal Efficiency and Learning Outcomes

iii. Madagascar's education system comprises a five-year primary cycle and two secondary cycles,a first of four years and a second of three years. A small number of students attend technical schoolsat both secondary levels, but these schools are not considered in this study. The quantitative indicatorson the performance of the system at the primary and secondary levels of education show that the systemis deteriorating badly. Enrollments have declined at all levels between 1980 and the early nineties andmost rapidly at secondary level. With many schools closing, the gross enrollment ratio dropped from142% at the primary level and 30% at the secondary level in 1980 to 95% and 20% in 1992,respectively. The net enrollment ratio at primary level was about 64% in 1990. Recently as well moreparents are choosing private schools over public ones for their children. By 1992, private schoolsenrolled 22% of all students in primary school, 40% in junior secondary, and 48% in senior secondary,in a period where quality of public education is criticized. These indicators suggest that the poor areabandoning the public schools altogether and that many of those who can afford to are choosing privateschools. Both tendencies are probably in good part due to the poor quality of the education provided.

iv. The low internal efficiency of the education system adds evidence about the poor quality ofeducation provided. At the primary level, more than one third of all students repeat each year;fewer than 30% of those who start school reach the fifth (final) grade; and it takes close to threetimes the number of pupil-years of instruction that it should to produce a graduate. These indicatorsof internal efficiency are among the worst in Sub-Saharan Africa. At the secondary level, repetition anddropout rates are lower, approximating the average for the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa. Declining

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enrollments, poor internal efficiency, and more and more students opting for private schools are a,l signsthat a significant dimension of the crisis in Malagasy education is its poor quality.

v. Available information on primary school learning outcomes suggests that the quality of primaryeducation is weak. The fact that only about 30% of the entering students even reach grade 5 addsto the concem about quality of outcomes, as one may question what those who leave earlier havelearned.

Factors Determining The Quality of Primary and Secondary Education

vi. The study analyzed the factors of the school environment that determine these learning outcomes.The factors studied include: community and government contributions, the school director's management,what is expected of students, the capabilities and attitudes of teachers, school infrastructures andequipment, learning materials, and the teaching/learning process. The analysis of the research on primaryeducation suggests that the most important factors influencing primary school effectiveness inMadagascar are: the management by the school's director; teaching materials, especially teachers'guides and textbooks; and community support, especially for facilities and equipment provision andmaintenance. The analysis of the 24 secondary school case studies suggests that three main factorsdetermine a secondary school's success: the management by the director of each school; the facilitiesof the school; and the competencies and attitudes of the teachers. But learning materials and parentalsupport also appear important. Because these provide the country's only research results on secondaryeducation, additional research on secondary education is needed before fully adequate policy conclusionsabout priorities can be drawn.

vii. Although the school-level analyses suggest that there is not much of a financial contribu:ion bygovernment to the life of the school beyond teachers' salaries, public expenditures on primary andsecondary education constitute a significant part of the national budget, especially in the form of tea3chers'salaries and management of the education system. The report's analysis of current public financing ofeducation looks at three policy-related issues: (a) the shares of GDP and of total government budgets thatgo to education, (b) the shares of education budgets that are allocated to primary and secondaryeducation, and (c) expenditure patterns within these sub-sectors of education. Based on this analysis thereport concludes that the education sector receives a meager share of GDP (2.3%) -- largely because theoverall government budget is a relatively small percentage of GDP. The allocations to primary andsecondary education should be increased somewhat at the expense of higher education. Expenditurepatterns within education slight direct support to instruction in favor of administrative expenditures,especially at the primary level.

Implementation Issues

viii. If reform of the education system is to succeed, proposed changes must recognize, accept andwork within the economic, environmental, cultural, and socio-political realities that characterizeMadagascar. The report contends that these realities combine to create a crisis of public "will" about thepossibility of improving primary and secondary education. The issues discussed are "soft" issues, onesthat are not easily measured but that are very apparent in Madagascar. They include extensive povertyand an uneven income distribution, a loose political consensus in government, and a demoralized andindifferent civil service. If the quality of education is to be improved, leadership at all levels in the

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education system needs to acknowledge the system's severe deterioration, but also to affirm thepossibility of slow but steady improvement. It can then work on: building commitment for educationalimprovement; sustaining the effort to change civil servants' attitudes; supporting their efforts over time;and demanding and rewarding high self-expectations and discipline.

Elements of a Strategv to Improve Quality

ix. The study's findings on school quality and the implementation issues identified have helped clarifythe elements of a strategy for improving the quality of primary and secondary education within the largereconomic development framework. These elements include: focussing reform on improving learningoutcomes; concentrating implementation on strengthening school leadership, providing morelearning materials, and fostering community support; creating and sustaining a positive climate forthe reform of education; shifting recurrent budget allocations towards instructional purposes whileinvesting, through communities, in more and better physical facilities and equipment; supportingdevelopment of private education through, inter alia, regulations and supervision, performancecontracts, incentives and/or subsidies; finding ways to get teachers to serve in rural areas; andincreasing subsidies at lower income groups while increasing resources for the sector through moreefficient and greater mobilization of household expenditure.

x. Using high and low enrollment projections and World Bank projections of economic growth, highand low scenarios of possible funding needs and resource availability for these elements of a strategy forprimary education were simulated. According to these simulations, between 9 billion FMG and 35 billionFMG at 1993 prices would be needed in the year 2000 to support the recurrent cost of additional primaryschool students and to increase present recurrent expenditures on primary level instruction inputs. Thiswould be in addition both to the 103 billion FMG (including salaries) for primary and secondaryeducation in the 1993 Government recurrent budget and to the private payments that were fully supportingat least 25 % of the students in that year.

xi. The resources that might be available from Government to support these activities in 2000 havealso been simulated. According to current projections of economic growth and under alternativeassumptions about allocations of the budget to and within the education sector, the 1993 budget forprimary and secondary education could increase by between 40 billion FMG and 154 billion FMG by theyear 2000. This magnitude of increase is predicated on the share of the public budget going to educationincreasing slightly, on the allocation to primary and secondary education within the education budgetincreasing, and on the transfer of some of the funds now spent on administration to instruction. Evenif primary education only received half of this increase, the additional funds would provide much of theadditional government funding that is needed to support recurrent expenditures that will imnproveeducational quality.

xii. On the other hand, the simulations suggest that construction of new classrooms for additionalstudents and rehabilitation of existing schools could cost between 245 billion FMG and 363 billicn FMGbetween 1993 and 2000. Government funding at this level for infrastructure will not be possible, evenif the public in Madagascar continues to contribute at current or higher levels, and donor assistance willbe required. This assistance should be used to leverage continued community participation and as anincentive to government to increase its own recurrent funding of learning materials and direct instructionalsupport to improve educational quality.

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xiii. Besides financing, much of which it seems reasonable to expect will be available, the governmentwill also need to instill a sense of purpose and enthusiasm among educators and parents if theimplementation of reform is to be successful. A clear set of objectives for primary education with asimple strategy that concentrates on the factors identified in this study should be communicated widelyand backed up by action. A draft statement of the objectives for primary education is presented in thisreport.

xiv. Given the current state of Madagascar's primary and secondary education system, changes of themagnitude and in the directions suggested here are imperative if the country is to build the humanresource base for accelerated and sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. The next step isto translate the results of this study into a coherent, integrated strategy of policies and activities that willimprove primary education. The issues needing decisions by the Government of Madagascar in orderto finalize this strategy include (a) clarifying assumptions about the conditions outside education thatinfluence what can be done; (b) explicitly defining expected learning outcomes and the basic programdesign for improving primary education and (c) establishing financing policies that will continue thesignificant private contributions to education, increase the amount of public resources spent on instruction,and provide more equitable access to quality education for all children.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Over the last twenty years Madagascar's economy has declined dramatically. The country hasgone through a period of piecemeal adjustment followed by political unrest and -- most recently -- apeaceful transition that has produced a democratically-elected new government. The new governmentfaces many difficult choices with significant political risks if the economy is to recover and grow. Itsmost significant challenge beyond providing an enabling macro-economic environment for developmentin agriculture, industry, and tourism is to establish policies and implement changes that will develop thehuman resources necessary to sustain growth and alleviate poverty. In the short-to-medium term chereis an urgent need to stabilize and improve general education. This study examines the quality of primaryand secondary education in the context of the development challenges facing Madagascar, and it identifiesthe kinds of investments in the sector that will improve the level of general education.

2. The study combines analyses of quantifiable issues -- economic decline, population growth, thesize and internal efficiency of the education system, and education financing -- with more qualitativeconcerns -- school climates, the teaching/learning process, and the socio-political and cultural context --in order to capture the multi-faceted reality that will shape the future of primary and secondary educationin Madagascar. The focus is on schools. The study examines the factors that determine schooleffectiveness, and the conditions in schools that help children learn.

3. Even though Madagascar's education statistics fluctuate a lot, suggesting some unreliability inthem, there are convincing indications that the quality of public primary education is currently very poor,and that the quality of secondary education is declining (Box 1 and Tables 3.1-3.7 in Annex 3). Repeaterand dropout rates are high, exceedingly so at the primary level where fewer than one in three childrenwho enter the five-year cycle complete it. The percentage of children passing terminal examinations ineach cycle is below 50%. Furthermore, total enrollments in primary schools have fallen over the last10 years, and those in secondary schools have fallen over at least the last five years, despite a populationgrowth rate of about 3%.

4. It also appears that parents and their children, the consumers of education, are deserting thepublic education system. During the last five years enrollments in private primary and secondary schoolshave grown, while public enrollments declined significantly. In business terms, the public sector is losingmarket share as parents who can afford an alternative decide that government schools do not serve theirchildren's needs. It may also be hypothesized that many parents who cannot afford private education arebecoming even poorer and, at the same time, are pressured for additional contributions to their children'simpoverished schools. These families may feel the same way as parents who are opting for privateschools, that the investment of time and resources is not worth it. Therefore their children may stayhome or drop out of school so that they can contribute to the meager family budget. If this assessmentis accurate, improvements in the quality of education provided in public schools could regenerate demand,helping to reverse the declining enrollments and to improve participation.

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The Economic and Political Context

5. Between 1971 and 1991 per capita income fell by 40% and the number of people living in povertygrew dramatically '. The economic decline has contributed to a dramatic decline in the quality andavailability of educaticn in the country, thus jeopardizing the broad base for economic development thatan educated population provides. Economic decline has also made regional antagonisms more pronouncedas the deteriorating communication infrastructure made contact more difficult and less productive. Thenew government has responded to regional differences by recognizing the need for a less-centralizedsystem of administration, and the means for establishing greater authority and responsibility outside thecenter are under discussion 2.

6. The Government also has the opportunity to follow up the accomplishment of peaceful politicalchange with improved living conditions for all Malagasies, especially the poor. This can only be doneif economic growth can be speeded up by 2000 to near 6% per annum, the estimated rate of growthrequired to improve people's lives appreciably given the rapidly growing population, and if thegovernment has the will to set policies that emphasize human resource development for all of thepopulation. Improving education levels is crucial to reduce poverty, but also to maintain Madagascar'simperative advantage in well-trained labor, and thus directly support the country's growth objective.Central to achieving this growth rate and human resource development objectives are sound economicstrategies that will increase capital accumulation, savings and investment rates and, most significantly forthis study, a greater investment in the quantity and quality of basic health, population, education, andtraining services. Later, as economic conditions improve, attention can turn from basic services to themore specialized needs that accelerated economic growth will create.

7. The new government faces significant challenges in implementing these strategies as macro-economic conditions continue to have a negative impact on the social sectors, including education. Ina general climate of poor economic performance and deterioration of social indicators, the educationsystem has also fared poorly (Table 1). In addition, demographic projections suggest that each yearbetween now and the year 2000 at least 400,000 people will be added to the population 3. The impactof a weak economy and rapid population growth on primary and secondary education will cont,nue topressure the education system. Sound policies and the successful implementation of new strategies areneeded urgently to respond to these pressures.

I Madagascar: Note de Sfrategie Econornique (May 1993). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

2 A far-reaching law on decentralization was approved in early 1994 and the implementation is currently being wor;:ed out.

3 Cf., ibid., pp. 5-7.

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Table 1 MADAGASCAR: Enrollment Development Since 1980 (In Thousands)

Junior Senior G.E.R. * G.E.R. G.E.R.Total Primary Secrv Seca Primarv Jr. Sec. Sr. Sec.

1980 2161 1724 414 23 142% 30% 2.9%;

1985 2085 1600 446 39 117% 31% 3.4%

1990 1947 1571 340 36 105% 22% ---

1991 1816 1497 319 --- 98% 21% ---

1992 1810 1490 320 --- 95% 20%

% Annual Growth1980-85 -1.5% +1.5% +11.1%% Annual Growth1985-90 -0.4% -5.3% -1.3%% Annual Growth1990-92 -2.7% -3.0%

*G.E.R.: Gross Enrollment Ratio

Source: Service des Statistiques, DPOE/MEN

The Education System's Response

8. Primary education in Madagascar is in deep crisis, and secondary education is losing students,particularly in public schools. To respond to this situation, the newly-elected government has continuedelements of the educational reform entitled Programme National d'Amelioration de I'Education (PNAE)that was initiated in the late eighties with the participation of the World Bank. Led by an IntemationalDevelopment Association (IDA) credit of $39 million (CRESED) and with participation by OPEC, UNDPand other donors, including the French government, changes that will allow for improvements in thequality of education are underway. First, the Ministry of Education (MEN) has reinforced essentialcentral functions and has identified some of the needed refomis in the management of the primary andsecondary education system, especially with respect to the assignment of more authority and responsibilityfor implementation to the regions, and has just begun experimenting with some of the proposed changes.Second, numerous studies to improve educational planning are nearing completion. Textbooks for thefirst year of primary school have been supplied to schools throughout the country, and books for higher

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grades and other learning aids are being produced for distribution. Finally, training of personnel andplanning for improved teaching through better teacher preparation and supervision are being carried out.It is too soon to see the results of these efforts in the national educational statistics presented in this reportbecause their impact at the school level has not been felt yet.

Scope of the Study

9. This study focuses on the quality of education defined as "an improvement in the environmentin which the student work(s) (such that) this improved environment (produces) detectable gains in theknowledge, skills, and values acquired by students" 4. The study argues that neither the activitiesalready underway nor the availability of additional resources will be sufficient to secure significantimprovements in the quality of primary and junior and senior secondary education. A morecomprehensive and integrated strategy is required, one in which the central government explicitlyfosters an enabling environment throughout the system and, in each school, a climate whichexplicitly values children's learning and the teaching/learning processes that produce learning.

10. Other studies of primary education in Madagascar confirm the need for an approach focused onthe school. A 1992 study of 181 primary schools and 2,874 students entitled Evaluation du SystymeEducatif Malgache recently concluded that "the disparity of resources among schools does not eWxplain,systematically, schools' difficulties. . . . The effectiveness (in learning outcomes) of a school . .. liesin the quality of school life." I Similarly, a school mapping pilot study of one prefecture ha. notedprovisionally that among its twelve communes "the best examination results, in public schools, are foundin the communes with the worst or mediocre staffing and material conditions for schooling." 6 Thus,something else is making a significant contribution to their effectiveness.

11. In order to complement and enrich the more quantitative research on the factors in Malagasyschools that determine educational quality, in 1993 a Technical Group in the MEN undertook a qualitativeobservational study in 36 schools (6 in each province, 12 at each of the primary, junior secondary andsenior secondary cycles of the system). The study identifies school-level conditions, and their inter-relations, that contribute to improving academic results and reducing repetition rates. The concLusionson primary education from this field research have been compared with, and are largely corroborared by,the findings of the 1992 Evaluation study and by the preliminary findings of the planning studies beingconducted on education in the current IDA-funded project.

4 Ross, Kenneth N. and Lars Mahick (1990). Planning the Quality of Education: The Collection and Use of D)ata forInfonned Decision-making. Paris: UNESCO/Pergamoni Press, p. 6.

5 Robin, Daniel and others (1992). Evaluation du Systme Educatif Malgache: Comnplments. Sevres, France: CentreInternational d'Etudes Pdagogiques, p. 46.

6 Ministere de l'Edt.cation Nationale, Etude Pilote de Carte Scolaire: Fivondronampokontany de Soavinandriana,Antananarivo. Provisional Version, September. 1993, p. 39.

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Organization of the Report

12. The report presents an analysis of access and internal efficiency in both primary and secondaryeducation (Chapter 2). The results of this research in primary education form the central part of thisreport (Chapter 3). The analysis of the quality of the school characteristics that are critical to improvingeducational quality secondary education is briefer and more tentative because there is only one study todraw on, namely the case studies done in 12 junior secondary schools and 12 lyckes (Chapter 4).Common themes can be seen in the results of these separate analyses, particularly regarding theimportance of the school director and the community and parents; but differences also exist. Needs atthe primary level are more focussed on learning materials than on teachers. At the secondary level, lackof effective teacher preparation seems to be more important, and individual parents' involvement appearsto supersede the more encompassing community role at the primary level. Overall, the study concludesthat the strategies for improving quality at the two levels need to be differentiated.

13. The report also examines the public financing available for education (Chapter 5). The finalsection of the report (Chapter 6) outlines the elements of a strategy for improving the quality of primaryeducation in Madagascar and possible resource requirements. It takes into account the system's currentperformance and trends and considers the resources that can be expected for education if economicgrowth occurs and human resource development is given a higher priority. Before similar strategicconclusions can be reached on secondary education, additional research is required. Finally, the chaptersuummarizes the policy and planning issues that the report suggests the Government of Madagascar needsto finalize decisions on in order to have a coherent strategy for the improvement of educational qualityin primary schools.

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CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE, ACCESS AND INTERNAL EFFICIENCY IN PRIMARY ANDSECONDARY EDUCATION

14. Overall, primary and secondary education in Madagascar has deteriorated in the last fifteen years.At the primary level, repetition and drop-out rates are among the highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.Secondary education's efficiency is not as bad, but there total enrollments have declined even more. Atboth levels, the proportion of students attending private schools is increasing.

Structure and Organization

15. Primary school in Madagascar includes five grades (called Classe 1 1 - Classe 7), and those whocomplete this level and pass an examination receive the Certificat d'Etudes Primaires Elgmentaires(CEPE). General secondary schooling consists of two cycles, the College d 'Enseignement GMngral (CEG)lasting four years and granting the Brevet d 'Etudes du Premier Cycle (BEPC), and the lycge lasting threeand granting a title of bachelier. Graduates of the lycee can go on to higher education. As alreadynoted, private education is growing. While government has provided some limited assistance to privateschools, quality control does not seem to be an important concern yet. A technical and professionaleducation stream is organized in parallel with the general system starting after primary school, and otherministries and organizations provide technical and professional training. Pre-school education is underthe charge of the Ministry of Population. Annex 1 presents a diagram of the education system.

16. Until the current government was formed in August 1993, the Ministere de lI 'nstruction Publique(MIP) served primary and secondary education, and a separate Ministry of Universities served highereducation and scientific research. Since then, primary, secondary, and tertiary education and culture andsport have been integrated in the Ministre de I 'Education Nationale (MEN) with primary and secondaryeducation comprising one of three Departments in the Ministry. In the regions, offices of the Ministryexist at the provincial (Directions Provinciales) and sub-provincial (Circonscriptions Scolaires) levels.An organigram of the ministry's structure showing particularly the units within the Secretariat for Primaryand Secondary Education is in Annex 2. Currently the management of the system is highly centralized,but the new government is committed to decentralizing public administration. In addition, as part of theeducation reform process, experiments are being made with school mapping, decentralized managementactivities in one province, and increased consultation with personnel in the field. These efforts shouldlead to the general devolution of responsibilities and control of resources to the lower-level governmentsin implementation of the March 1994 decentralization 7.

The Current Ouantitative Performance of Primarv and Secondary Education

Access

17. In the seventies, Madagascar almost achieved universal primary education (UPE), but in theeighties total enrollments stagnated and then began to contract at all levels. As can be seen in Table 1,

7 See also Republic of Madagascar: Decentralization and Local Government Reform (Green Cover Report No. 13011-MAG), November 30, 1994.

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there were fewer students in primary schools in 1992 than in 1980 or in 1990. But this is only part ofthe picture. Between 1988 and 1992 the percentage of new students enrolling in private schools increasedfrom 17% to 25%, while the total number of new entrants declined only slightly (Table 3.1, Annex 3).There were however declines in both the number of teachers (by 8.8% between 1987/88 and 1992/93)and the number of schools (by 4.2% over the same period). School closings have been particularlystriking and disturbing, with a cumulative total between 1000 and 1750 closings reported each yearbetween 1985/86 and 1989/90 (Table 3.7, Annex 3).

18. With the population growing by about 3% annually, Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) (includingall under-age and, due to very high repetition rates, over-age pupils) had declined from 142% in 1980to only 95% in 1992. In two regions where about half of the schools do not offer all five grades, theGER was only 64 % (Toliary) and 82% (Fiananrantsoa) (Tables 3.4 and 3.5). The national GER of 95 %compares with a modes, national primary Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) of about 64% in 1990.

19. At the secondary level, the total number of students has been declining. Of the small percentageof students who made it to the last year of primary school in 1991, about two-thirds continued to the firstyear of junior secondary school (CEG) in 1992. Of those who completed the CEG cycle in that year,44% found a place in a senior secondary school. However, these relatively good transition rates areoccurring as overall enrollments decline, particularly in public schools. Between 1987/88 and 1992/93,total junior secondary enrollments declined, even though private school enrollments increased each year.By 1992/93, private junior secondary schools accounted for 40% of total enrollments. Senior secondaryschool enrollments have also declined by 13% over the same period, with private school enrollmentsdeclining more slowly than in public schools to account for 48% of total enrollment. The total numberof public school teachers for these two cycles increased before 1990 but has remained fairly stable since,while the number of teachers in private schools continues to increase each year. However, the numberof secondary schools have remained about the same, senior secondary schools showing a slight increase.These trends suggest that, at the secondary level as at the primary level, the demand for education isdeclining, particularly for education in public schools.

Internal Efficiency

20. The internal efficiency of an education system is its ability to minimize student repetition anddrop-out so as to permit completion of a cycle as quickly as possible. The internal efficiency ofMadagascar's primary education system is poor and below the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) average, whilethe efficiency profile of secondary education resembles many other African countries (Table 2). Aboutone-third of all primary school students were repeating their grade in 1990. In the critical first year ofthe cycle, the rate is even higher, about 40%. The number of years of instruction per student requiredto produce a graduate is 15.4 years, three times the number of years in the cycle. These inefficienciesalso reflect high drop-out rates with only an estimated 30% of those who enter the first grade completingthe five-year primary cycle. There are also significant differences in internal efficiency among thecountry's six regions (Table 3.5) with Toliary and Fiananrantsoa, the regions with the most rural schoolsnot serving all five grades, lagging well behind the other four regions. In these two regions less than20% of the entrants to Grade 1 in 1987 were reaching Grade 5 in 1991.

21. Compared to primary education, secondary school promotion rates are consistently higher. Atthe junior secondary level (Table 3.6, Annex 3) promotion rates have been stable over time at between

9

65% and 80%, according to grades. Repetition is relatively low, 15% in the first three grades, thenaround 30% in the last grade. Drop-outs are also relatively low, around 15% except in the first year.At the senior secondary level, the picture is more complicated. Promotion rates have been consistentlybetween 60% and 70%, but public school rates are lower than private school rates. Repetition rates inpublic schools during the same period were about 20%, with private schools doing better. Very fewstudents drop out of the senior secondary cycle after the first year, especially from private schools.

Madagascar Compared with the Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa

22. The performance of Madagascar's primary and secondary education system compares poorl) withother countries in the region. It is one of only six among the forty-four countries in the region toregister a decline in total primary level enrollments during the 1980's, and one of seven to show adecline at the secondary level.. The rest of the countries in the region, almost all with population growthrates as high as Madagascar's, managed to continue to expand enrollments and, in some cases, enrollmentratios.

23. A comparison of the internal efficiency of Madagascar's system with the rest of the region (Table2) accentuates the extremely poor performance of primary education. It is among the most inefficienttwo to four countries in terms of the percentage of pupils who repeat, the percentage of pupils whoreach the highest grade, and the number of pupil-years of instruction it takes to produce agraduate 8. At the secondary level the internal efficiency of Madagascar's education system iscomparable to that of the rest of the region in terms of the number of primary graduates continuing tosecondary school and the percentage of students who repeat each year.

Strategic Considerations

24. The decline in enrollments in both primary and secondary schools is probably a result of bothsupply and demand factors. The explanation for limitations in supply differ between rural and urbanareas. In predominantly rural areas such as Toliary, the supply of places undoubtedly limits enrollments.Many primary schools do not serve all five grades, and some areas are probably not served at all by aschool; there have been many school closings, although it is not known to what extent demand has driedup or and to what extent buildings have deteriorated and teachers abandoned their posts; and, finally,teachers resist postings and attendance at isolated rural schools. In more urban areas, the problem ts notso much one of providing places. Though class sizes are large, there is often a surplus of teachers (manyof them having moved to urban areas) and the buildings suffice with minimal double-shifting.

25. The increasing demand for private schooling, especially in urban areas, suggests that the problemis probably much more one of providing effective education at a reasonable price. If the governmentcould do this, it would stimulate demand for places in public schools, just as private schools areresponding to those segments of the population that can afford to pay sustainable prices. However,Madagascar's economic decline since the early eighties and the resulting decline in direct governmentexpenditures on education have obviously changed parents' decisions about education. The currentweighing of factors in parents' decisions about the schooling of their children is not well understood,

8 Even though the number of years in Madagascar's primary cycle is at least one year less than in most other countries.

10

especially at the secondary level where standards of instruction seem to have been better maintained butwhere the enrollment decline is the greatest. In order to improve its understanding of the demand foreducation, the goverrnment is planning a study within CRESED. Whatever a study on demand foreducation may conclude, the analysis here makes it clear that: (a) on the supply side, efforts to improvepublic primary and secondary education must pay at least as much attention to improving quality as toincreasing the number of places; (b) private education plays an important role in education supply andgovernment might consider support in the future in the form of enabling regulations and supervision,performance contracts, incentives andior subsidies; and (c) ways need to be found to get teachers to servein rural areas.

Table 2 MADAGASCAR: Efficiency Indicators For Primary And Secondary SchoolsCompared With Other African Countries

INDICATOR AVERAGE

Madagascar Sub-Saharan Africa Madagascar's Ranking'PRIMARY:

Percent who repeat (1990) 36% 21% 31 out of ?2

Percent who arrive in final 37.7% 67.1% 27/29year (1989)

Number of years invested per 13.8 years Not available 26/29student completing first cycle(1989) 2

SECONDARY

Percent of primary schoolgrads who continue to first 43% 40% 9/23year of general secondary

Percent who repeat (1990) 20% 20% 14/28

' Madagascar is compared to countries with available data.2 Prescribed duration of first cycle in most countries is six years; in Madagascar, five years.

SOURCE: Bourdon, lean, T. Hartnett, F. Orivel, C. Shaw. A Statistical Profile of Education in Sub-SaharanAfrica in the 1980s. Paris: Donors for African Education, in edit.

11

CHAPTER 3: THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

26. The study investigated the input factors that affect the system, the process characteristics thatmake for good schools, and the learning results achieved by children. Chart I presents the factorsincluded in the study and shows their hypothesized relationships before the research. The scope andcontent of the curriculum have not been assessed in this study, but would not affect the differentialperformance of individual schools because they are common to all. Case studies covering the factorshave been prepared on twelve schools each at the primary, junior secondary and senior secondary levels(hereinafter, "the Quality study"). Additional sources of information on primary education include thestudy of student achievement in Mathematics, Malagasy and French sponsored by French Cooperation("the Evaluation study") and a study of the causes of student repetition and drop-out undertaken withinthe framework of CRESED ("the Wastage study"). The methodologies for these studies are summarizedin Annex 4.A. This chapter presents the findings on primary education, the next chapter those onsecondary education.

27. The analysis of primary school quality in Madagascar identified three key factors affecting schoolquality: school leadership, community participation, and teachers' guides and textbooks. The first twoof these factors are critical to the life of the school, corroborating conclusions that material resources donot alone explain success. The analysis also found that teacher competencies and a school's facilities andequipment contribute to student success. However, these appear to be less critical than the three priorityfactors. Also, the importance of facilities and equipment is probably mainly a reflection of thecommunity's very significant role in the life of the school (and the government's absence). Chart 2summarizes the factors analyzed and depicts their estimated relation to each other based on the analysisof research results. "Government contribution" is included in the diagram, connected by thinner lines,to show where public resources, beyond teachers' salaries, would be best directed to strengthen the schoolfactors that this study has found to be the most important.

Student Outcomes

28. The best source of information on learning outcomes in Malagasy primary schools is the 1991Evaluation of 2,874 students in fifth grade (Classe 7), the last year of primary school. In May 1991,these students from 181 schools were tested in Malagasy, French, and Mathematics using tests based onthe Madagascar curriculum. Table 3 shows the average scores and the percentage of students scoring60% or better in each subject. The average scores range from 56% in Malagasy to 48% in Mathematics.In Malagasy, but not in French, the students performed 11 points better, on average, in reading than inwriting. If the exclusion of isolated schools from the sample is taken into account, probably less thanhalf of the small number of the pupil cohort who reach the last year of primary school currently fulfillthe curriculum's objectives in these three major subjects.

29. Results on the CEPE, the primary school leaving examination, suggest a similar conclusion,though the results are not standardized. Nationally, until the mid-eighties about half of the students takingthe CEPE examination passed it. Starting in 1984 pass rates fluctuated between 30% and 40%, exceptin 1987 when the rate was again near 50%. The rate dropped to 22.7% in 1989, the last year for whichexamination results have been released. Among the 12 primary schools in the Quality study, three of

12

Chart 1: MADAGASCAR: Hypothetical Network of Priority Factors thatDetermine Primary School Effectiveness (Before research)

The SchoolCondition Positive Attitude

iof School of Teachers/ .. Optimal Conditions A K /

Government of Work epetitionContribution Academic

Teaching Director's > Expectations ResultsMaterials Management of High

/ Performance

Contribution of ClassroomParents and the Learning ActivitiesCommunity Competent

TeachingStaff

CONTEXT

13

Chart 2: MADAGASCAR: Conceptual Framework for a Strategy for the Reform of PrimaryEducation (After Research)

eac erttitudes epeti ton

Leadership - ~~Learnin

CONTEXT

Thick Arrows show relations among factors from the research.

Thin Arrows are the suggested foci for the government's strategy.

14

the schools had pass rates of over 70% and five of them had rates of 20% or less, suggesting widedisparities among schools. From this study, the disparities appear to be partially explainable byirregularities in test administration that local responsibility for the examination may encourage, suggestingthat better standardization of the primary-school-leaving examination is desirable for monitoring systemperformance.

Table 3 MADAGASCAR: Test Results of Pupils At End Year of Primary School,May 1991 (N=2,874)

Average Score % Scoring 60% or BetterMalagasy (Language) 56% 40%French 54% 30%Mathematics 48% 23%

Source: Robin, Daniel, et al. "Evaluation des Acquis des Eleves en fin de T5. " Paris:Ministere de l'Education Nationale et de la Culture. September, 1992, pp. 32-36.

30. Both of these sets of information on primary school learning outcomes suggest that the qualityof primary education is weak. The fact that only about 30% of the entering students even reach grade5 adds to the concern about quality of outcomes, as one may question what those who leave earlier havelearned. Only about 15% of the age-group is leaving school with learning achievement at primary levelor better, which is totally inadequate. These observations suggest a deterioration of the quality ofeducation and increasing illiteracy in Madagascar.

School Process Elements

31. Leadership and Pupil Expectations. The field observations in the Quality study found that theschool directors in better schools pay attention to order and discipline and make teacher assignmentscarefully. On the other hand, in almost all of the schools the other indicators of leadership are weak:there is no evidence of school goals being articulated and shared; there is scant evidence that students arebeing rewarded for success other than through annual award ceremonies; and the bulk of the observationsmade of valuing students' efforts and giving them meaningful responsibilities were found in individualteachers' classes. It appears that the expectations that are set by the school leadership, even in goodschools, reach the students through individual teachers. Where the head's attention to the orderliness ofschool life and administration encourage teachers to hold high expectations for students and to rewardthem, students' results should be better.

32. From the Evaluation study there is even stronger evidence that the expected relationship betweenschool leadership and academic success is valid for Madagascar's primary schools. That study found thatthe schools with better test results had directors with a higher personal investment in the school in termsof their availability in the school, their attitudes about their responsibilities, their control of the school,and their ability to motivate people. In the national seminar, held in March 1994 to discuss the primaryschool results of the Quality study, national educational leaders corroborated the importance of the school

15

director. However, the study concluded that none of the school directors in the small sample paid directattention to supervising teaching or stimulating improvements in teaching practice. Instead, they areloaded with the administrative responsibilities which, when heads handle them well, allow teachers to bemore effective with students. These studies suggest that classroom practice, teacher collaboration, anddelegation of responsibilities to students are left almost entirely to the teachers.

33. The Capabilities and Attitudes of Teachers. The teaching force has, for the most part, anadequate minimum formal preparation and experience. With the exception of two schools out of twelvein the Quality study, all of the teachers had initial teacher training, and in those two schools, 80% of theteachers had had training. However, only four schools had at least one teacher with the Certificatd'Aptitude Pedagogique (CAP), the highest professional qualification for primary level teaching.Similarly, all but a few teachers in these schools had been on the job for at least two years. In theQuality study, training and years of service were not found linked to outcomes. However, theachievement and drop-out studies found a connection between formal teacher competencies and studentoutcomes, whether achievement or dropout. The Wastage study found that schools with better-preparedteachers have less dropouts, and the Evaluation study found that length of service and length of time incurrent post contributed to higher student competencies. Interestingly, both studies also found that femaleteachers obtain better results than male teachers. Using its teacher interview data, the Evaluation studyexplains how male teachers usually have numerous obligations, many of them economic, outside theirteaching.

34. While the studies agree on the presence and importance of basic professional capabilities,teachers' attitudes appear to detract from their performance. The Wastage study found that teacherabsenteeism is higher and the number of hours of teaching per day is less in schools with higher dropoutrates. Also, absenteeism without a reason poses a problem in many of the twelve schools in the Qualitystudy. These conditions suggest that some teachers are not dedicated to their work. Beyond this, in theseschools, very few examples of a personal commitment to students -- counseling individuals or motivatingthe community in providing writing materials or a school blouse for needy students -- were found.

35. The Quality study also found problems in how primary school teachers use their knowledge andskills. First, the majority of the teachers in the study's case schools have great difficulty using French,both for instruction and for communication. Second, there is little evidence of pedagogical collaborationamong teachers, the examples found being limited to teachers who teach the same grades in the sameschool. Third, while the teachers have had teacher training, the skills leamed are often appliedritualistically. For example, lesson-planning is done regularly but without being specific to the classesbeing prepared for. The lack of supervision and staff development by school heads and weaknesses inthe teacher training curriculum may contribute to this lack of meaningful application of what was learnedin training, but teacher attitudes probably also contribute to weakening the effective application of leamedteaching skills.

36. Even though some teachers teach conscientiously under difficult circumstances, the cluster ofteacher attitudes reflected by teachers' attendance and their impersonal behavior towards students needsgreater consideration in planning school improvement. The participants in the national seminar in March,1994, that reviewed the results of the Quality study probably realize this as well because they singledout "professionalization" of teachers, along with school leadership, as a critical problem to resolve inorder to improve student learning.

16

37. School Infrastructure and Equipment. Two of the studies analyzed here suggest that inMadagascar the physical facilities of the school contribute to student learning. Attributes that have beenfound important include the number of classrooms, water and toilet facilities, an adequate-sized compoundfor recreation and productive activities and equipment (blackboards, desks, other classroom furniture, andtools for productive activities). The physical characteristics of the twelve schools in the Quality studysuggest shortages of facilities: only four of the twelve primary schools had enough rooms for all classsections; four had only half as many classrooms as class sections; and in nine schools sanitary installationswere inadequate. The Evaluation study found most schools had toilets, but only a few had electricityand running water, with the schools that performed well on the achievement tests having significantlybetter services than those that performed poorly. On the other hand, the Pilot School Mapping exercisein one commune found similar levels of infrastructure availability, but concluded that schools with"mediocre material conditions for schooling" performed well. These mixed findings on the relation ofinfrastructure to students' results suggests that the relationships that have been found may be more areflection of community support for both the school and its pupils than a direct cause of success (seebelow on community support).

38. School equipment has also been shown to be associated with student outcomes. The finclings ofthe studies used in this analysis suggest that perhaps two-thirds or more of all schools have sufficientblackboards, pupil seats, and other types of equipment. Also, two studies found that the schools that havemore and better blackboards, greater numbers of seats for the number of students, and other classroomfurniture tend also to have better CEPE examination results (the Quality study) or higher test scores (theEvaluation study).

39. Learning Materials. Textbooks, slates, notebooks, and pens and pencils constitute the main pupillearning materials in Madagascar's primary schools. The Evaluation study and the Quality study bothfound that schools do not differ much in the availability of paper and pens for students, both beingavailable for almost all students. However, only limited numbers of textbooks are available. Forexample, the Quality study found that all schools had some French texts (A Toi de Parler) for all fivegrades which were provided by French Cooperation and sets of newly-arrived grade 1 Malagasy texts(Garabola), written with German technical and financial assistance and published and distributed underCRESED. Not one mathematics textbook was found in any of the twelve schools studied, and nine ofthe schools had insufficient numbers of teachers guides for the texts that they did have. fBoth theEvaluation and the Wastage study found that schools with better test scores or lower dropout rates hadmore books for their pupils than schools that performed less well. Even with limited textbookavailability, it is noteworthy that the presence of textbooks seemed to differentiate schools with good andpoor results.

40. The Teaching/Learning Process. The only study to look directly at the teaching/learning: processhas been the Quality study. In this study, between two and six classes were observed in each school toget a sense of how efficiently class time is used, what the diversity of teaching methods are, how studentsare evaluated, and h3w frequently homework is given and checked. Recognizing its informal method ofclassroom observation, the study concluded that there is some diversity of teaching methods, though itis limited by the paucity of materials and the teachers' lack of imagination. The study also found thatin the higher grades teachers tend to use a more formal, expository, teaching approach than in lowergrades. Conclusions were not reached about homework and about how efficiently class time was used,though a few examples of good practice in both these areas were found. Generally, the study indicates

17

that teachers know the basic teaching skills, but they are not being challenged to use them effectively orcreatively or to grow in the practice of their profession.

41. Supporting Input Elements: Government and Community Contributions. While neither of thequantitative studies reviewed looked directly at communities' and governments' contributions to schools,the multi-variate analysis of the factors contributing to dropouts indicated that about 20% of the variancein dropouts among schools could be explained by family context, including the family's aid to the student.On the other hand, the Quality study looked at parents' and communities' contribution to the school interms of money, labor, materials and participation in school life and at government's contribution interms of money, building construction and repairs, and teacher development services. Only two of thetwelve schools received any financial assistance from government beyond teachers' salaries, in both casesa small subsidy from local government; four had help with building and equipment renovations; and sevenhad received token amounts of materials. Government investments at the primary level have been almostnil.

42. While all twelve schools reported teachers participating in in-service activities provided bygovernment, these were either short courses on teaching French sponsored by French Cooperation orlong-standing regular meetings, called F4, led by local supervisors. Most of the teachers reported thatthe teacher's meetings are formalistic and/or social and not at all useful for their teaching. Only two ofthe twelve primary schools in the study reported having a supervisory visit or inspection in the last coupleof years, and in both cases there were special reasons why a visit had occurred.

43. Not one of the twelve schools studied was found to have poor community support. In fact, tenof the communities were classified as giving good material support to the school, including locally-setfees that ranged from 500 FMG to 3000 FMG per year. The uniformity of community support acrossall twelve schools, when the academic results of the schools varies widely, leads to the counterintuitivehypothesis that community support is not important to learning outcomes. However, two key factors thatdo differentiate schools -- leadership and infrastructure -- derive their significance from interplay withparents and the community. First, as has been found, the variety in facilities and equipment among theschools derives from the communities' participation. If good school results are related to theinfrastructure, it is because commnunity support exists to create and maintain the infrastructure. Similarly,a school director's influence on outcomes can be expected to be stronger through interaction with thecommunity supporting it. As was noted, the Evaluation study found that school heads in good schoolstended to be available in the school and to be able to motivate people. Both of these attributes add depthand quality to the relationship between a school and the community. For both these key factors, thereis justification to conclude that they are important for school effectiveness in concert with support fromthe conmnunity.

44. The Quality study concluded that "parents assure the life of the school," and "there's not muchof a contribution by government" (other than salaries). Since the schools in this study were all near toor in the larger regional cities, this picture of very little government participation in public schools isprobably even more true for rural areas. As the study found, the absence of government support, otherthan salaries, leaves the supply of school infrastructure, equipment, and pupil supplies to the parents andthe community. Where parents are keen on the education of their children, more material support foreducation will be found. The finding that good facilities and equipment contribute to better academicresults is probably, in fact, a proxy for the broader influence of parental and community support.

19

CHAPTER 4: THE QUALITY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

45. Even though the same conceptual framework and definitions of quality as for the primary schoolswere used to study 24 secondary schools, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about secondaryeducation from the analysis because there are no other research results on the determinants of the qualityof secondary education to reinforce this small study. Still, the study begins to define a focus for futureefforts at reform. As with the primary schools, the director's management and the school's physicalfacilities are important factors in school success. It also appears that the teachers' attitudes andcompetencies are more important in secondary schools (including, for the lycees, their expectations ofpupils) than are learning materials. However, the data from the case studies also suggest that learningmaterials may be important and that parents play a critical role in supporting the school, despite the factthat all schools receive some government financial assistance. Because of the limitations in the numberand the representativeness of the cases, additional research is required to clarify the tentative findings ofthis study before the current strategy for the improvement of secondary education is revised. Therefore,this study does not follow the treatment of primary education presented in Chapter 3, in simulating thecost implications of changes in policy. The sections that follow briefly discuss each of the seven mainfactors in the conceptual framework, combining results for the CEGs and the lycees, on the way todrawing these tentative conclusions.

Student Outcomes

46. The only national data available on student outcomes at the secondary level are examinationresults through 1989. According to the published results, between 1984 and 1989 35% or fewer of thestudents taking the junior secondary leaving examination passed. For the five years for which data existon the Iycees, 1985-1989, the national average pass rate was always less than 20%. There is no evidencethat the pass rates have changed since 1989, and the Quality study gives some idea of the more recentvariation in rates among schools. Among the twelve CEG the BEPC pass rates varied from 49% to 10%in 1992, and for the twelve lycees, results on the leaving examination (the "baccalaureat") varied from40% to one school in which no one passed. Assuming that the examination tests what is covered by thecurriculum, these pass rates suggest that the educational environment in a large number of secondaryschools is not very effective.

School Process Elements

47. Leadership and Pupil Expectations. In both the CEG and the lycees in the Quality study, theschool directors delegate to coordinators most of the responsibility for making teaching assignmenis, forcoordinating teaching activities, and for classroom supervision. Pedagogic supervision was found to bedone by only 3 CEG directors and by no Iycee directors. The study found that this delegation ofresponsibilities, usually through assigned coordinators, puts directors at a distance from the life of theschool. Similarly, most of the responsibility and rewards given to students are done through teachers,particularly in class, and directors articulate school goals and communicate them to students in only a fewschools. Instead, Iyc&e directors seem to spend most of their time on administrative matters.

48. The Capabilities and Attitudes of Teachers. The academic and professional preparation andexperience of the teachers in the secondary schools that were studied is higher than in many other African

20

countries. In all but four CEGs, more than 80% of the teachers had received some formal 1:eachertraining, and in the lycees all teachers had an undergraduate degree (licence) and/or formal teachertraining. In all the CEGs and half of the Iycees, all of the teachers had more than two years ofexperience. However, at both levels the number of teachers with the currently prescribed l-vel ofprofessional preparation was very limited, and smaller rural schools with fewer teachers tend to lackexpertise in all subjects that are taught, partly because teachers only train in one subject.

49. In the 24 secondary schools studied the utilization of teachers' knowledge and skills is affectedby their attitudes towards teaching and the students. While there are examples of dedication to students,the signs of a poor commitment to teaching outweigh them. In the CEGs, seven of the twelve schoolsreported teacher attendance problems, and at both levels there is little collaboration among teachers eventhough Ministry regulations officially establish a Pedagogic Committee in each school. Furthermore, thestudy found that the majority of teachers, especially the young ones, lack confidence in their ability toteach, partially because of their perceived lack of knowledge and skills but most importantly because oftheir inability to teach effectively in French. The research team estimated that half of the 44 teacherscontacted in the study do not speak French. In the lycees, the problem of French does not seem to beas significant as in the CEGs, but there are still signs that teacher confidence is low there too, perhapsbecause of the high proportion of the teachers who do not have any teacher training.

50. School Infrastructure and Equipment. As at the primary level in the Quality study, the schools'physical conditions seem to be related to students' results. This is especially true for the lyce&s wherethe two schools with the best examination results are also the only two schools judged to have "good"facilities. However, the general quality of the facilities is better than in the primary schools. A,most allsecondary school settings and grounds were judged adequate, and all but three schools have running waterand enough classrooms. Based on the analysis of the twelve CEG case studies, "enough" is defined asfour rooms for each five sections, the level at which it was found that directors could schedule all classesduring established school hours. The three lycees that have half the number of rooms required to houseall classes run on two shifts. Also, sixteen of the twenty-four schools have libraries. However, only twolycees have laboratories, and laboratories at the CEGs are "non-existent or inadequate." The frequencyand intensity of use of these special facilities was not noted.

51. Similarly, classroom desks and blackboards were evaluated to be adequate in all but one of thetwenty-four schools. On the other hand, there is a general lack of teachers' desks in the classrooms,perhaps because the teachers move from classroom to classroom to teach, and only two or three schoolsat each level had tools for productive activities. In general, facilities and equipment for the secondaryschools are basically adequate, though improvements could be made in some schools. Future effortsshould seek to make these improvements where they are needed and to increase the use of lahoratoriesand libraries.

52. Learnin2 Materials: Contrary to what would be expected, the Quality study could niot find arelation between the availability of learning materials and examination results or dropout rates in junioror senior secondary schools because conditions across schools did not vary. There was an almostcomplete absence of textbooks and teachers guides in any of the schools. No student textbcoks wereobserved in ten of the CEGs and in six of the lyc6es, and only two 1ycees (no CEGs) were judged to haveeven a modest level of textbooks. Even more striking, not one teacher's guide was found in any of the

21

lycees, nor in eight of the CEGs. In the face of this situation, the research team did find a few teacherswho had purchased books for their own use or who had prepared or borrowed materials for use with thestudents. On a more positive note, as in the primary schools, students seem to be adequately equippedwith notebooks, pens and pencils.

53. The hypothesis is obvious that the nearly complete lack of printed learning materials for bothstudents and teachers is contributing significantly to the poor learning outcomes in Madagascar'ssecondary schools. However, even though the Quality study has documented this deplorable lack in allthe schools studied, it does not provide a compelling case for this conclusion. There is a need for moresophisticated research on learning outcomes and their determinants, as in the primary-level Evaluationstudy, in order to determine the importance of learning materials in comparison to other inputs forsecondary schools in Madagascar.

54. The Teaching/Learning Process. Two general findings about teaching methods at both levels ofsecondary education stand out from the Quality study. First, even with the paucity of materials, theforeign language teachers attempt to vary their teaching methods. This is not surprising given that donorshave been supporting in-service training of language teachers. On the other hand, teachers in the sciencestend to center all instruction on themselves, either talking, writing on the blackboard, correcting studentmistakes, or dictating material. Among lyc&e teachers, their discourse tends to be even more theoreticaland didactic than in the CEGs. Consequently, students at both levels tend to write a lot and to speak vervlittle. Here, as with the implications about learning materials, additional research could help clarify howdifferent teaching methods have an impact on learning outcomes.

55. Supportinz Input Elements: Government and Community Contributions: At the secondary level,as at the primary level, community resources provide most of the financial and material support for theschools in the Quality study, but with important differences related to financial assistance and localresponsibilities. First, contrary to primary education, every secondary school in the study receives somefinancial or material assistance from the central government, albeit in such limited amounts that it doesnot seem to have an impact on the quality of the education provided. Neither has the governmentprovided very much support in terms of in-service training or of inspection, especially for the lycees.While all the CEGs had staff who had had a recent opportunity to participate in some kind of in-servicecourse, and three schools had been visited by an inspector, no Iycee had been visited by an inspector inthe last couple of years and only one school reported teachers participating in in-service training, thoughsome counseling and mentoring of teachers was reported.

56. With such limited support from government, local resources have to fill in for them. The Qualitystudy found that at the secondary level it is much more the parents, and occasionally former students,than the community who provide support to the school. Not only do the parents pay fees, but exampleswere also found where they constructed latrines and classrooms, purchased school sports equipment,desks and prizes for students, and paid water and electricity bills. Also, more than at the primary level,the parents' support often includes fairly active participation in school life.

57. While the financial allocations made to secondary schools by the government suggest a greatercommitment to supporting this level of education over primary education -- and comparative per-studentexpenditures for instruction corroborate this commitment -- the government's role in ensuring qualityschooling beyond teachers' salaries is minimal. This lack of significant involvement in preparing the

22

nation's future educated manpower probably accounts for many of the weaknesses in teachers' attitudesand classroom methods and in school directors' failures to provide much leadership. A successfulstrategy for improving the quality of secondary education will have to ensure that the government's roleis strengthened to better address these central issues, directly in the public schools and through oversightof private schools.

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CHAPTER 5: THE PUBLIC FINANCING OF EDUCATION

58. Before examining the policy implications of the findings on the quality of education, it isnecessary to examine the extent to which the financing of education has contributed to the problems ofaccess, internal efficiency and quality that have been discussed, as well as to identify where possiblesources of additional funds may be found to support improvements. Although school-level analysessuggest that there is not much of a contribution by government to the life of the school, publicexpenditures on primary and secondary education are significant. The government pays teachers' salariesand supports a large number of administrators of the education system. Parents and communitiescontribute what money, labor and materials there are for facilities and non-salary recurrent expendituresat the school level. This section examines the amount of and trends in public financing of education inorder to identify whether and how government can supplement private contributions to operating coststo improve the quality of education. The analysis looks at (a) the share of GNP and of total governmentbudgets that goes to education, (b) the share of education budgets that are allocated to primary andsecondary education, and (c) expenditure patterns within these sub-sectors of education.

59. Madagascar had a modest public budget in relation to GNP because its fiscal effort is unduly lowfor a country with its economic level and structure. However, it allocates a reasonable share of thisbudget to education. Within education, higher education takes a higher percentage than in many othercountries, and over two-thirds of non-salary funding in higher education is spent for non-instructionalpurposes. The result has been a very small public resource base for direct support to instruction,especially at the primary level.

60. There has been insufficient information to quantify total spending on education. Information onactual public expenditures on education is only available for the period 1988-91, and private spendingis not recorded, even though it is significant. Future research should look more closely at howhouseholds finance education, both with contributions to government institutions and to the private schoolsthat absorb a growing proportion of the students.

Public Funding of the Education Sector

61. Allocations to education as a percentage of GDP (for which data were available) fluctuatedbetween 2.3 % and 2.6 % during the period 1988-1991. This is low, the average being 4.3 % of GNP forall of Sub-Saharan Africa in 1990 and 3.0% for the low-income countries. The modest size ofMadagascar's total budget in relation to GDP seems to be the major contributor to the low education/GDPratio, suggesting a need for attention to ways to increase government's total revenues.

62. As is presented in Table 5.1, Annex 5, the total national budget in Madagascar has grown moreslowly than the GNP in 1991, but the reverse was true in 1989 and 1990. In this context, allocationsfrom the national budget for education have fared well. Although the share of the national budget goingto education declined to 16% of the total in 1989 and 1990, it increased to 25% in 1991, even as the totalnational budget decreased significantly (Table 5.2, Annex 5). These allocations to education comparefavorably with the averages for country groupings in the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa which range from13% to 20%.

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Macro-Economic Perspective on Trends in Public Revenues

63. The government is currently putting in place a program of macroeconomic reform, aimed atachieving a high rate of economic growth. Reform of government finances is the keystone ofmacroeconomic equilibrium; rapid growth cannot take place without it. In order to achieve high GDPgrowth, the overall investment rate will have to increase without either producing undue inflationarypressures or depriving the private sector of the resources it needs for development. The increase in theinvestment ratio as a percentage of GDP required to meet the country's growth objectives should resultfrom expanded private investment. Government financial policy will aim at increasing public savings,controlling government expenditure (with redirection towards high priority sectors, such as humanresources), and raising fiscal revenue and user fees.

64. Revenue expansion is a key objective of the government's proposed reform program. Taxcollections represented only 8% of GDP in 1993. The government intends to increase fiscal receipts bytwo percentage points of GDP during each year of its reform program. To this end, a review of thefiscal system will be undertaken in 1995; this review will focus on improvement of tax administration,simplifying the tax structure, modernizing the tax on companies, and establishing a simpler, moreefficient system of indirect taxation.

65. In order to reduce Madagascar's budget deficit, government expenditures will be carefullycontrolled. At the same time, the public sector investment program should be redirected to focus moreattention on key areas like basic education and health, and the government intends to increase spendingon basic education, to maintain the current level in real spending per capita. Moreover, the quality ofexpenditure has to be increased, so that expenditures actually benefit the target population by being spenton instruction. Other categories of expenditure will have to decrease.

Allocations to Primary and Secondary Education from the Education Budget

66. Primary and secondary education's share of public expenditures for education in Madagascar hasstayed around 70% of the total education budget, including expenditures for secondary technicaleducation, between 1988 and 1991 (Table 5.4). Budget figures for 1992 and 1993 suggest that this sharehas been rising to about 75%, so that the budget for 1993 foresaw per-student expenditures, salariesincluded, of 29,704 FMG ($15.63) at the primary level and 103,490 FMG ($54.47) at the secondarylevel. However, actual non-salary expenditures during the year have in the past usually favored thehigher levels in the system, reducing the actual share going to the primary level. This may have occurredin 1992 and 1993, but data are not available to check. If the actual expenditures on primary andsecondary education have reached 75 % of the total education budget, they will be roughly at the averagefor all of Sub-Saharan Africa, but below the 83% in 1990 that characterized other countries in the regionwith conditions similar to Madagascar's.

67. Because data on the shares of the salary budget for primary and secondary education have notbeen available for this study, the only analysis of primary education's share of expenditures that has beenpossible is a comparison of the percentage distribution and per pupil non-salary operating allocationsamong primary, secondary and technical education. Table 5.5, Annex 5, summarizes this data for 1988-1993 according to the three main categories of non-salary expense: Administration, Aid and Transfers,and instructional expenditures (Enseignement). Only the last of these is budgeted by level of education.

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As can be seen in Table 5.5, Annex 5, primary education's share of instructional expenditures hasfluctuated greatly, from 7% of the total in 1988 to 35% in 1990 and back to 17% in 1992. The budgetfor 1993 shows a major increase in the funding for primary level instruction (55% of the total),suggesting the new government's recognition of the current crisis and of the potential social benefits ofprimary education. If that amount has actually been spent on direct support to primary education in 1993,it could mark a significant turnaround in the financing of those expenditures benefitting students mostdirectly, even though the absolute per-student amount in 1993 is still small (3900 FMG, or US$2.05)compared to a recommended target of about US$ 5 per student 9.

Expenditure Patterns within Primary and Secondary Education

68. Besides giving an indication of how little money is spent directly on primary education, T'able5.5, Annex 5 also summarizes the overall imbalance between non-instructional expenses and instructionalexpenses. Over a six-year period, 1988-1993, the proportion of non-salary expenditures for primary andsecondary education going to administration averaged about 60%. If the additional 10% or so for "Aidand Transfers' (mainly scholarships) is taken into account, only about 30% of the non-salary educationbudget has been available for instructional purposes, probably including supervisors' expenses. It is notsurprising that the Quality study found that central government contributions to secondary education atthe school level are small and that there are no contributions to primary schools. Future policies needto enlarge the amount for instructional purposes, however the actual expenditures on instruction aredefined, while maintaining the most necessary elements of administrative expenditures.

69. To emphasize just how little can be spent on instruction, Table 5.6 summarizes the consequencesof these decisions for per-student expenditures on instruction in 1991, the last year for which actualexpenditures are available and the worst year reported on for primary education. The average per-studentnon-salary allocation for primary, secondary, and technical education in that year was 5,365 FMG($2.82); but the non-salary expenditure for the fewer than 10,000 technical school students was 83,359FMG (US$ 45.45) per student, 1100 times more than the 78 FMG (US$ .04) per student spent on the1.3 million primary school students. General secondary school expenditures were 6,951 FMG ($3.66)per student, eighty-nine times more than that spent on a primary school student, but still well below US$5per student. These comparisons were much better in 1992 and 1993 where significant increases in non-salary budgets have occurred as the new government has taken hold.

Other Sources of Financing for the Education Sector

70. In addition to the public budget, other sources of financing for the sector comprise an importantshare of both capital and recurrent expenditure and may become increasingly important given the limitedability of the public budget to accommodate both quality and quantity expansion. These sources includehouseholds, the private sector and foreign aid.

71. Households, especially parents, already contribute a substantial portion of the recurrent and capitalcosts of public schools. According to recent estimates, households spend about 1 % of their income on

9 In A World Bank Policy Paper - ImDrovinM Primary Education (1990), the Bank recommended raising the level of per-student expenditures on teaching-leaming materials to US$5 per annum in low-income countries.

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education, for both capital and recurrent costs. This is equivalent to about a third of public expenditureon education. However, the absolute levels of expenditures seem to be roughly constant in all incomegroups, implying higher percentages of household incomes spent by the poor. In addition, averagesconceal the fact that while some children may have all their materials purchased by parents, others havenone. In fact, the beneficiary assessment of poverty '° showed that 60% of poor families cited financialreasons to explain why