land surveying services

Virtually every site development, building, or infrastructure improve-ment project requires the services and expertise of a land surveyor.Land surveys provide spatial information necessary for the competentdesign and construction of a building project.

Surveying is an integral part of the A/E/C industry. Surveyors create accu-rate, detailed topographic and utility location maps that serve as the basisfor critical design decisions. An aesthetically pleasing site plan, a drainagesystem that handles storm water efficiently, and the logical placement ofsite utilities and other improvements depend on the topographic infor-mation recorded by a surveyor. Accurate boundary information is alsonecessary so design professionals can locate buildings and other siteamenities where they meet regulatory and jurisdictional requirements.

Close collaboration with a surveyor can help a building project runmore smoothly. When made aware of critical design or constructionconsiderations, surveyors can direct their work to yield information thatwill add significant value to a project during design, construction, andoperation. Architects, other building design professionals, and alliedengineers need reliable, accurate, and timely information from the sur-veyor to conceptualize site improvements with confidence and designan appropriate building. Contractors need guidance from the surveyorbefore and during construction to ensure they excavate and build in theproper horizontal and vertical locations. The return on investment fromhigh-quality survey information cannot be overemphasized. The avail-ability of precise, accurate, complete, and timely data can help prevent aproject from experiencing complications as well as unnecessary timeextensions and costs, which can easily lead to other problems.

CLIENT NEEDSSurvey services required for architecture projectswhether a brownfield redevelop-ment, a new school or church, a building addition, a highway or utility corridor, or a res-idential subdivisioncan vary widely. However, boundary, utility, and topographicinformation is typically required for planning and design, and stakes must be placed to

Land Surveying ServicesGary R. Kent, LS

GARY R. KENT is director of surveying at the Schneider Corporation, an Indianapolis-basedconsulting firm. He is past president of the Indiana Society of Professional Land Surveyorsand the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM) and chairs standards com-mittees for ACSM and the American Land Title Association. A member of the Indiana StateBoard of Registration for Land Surveyors, he teaches courses on land surveying at thePurdue campus in Indianapolis.

LAND SURVEYING SERVICES

Why a Client May Need These Services To establish or verify property boundary lines To locate above- and belowground utilities To determine land contours and elevations To record locations of natural and man-made site

features To set construction staking To verify as-built conditions

Knowledge and Skills Required Knowledge of mathematics, science, and the law Skill in use of geodetic methods to locate geographic

points Ability to use surveying tools and technologies Ability to match appropriate survey methods to pro-ject needs

Representative Process Tasks Project definition and planning Data gathering from existing sources Data gathering in the field, including observation,

measurement, and recording Documentation of survey data and information Staking before and during construction

Summary

Excerpt from The Architects Handbook of Professional Practice, Update 2005

Supplemental Architectural Services 2005 AIA 1

ensure improvements are constructed in the correct location. At the front end, servicesoften begin with a survey that will help the owner evaluate the viability of an initial con-cept. After a project has been completed, surveys are often required as part of securingpermanent financing. In addition, record drawings may be required before a jurisdictionwill release bonds or accept certain infrastructure into public ownership.

The client and project consultants and contractors should engage in discussionswith the surveyor as early as possible in the life of a project. This is the only way the sur-veyor can determine what services are needed and how best to deliver them for anygiven building or development project.

Obviously, a building that inadvertently extends into the boundaries of an easementor across a property or setback line will cost time and money to remedy. Such errors canresult in significant construction delays or even lawsuits, a fact every party involved in aproject should keep in mind. Project team representatives who work together and com-municate well are more likely to avoid such errors.

Boundary Surveys

Boundary surveys are frequently necessary to confirm the location of property lines onarchitectural projects. The location of property lines is a critical element in projects thatinvolve the following issues:

Subdivisions of land Design and development of improvements that are near or cross boundary lines Easements or rights of way Regulatory setback lines Purchase, transfer, or mortgaging of real property

Utility Surveys

Where and how connections to utility systems can occur, as well as the costs fordesigning and constructing them, are often primary considerations in a building project.

This boundary survey of a residential property included staking the lot and locating thehouse and physical site features.Schneider Corporation

2 Supplemental Architectural Services 2005 AIA

The earlier this information is requested and made available, and the more reliable,complete, and accurate it is, the sooner and more cost-effectively a decision can bemade as to the viability of a project.

A surveyor is best positioned to document and present comprehensive utility infor-mation in a meaningful way; however, architecture project team members must recog-nize the limitations and hurdles in gathering such data. Utility companies are often loathto provide accurate maps of their infrastructure. In addition, they are often unresponsiveto requests for information that involve design rather than construction, when the infor-mation is of more practical and time-sensitive concern to the utility owner.

Some survey companies have chosen to specialize in providing detailed locationsfor underground utilities. They use specialized equipment to do this, and the cost oftheir services can be very high. Owners and project managers need to determine foreach project whether the cost of obtaining detailed locations is justified.

Topographic Surveys

A topographic map detailing the contour lines on a site can be critical for planning anarchitecture project. Without accurate and timely topographic information, some impor-tant site limitations may not be recognized until embarrassingly late in the designprocess. For example, a development may require an expensive sanitary lift station, or asubstandard design may allow storm water to flood a neighboring property. The lattersituation could result in litigation or at least the unnecessary expense of redesign andadditional construction costs. If a surveyor is made aware of important design considera-tions and is engaged early enough in the process, such problems can easily be avoided.

Construction-Related Surveying

Before construction begins, surveyors are often asked to stake out the locations of streetcenterlines and buildings. This can help prevent or minimize construction damage toother site elements such as trees. When construction itself is imminent, the surveyor will

The work for this project involved locating physical features, including aboveground improve-ments and underground utilities. Elevations on hard surfaces or structures are accurate towithin 0.05 foot; elevations on natural surfaces are accurate to within 0.1 foot. Contours areplotted based on interpolation of spot elevations and are accurate generally to within one-half of the contour interval.Schneider Corporation


be asked to stake the locations of the utility infrastructure elements and other siteimprovements so they are built in the proper locations, both horizontally and vertically.With careful planning, a project superintendent can ensure that construction surveyingproceeds logically and cost-effectively. This will minimize the destruction (and costly re-staking) of survey markers and control points set for other construction activities occur-ring in the immediate vicinity.

As-Built and Post-Construction Surveys

As-built (record) drawings are prepared to show the horizontal and vertical placement ofutility systems. This documentation is often required for release of bonds or payments orfor confirmation that utility lines were accurately located. However, regulatory require-ments for the preparation of such drawings often vary widely across jurisdictional lines.

Scope Considerations

Clients requiring Land Surveying Services services may include attorneys, governmentagencies, school districts, churches, residential and commercial developers, excavators,building contractors, banks, and title companies, to name only a few. Although the con-

Fees for surveys vary significantly in relation to the scope and nature of the work. Someof the factors that influence cost of specific types of surveys are listed here:

The cost of boundary surveys varies widely, and the most significant influence on cost isthe legal description of the property, which determines the extent of research and field-work required. Neither of these tasks can be shortcut, or the final survey result will notstand up to challenge from another surveyor or in court.

Large parcels of land tend to be more expensive to survey, but the intensity of theeffort required is generally independent of the size of the parcel. This fact is not readilyapparent to most clients, and if there are questions, the surveyor should be able toexplain the level of effort needed to conduct a proper boundary survey.

The cost for a topographic survey is highly dependent on the size of the property. But theimprovements on the site, the amount of vegetation (crops, trees, and undergrowth), andthe time of year of the survey also have a significant effect on the cost. For example, morelabor is required when there is more vegetation, and the use of time-saving technologiessuch as the Global Positioning System (GPS) will be severely limited, if not impossible,when plants or trees extend higher than the reach of the surveyors equipment.

Underground utility survey work may be expensive, depending on the accuracy andcompleteness required. In any case, the client must understand that the only way to beabsolutely certain of the location and existenceor nonexistenceof undergroundutility lines is to excavate the area in question. This may sometimes be necessary, butoften the designer may simply need contingencies to accommodate the unforeseen.AIA Document G601, Request for ProposalLand Survey, provides excellent insightinto issues related to surveying underground utilities, including the completeness andaccuracy of the information obtained.

The extent of information required about off-site conditions will affect survey cost. Inshort, the amount of information the surveyor must include in a topographic or utilitysurvey is generally directly proportional to the fee required to obtain that information,whether the project size is large or small.

The cost of construction staking depends on the amount of control the contractorrequires. During construction, some excavators destroy survey stakes, requiring expensivere-staking. For some buildings, contractors need only basic control for construction, whileothers may want assistance locating interior column lines or marking finishing details latein construction. Careful consideration should be given to who is responsible for orderingsurvey work, especially if that person is not authorized to pay for the staking.

Factors Affecting Land Survey Costs


tract for survey services is usually negotiated between the owner and the surveyor, archi-tects and other building design professionals typically specify the survey services neededfor their design projects. For construction layout survey services, which are typically bidas part of construction services, the surveyor is normally under contract to the buildingcontractor or a subcontractor rather than the owner or designer. Post-constructionrecord drawings, sometimes referred to as as-built drawings, are often included as partof the construction package. Land title surveys for project financing or conveyance aremost desirably contracted directly between owner and surveyor. It is not unusual, how-ever, for an attorney, bank, or title company to contract with a surveyor for a title survey.

The exact terms of a contract for survey services will depend on the services being pro-vided, the time in the project life cycle when they are provided, and the needs and wishesof the owner, client, and other stakeholders. In all cases, careful thought should be given toissues such as privity of contract, how communications regarding the project will be han-dled, how potential disputes will be resolved, who will specify the standards to which thesurvey is to be conducted, and who will be responsible for paying the surveyors fees.

Scope. When survey work is done on a fixed-fee basis, the surveyor must fullyunderstand from the outset the range of services that is expected. Additional servicesbeyond those in the contracted scope can be negotiated either as an additional fixed-feeservice or simply billed on a time-and-materials basis. If there are too many unknowns topin down a complete scope of work, a client may wish to contract for services solely ona time-and-material basis. In this arrangement, the surveyor and client must stay in closecommunication regarding the fee and the evolving scope.

During the design process, an architect or engineer sometimes determines thatadditional surveying is required. This need may relate to off-site utility connections oraccess drives that were not considered earlier. Sometimes information on utility linesdiscovered subsequent to the initial survey, or additional detail on utility lines previouslylocated, is required. The client should be prepared to negotiate an additional fee forsuch work.

The client, the architect, and the surveyor work together to develop a scope of workthat addresses the variety of services a development or building project will require. Ameeting with the surveyor will be helpful to set the parameters and critical elements ofthe project. This information can be used to craft a scope that addresses design concernsbut avoids spending the owners money for information of marginal value.

AIA Document G601, Request for ProposalLand Survey, is useful for specifyingsurvey work required to support the engineering and architectural design aspects of aproject. It does not, however, include services such as construction staking or post-construction work (e.g., as-built measurements, land title surveys, and so on) that maybe required for the release of bonds or to close construction loans. If these services arerequired, a professional surveyor can provide guidance on the appropriate scope andstandards for that work.

It can be tempting to check off nearly every box on the G601 to maximize the infor-mation gathered from a survey. However, since every service comes at a price, carefulconsideration should be given to the necessity of each requested item. For example, ifproject construction will be well within the property lines, having the boundary cornersset may be unnecessary or offer limited value. Likewise, survey information required fora building addition can be considerably less than that needed for new construction.Another factor to keep in mind is that survey work on a site already developed will gen-erally be more cost- and time-intensive than work on an undeveloped site.

If the survey services being contemplated are not listed in AIA Document G601, theclient may ask the surveyor to write a contract that refers to the G601 but also specifiesthe scope for other survey services (e.g., construction staking, as-built documentation,land title surveys, etc.).

Standards. The design professional ordering the survey work should be aware thatmany states have standards for survey services that may conflict with or exceed therequirements on the G601. This is especially true with respect to boundary surveyrequirements, setting of corner monuments, research requirements, and to a lesserextent, topographic requirements. When this discrepancy in requirements arises, the sur-veyor should initiate a discussion about it or at least explain it in Article 8 of the G601.

The cost of survey servicesis generally a miniscule per-centage of the overall designand construction cost for aproject. The larger the pro-ject, the lower the percentageof survey costs and thehigher the return on invest-ment from good survey data.


Some boundary survey requirements in the G601 are similar to the Minimum Stan-dard Detail Requirements for Land Title Surveys of the American Land Title Association(ALTA) and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM). However, becausethere are some differences in these requirements, surveyors may want to clarify theirresponsibilities in the G601 as they often do for the ALTA/ACSM standards. For example,part of the scope outlined in item 4.2 of the G601 reads, Reconcile any discrepanciesbetween the survey and the recorded legal description. Different surveyors will interpretthis clause differently, and an uninformed opinion could be that the surveyor will fix anytitle problems, when, in fact, surveyors do not have the legal authority to do so.

Selecting a Land Surveyor

Clients should assess surveying firms available for engagement and match project needswith the specialized talents and business practices of the firms. In addition to consid-ering a surveyors experience in the type of services being sought, clients should lookinto how a surveyor has dealt with problems in the past. The surveyors ability tomanage and pay for errors that may occur should be determined. Does the surveyorcarry professional liability insurance? In most states, this coverage is not required.

Following are specific factors relevant in choosing a surveying firm:

Variety of surveying services that will be required over the life of the project Experience and expertise of the surveyor as related to the required services Experience of the firm in the jurisdiction that will review and approve the design

or subdivision plans Ability of the firm to provide necessary specialized services (e.g., expert witness) Ability of the firm to provide needed engineering-related services (e.g., site and

traffic engineering studies or identification of wetlands locations). (Surveyors arenot generally trained to identify and delineate wetlands, but they are bestequipped to locate and document them after they have been identified.)

Size of the surveying firm, number of crews, and ability to perform required workin the prescribed time frame

Professional liability insurance carried by the surveyor

Many well-known Americanshave been land surveyors,including George Washington,Thomas Jefferson, AbrahamLincoln, George Rogers Clark,and Henry David Thoreau, toname a few.

This survey shows the location of aboveground physical improvements and underground utilities.Trees were located and labeled by size and species. Street right-of-way lines are shown.Schneider Corporation


SKILLSProfessional Land Surveying Services requires specialized knowledge and the ability touse a variety of surveying resources, tools, and technologies. Surveyors also must beable to learn and adapt to changes as surveying methods and equipment undergo rapidadvancement. Like many other professional disciplines, Land Surveying Services is regu-lated through strict licensing laws and regulations.

Knowledge and Abilities

In many states, a college degree or minimum number of college credits in surveying,mathematics, and physical sciences is required to qualify an individual for licensure inLand Surveying Services. In addition, every state specifies a minimum number of years ofwork experience under the mentorship of a registered land surveyor before a person iseligible for licensure.

The surveying profession is said to be part science, part art, and part law. Having anintimate knowledge of mathematics is a strict necessity. As sophisticated measurementadjustments such as least squares become more common, an understanding of calculusis also desirable. Use of GPS calls for an understanding of the physics, astronomy, andgeodesy principles behind it.

Boundary surveying and legal descriptions are also based in common law. Thus, thesurveyor must have an intimate knowledge of the legal principles that control propertyboundaries. This information is necessary for resolving conflicts in the records andbetween adjoining legal descriptions, and for reconciling evidence found in the fieldwith those records.

Land Surveying Services Tools and Technologies

Technology for the Land Surveying Services profession has changed radically over the lastthree decades, with the most dramatic developments occurring in the last ten years.These advancements have ushered in the routine use of computer-aided drafting (CAD),the satellite-based Global Positioning System, and machine-controlled technology. Asimprovements and new innovations are developed, the role of surveyors and the mannerin which they gather, record, and document information will evolve even further.

Survey measurements are typically taken in the field and downloaded from the datacollector or other instrument into a PC-based CAD package. The data are checked, ana-lyzed, manipulated, and formulated into an understandable, accurate, yet presentablefinal drawing. Electronic total stations that gather both angular and distance informationelectronically and transfer those measurements directly into a laptop or handheld com-puter are standard equipment for most surveyors in the early twenty-first century.

Surveying a site on the ground is often the most time-efficient way to produce atopographic survey (and the only way to properly conduct a boundary survey). How-ever, technology has given surveyors a host of other means for gathering and reportingtopographical data. Depending on a variety of factors, data developed through pho-togrammetric mapping, real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS mapping, LIDAR (light detectionand radar) mapping, laser scanning, or even publicly available data, may serve the purposebetter than data developed with traditional surveying techniques.

Each project has particular site conditions and client requirements, which may makeone technology more suitable than another. The choice depends on such things as thebudget; schedule; required level of accuracy; physical size and shape of the project area;vegetation cover, including crops; relief and site contours; current site improvements;access (or lack thereof); and the need for documenting off-site features.

Hardware and software advancements in GPS receivers and in satellites themselveshave made the use of GPS for construction staking viable. As well, GPS equipment man-ufacturers are now teaming with manufacturers of construction equipment such as bull-dozers and graders to develop what has been termed machine control. Thistechnology puts control of the actual earth-moving into the hands of software, GPSsatellites, and computer-generated files. With computer files developed by surveyors andengineers, satellite signals can guide and control the earth-moving equipment.

There are approximately40,000 registered/licensedsurveyors in the UnitedStates.

Site conditions, projectparameters, and the actualtask at hand will determinewhich technology is the mosteffective or most efficienttool for a particular project.


Two factors affect the use of GPS in surveying. First, this technology generally cannotbe used in the vicinity of obstructions that extend above the reach of the equipment. Thismeans GPS cannot be used for surveying in forested areas, or near trees and tall buildings,or in the vicinity of bridges, transmission towers, power lines, and so on. Second, a typicalsurvey-quality GPS unit costs thousands of dollars, while a handheld GPS unit can now bepurchased for $100. The accuracies achievable with a handheld GPS unit, however, do notbegin to approach the accuracies attainable with more costly survey-quality units.

Licensure for Surveyors

Surveyors are licensed as professionals and regulated by state boards in all fifty states. Someof these boards also regulate the survey-related activities of aerial photogrammetrists andgeographic information system (GIS) technicians and professionals. To become licensed in aparticular state, a person must meet the specific education and experience requirements ofthat state and then pass fundamentals and principles/practice examinations of at least sixteenhours. The principles/practice examination has national and state-specific sections. A licensedsurveyor in one state may obtain a license to practice surveying in another state throughcomity or reciprocity. Conditions related to education and experience may apply, but in gen-eral, the state-specific portion of the principles/practice examination must be passed.

In most states, boundary surveys and preparation of associated plats and legaldescriptions are functions reserved exclusively for registered/licensed surveyors. Thepreparation of other maps and plats that depict elevations and contours, site features,related geospatial information, and locations for stakes are also regulated activities oflicensed land surveyors in mostif not allstates.

Professional surveyors are often referred to simply as surveyors or as land sur-veyors, licensed surveyors, or registered surveyors. Those who actually conduct the fieldmeasurements may or may not be licensed or registered. If not registered, they mustwork under the direct supervision of a licensed surveyor who is professionally respon-sible for the work performed.

In some states, professional engineers may provide some land survey services.Often, however, activities have become so specialized they are beyond the expertise ofsome who are otherwise legally allowed to perform them. Most state surveying boardshave adopted a set of minimum standards to ensure the public is protected and clientsreceive services that meet a minimally acceptable level of practice. National standards,most notably the Minimum Standard Detail Requirements for ALTA/ACSM Land Title Sur-veys, may also apply to the services requested of a land surveyor. A licensed surveyorwith an in-depth understanding of the aspects of surveying required for a project willknow which standards are appropriate.

Global Positioning System (GPS). A satellite guidance system developed by themilitary and used by surveyors. GPS uses satellite receivers and electronic communicationdevices to precisely determine locations on the Earth.

Total station. An electronic device for measuring angles and distances to determinelocations and elevations. This technology uses either laser or infrared beams for measuring.

Radial surveying. Determination of the heretofore unknown horizontal and/or ver-tical locations of a point by measuring an angle and distance to that point from a pointhaving a known location and elevation.

Real-time kinematic (RTK) surveying. A method of using GPS to rapidly deter-mine the horizontal and vertical locations of points. Accuracies are somewhat less thancan be achieved by using longer observation times.

Electronic data collection. Collection and logging of measurement data into acontrol device, which can be used to download the data into a computer for subsequentprocessing, analysis, manipulation, and drafting. Analysis of the data used to make deter-minations regarding property boundaries is the responsibility of the licensed surveyor andis not a function of the computer.

Current Tools and Technologies for Land Surveying


PROCESSThe survey work required for a site development or building project typically results inthe products and services in the list that follows. These are generally provided in theorder given, but this depends on site conditions, project parameters, and contractorrequirements. The design professional may or may not be directly involved in all ofthese activities.

Land title survey. These surveys are often required to obtain initial constructionfinancing and to ascertain the geometry and definitive locations of the boundarycorners and lines. A signed and sealed plat of survey certified to the appropriateparties (typically owner, lender, and title company) should be provided.

Topographic and utility survey. This type of survey is required to support thedesign process. A signed, sealed, and certified survey drawing should be pro-vided, although the design professional may also want a digital copy.

Construction staking. Most often provided before construction begins, this ser-vice may be requested at later stages if stakes are moved or destroyed during con-struction or to mark the locations of interior structural members.

As-built (post-construction, or record) measurements/surveys. This type ofsurvey may be needed for release of bonds or payments or to demonstrate thatutility lines were constructed according to the approved plan. A record drawingshowing the grades and locations of the utility lines may be required by the juris-dictional authority. Often, such drawings are created by adding as-built informationto the approved design plan sheets, rather than making a new drawing of the site.

Land title survey. A land title survey may also be required at the end of a pro-ject, to close the construction loan and secure permanent financing. A signed andsealed survey drawing certified to the appropriate parties should be provided.

The major Land Surveying Services activities undertaken to lead to the products and serviceslisted are project definition and planning, data gathering from existing sources, field sur-veys, recording and documentation of information and data, and construction staking.

Project Definition and Planning

As with any endeavor, proper and thorough planning makes a surveying project moresuccessful. Advance planning for a land survey depends primarily on two factors. Thefirst is the scope of the work required. Establishing a clear definition of a project beginswith outlining the initial parameters. What is the geographic extent of the project area?What is the ultimate purpose of the survey? Will the survey or any of the data gatheredbe used for other than the stated purposes? Are there any wild-card factors critical to thedesign of the project? The second factor is the document and records research neces-sary to conduct a proper survey.

Data Gathering from Existing Sources

If a survey involves the resolution of a boundary, the surveyor will need to conductextensive research into a variety of records, including deeds, subdivision plats, cornerreference ties, and older surveys (on record or known to have been performed by othersurveyors). Having well-documented historical information is critical for understandingthe anomalies that are often uncovered during a boundary survey. Boundary resolutionsachieved without this information often cannot stand the scrutiny of a court challengeor of other surveyors at a later date.

If a client or owner has a title commitment or policy for the property in question, itis very important to give the surveyor that information. It will assist in identifyingrecords important to the survey, such as easements and previous surveys.

Even when a survey is conducted only to delineate topography or utilities, consider-able research is necessary. The nearest benchmark on which to base the site survey eleva-tions needs to be identified. Is it across the street or two miles away? Is there a floodplainor floodway on or near the site? If so, the survey must be done on the same vertical


datum as the flood determinations, and copies of relevant FEMA flood insurance ratemaps will be needed. If utilities must be located, calls must be made to utility companiesand the state or local one-call service to obtain copies of any available plans, and so theselocations can be marked in the field. Thorough and complete research carried out beforethe actual survey work commences is critical to achieving a successful survey project.

Data Gathering in the Field

In conducting fieldwork for a boundary survey, surveyors use their professional judg-ment to identify appropriate reference monuments and tie them into the overall survey.All relevant field evidence necessary for proper resolution of the boundary is then identi-fied and located. Often, this can involve obtaining evidence and recovering controlpoints that are quite distant from the project site.

Reference monuments include points such as section and quarter-section corners,lot or block corners, street and highway right-of-way markers, and curb lines, pipes, ironpins, and other markers referred to in the records. In downtown areas, it will includebuildings. The location of boundary lines and corners may depend on any or all of theseelements, so a rigorous analysis of all evidence and application of common law princi-ples will be involved.

Relevant field evidence includes site elements on or near boundary lines, such asfences, buildings, and drives, together with survey markers found in the area, which mayor may not have been referenced in record documents. Such evidence is vital to devel-oping a boundary resolution that has integrity.

As site elements, improvements, and features are located by survey measurements,the location and descriptive information of each point are either recorded by hand intoa field book or electronically downloaded into a data collector. If GPS is used, the datais always collected electronically. This data is then downloaded over a hard or wirelessconnection or physically taken back to the office for data entry.

A utility survey normally includes location of infrastructure items such as powerpoles and water valves, but other data elements such as sewer pipe inverts, types, andsizes may also be an important design criterion. The time and cost involved in a utilitysurvey may increase considerably because of OSHA confined-space regulations if a sur-veyor must enter a manhole to get such information.

Documentation of Data and Information

Proper documentation of gathered survey information is critical. Field notes are consid-ered admissible in court as evidence of the work conducted in the field. Therefore, theymust be clear and exceptionally well documented. The use of and reliance on electronicmethods for collecting data changes the dynamic and methods involved, but not thisprinciple.

The decisions made by a surveyor in resolving a boundary also must be docu-mented, so they can be recalled and supported if challenged. The issuance of aboundary survey is the issuance of an opinion formulated by weighing all field andrecord evidence and applying to these the appropriate location theory and legal princi-ples. If challenged, the opinion is subject to review by a court. Consequently, it is impor-tant for surveyors to document how they arrived at their conclusions and why thedecisions affecting a boundary were made.

Construction Staking

Before construction begins, staking is typically undertaken to mark locations such as theclearing limits on a wooded site or the outlines for erosion control measures. Afteractual construction begins, staking activities may include, but are not necessarily limitedto, the following:

Rough staking (for mass earthwork) Staking out the building pad (does not include detailed layout of building corners)


Building control staking (may include staking column lines on a large building ormarking for the brick/block after a foundation is in place)

Marking the locations of lakes, swales, and mounds Marking the locations of water lines and structures, both storm and sanitary Marking the locations of curbs

The general contractor (or subcontractors) generally dictates what needs to bestaked for a project. These needs typically depend on the complexity of a project andthe expertise of the general contractors staff. Staking tasks may only require one visit(e.g., marking column lines for a new building), or they may require a series of visits toaddress items such as those just listed.

Almost every architectural design and construction project requires some level ofLand Surveying Services services. Complete and timely survey work prior to and duringconstruction provides a basis for site design, building placement, and accurate construc-tion layout. Land Surveying Services services are vital to the building design and con-struction process, and architects can capture the value of these services by ensuring theyare an integral part of project delivery.


Land Surveying Services was originally published in The Architects Handbook of Professional Practice, Update 2005, 2005 by the American Institute of Architects, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The AIA provides a contract document designed especially for land survey services, G601-1994.

Another option is to specify the services in AIA Document B102-2007, which is designed for alternative services.

G6011994, Request for ProposalLand Survey AIA Document G6011994 allows owners to request proposals from a number of surveyors based on information deemed necessary by the owner and architect. G6011994 allows owners to create a request for proposal through checking appropriate boxes and filling in project specifics, thus avoiding the costs associated with requesting unnecessary information. G6011994 may be executed to form the agreement between the owner and the land surveyor once an understanding is reached.

B1022007, Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Architect without a Predefined Scope of Architects Services.

AIA Document B1022007 is a standard form of agreement between owner and architect that contains terms and conditions and compensation details. B1022007 does not include a scope of architects services, which must be inserted in Article 1 or attached as an exhibit. Special terms and conditions that modify the agreement may be included in Article 8. The separation of the scope of services from the owner/architect agreement allows users the freedom to append alternative scopes of services. AIA Document B1022007 replaces and serves the same purpose as AIA Document B1411997 Part 1.

For more information about AIA Contract Documents, visit www.aia.org/contractdocs/about

May 2011 The American Institute of Architects


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