interventions for increasing the academic engagement of

Interventions for Increasingthe Academic Engagement of

Students With Autism SpectrumDisorders in Inclusive Classrooms

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Josepii. a student with autism in Ms.Mendez's inclusion kindergarten class,experienced difficulty attending duringgroup activities. He spent a significantamount of time looking at his handsand quoting parts of his favorite videos.Attempts to engage Joseph resulted invocal protests and, at times, mild aggres-sion. Ms. Mendez realized that she need-ed to address those behaviors but wasunsure of how to do so. She consultedwith an Intervention Assistance Team(lAT) ivhose members had experiencedesigning appropriate interventions forthe problem behaviors of students withautism. They generated a number ofhands-on activities to help Joseph main-tain his visual engagement during thegroup learning activity. This articledescribes empirically supported, field-tested strategies that have resulted inincreased engagement and fewer prob-lem behaviors for Joseph and other stu-dents with autism spectrum disorders(ASD) who are being educated in inclu-sive classrooms.

Recent legislation supporting the right ofall students to access the general educa-tion curriculum and instructional envi-ronment, along with empirical supportattesting to the efficacy of inclusive edu-cation (see box, "What Does the Liter-ature Say?"], has redefined the roles ofspecial education teachers, general edu-cation teachers, paraprofessionals, andother service providers whose expertiseis required for teaching students withdisabilities in inclusive educational ven-ues. Many students with disabilities arenow included in general education class-es for a majority of the school day. Theirsuccess in that environment oftendepends on the collective expertise ofeducational professionals workingtogether to assist the student in attainingprosocial and proacademic goals. Thisstatement is certainly true for studentswith ASD, many of whom are nowinstructed exclusively in general educa-tion classes.The increased numbers of students withASD that educators encounter in main-

Gay Goodman

Cathy M. Williams

stream settings result not only fromlegal and empirical support for thisplacement option but also from increas-es in the incidence of this disorder. TheCenters for Disease Control and Preven-tion (2006) reported that the occurrenceof autism has increased from 2 to 6 chil-dren per 1000. Between 1994 and 2003,the number of students receiving spe-cial education services with an autismdiagnosis increased six-fold. Even thosefigures may be underestimated, becausenot all children with ASD receive specialeducation services under that label.

Students diagnosed with ASD oftenpresent unique and challenging behav-iors that impede their success in inclu-sive classrooms. For example, they maydemonstrate perseverative and self-stimulatory behaviors, impairments insocial interactions and relationships,and impaired communication and lan-guage skills. As a result, they often dis-play a limited range of interests, lackpeer relationships, and resist participa-tion in games and activities (AmericanPsychiatric Association [APA], 2000), allof which are contrary to common char-acteristics for same-grade peers in gener-al education settings. Those deficits canjeopardize student learning, not onlybecause they interfere with relationshipsbut also because they interfere with thelearning environment for students withASD as well as for others. In addition.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • JULY/AUG 2007 • 53

What Does the Literature Say About Including StudentsWith ASD?Despite ongoing debate, the inclusion of students with ASD in general educationclasses continues to be a recommended practice. It is, first of all, considered a civilright that has been supported by legislation since Public Law 94-142 was passedin 1975. This landmark legislation along with other legislation passed soon aftermade discrimination against persons on the basis of the presence of a disabilityillegal. Additionally, persons with disabilities are guaranteed a free and appropri-ate education in the least restrictive environment. The 1990 amendment (IDEA) tothis law increased the protection of student rights by adding that every childshould receive a free and appropriate education that is individualized to meet spe-cific needs (Schreibman, 2005). More recently, the 2004 amendments to IDEA con-tinue to support inclusion for students with disabilities in the least restrictive envi-ronment that is appropriate for the student.

Another reason inclusion receives continued support is that it has been foundto result in gains in social development (Schreibman, 2005). Learning to functionwith various types of people in more complex group settings offers important ben-efits for students with disabilities. When placed in restrictive settings, studentswith ASD tend to interact with instructors rather than develop peer relationships(Donnellan, Mesaros, & Anderson, 1984). Researchers have found that, whencompared with those enrolled in self-contained programs, students who partici-pated in inclusive programs improved as much or more in the area of social com-petence (Fisher & Meyer, 2002).

Finally, support for inclusion is based on reports of positive academic out-comes. Although results of studies have been mixed (Harrower & Dunlap, 2001),evidence has suggested that inclusion increases academic gains, particularly forthose who demonstrate greater intellectual abilities (Schreibman, 2005).

the behavior exhibited by students withASD may be interpreted as noncompli-ant or even defiant (Marks et al., 2003).

Because of the deficits that are char-acteristic of students with ASD, generaleducation teachers, as well as specialeducation teachers, who are preparingthese students for inclusion must bewell equipped with the most effectiveinstructional strategies available, asbased on documented evidence (Harr-ower & Dunlap, 2001). If not, deficitbehaviors are likely to interfere with thesuccessful inclusion of students withASD in general education classrooms.

The professional literature does pro-vide teachers with information based onresearch findings. Rogers (2000), how-ever, noted that strategies researched inwell-controlled laboratory settings maybe difficult for classroom teachers toimplement. Some authors, therefore,have suggested that educators be pro-vided more detailed information regard-ing effective interventions for studentswith ASD that are not only evidence-based but also field-tested—ones that

are, therefore, effective and practical foruse in applied settings (Marks et al.,2003).

This article provides empirically sup-ported, evidence-based interventionstrategies that have also been field-test-ed and found effective for improvingacademic and social skills in early child-hood and early elementary age studentswith ASD who are being educated ininclusive settings. Reviewing the profes-sional literature and constructing arepertoire of strategies that are eitherbased on, or adapted from, empiricalstudies that substantiate their effective-ness in remedying social and academicskills deficits of students with ASD ini-tially derived these interventions. Eachstrategy in the repertoire was catego-rized for its effectiveness in increasingauditory, visual, social, or physicalengagement, the four main areas inwhich many of the behavioral charac-teristics and skills deficits associatedwith ASD can be classified (APA, 2000).Then, when a student with ASD exhib-ited difficulty engaging in inclusive

instructional activities, the IAT, co-teacher, or general education teacherresponsible for the student's educationreferred to the repertoire of strategiesand designed an intervention that wasindividually tailored to the student'sskills deficits and the demands of thetask at hand. Finally, the interventionsfield-tested and found effective in theseapplied, elementary and early child-hood settings were selected as the basisfor current recommendations.

Strategies researched in well-

controlled laboratory settings may

be difficult for classroom

teachers to implement.

An important point to note is thateach of the recommended interventionscan be modified and tailored to a stu-dent's unique engagement difficultiesand linked with baseline assessmentdata. They are, therefore, compatiblewith Curriculum-Based Measurement(CBM; Shapiro, 2004) and other evi-dence-based assessment methods suit-able for documenting a student'sresponse to intervention (RTI). Finally,each strategy has the potential of beingadapted to a single-subject researchdesign based on Differential Reinforce-ment of an Incompatible (DRI) behavioras the treatment variable (Alberto &TYoutman, 2003, chap. 8). Strategies,therefore, have the advantage of reduc-ing inappropriate behavior by increas-ing the engagement of the student inproacademic and prosocial behavior.This feature is important to the successof these strategies, because inappropri-ate behaviors have been shown todecrease when on-task behaviorsincrease (Watanabe & Sturmey, 2003).

Auditory EngagementStudents demonstrate auditory engage-ment by following verbal instructionsand responding to questions from bothteachers and peers regarding the task athand. However, communication impair-ments characteristic of individuals withautism include difficulty comprehend-

54 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

ing language (APA, 2000). Many stu-dents with ASD are unable to efficientlyprocess auditory input and may missverbal cues or withdraw during verbalinstruction. Teachers of students withASD often observe that they have diffi-culty listening to and following direc-tions, especially during large-group,inclusive activities. In that situation,auditory focus cues, such as ringing abell or rhythmic clapping, that cue thewhole group to become silent can begiven to gain students' attention beforeinstruction is delivered. Additionally,music has been found to help individu-als with autism attain both behavioraland communication objectives (Kaplan& Steele, 2005). Therefore, during morechallenging instructional events, suchas transitions and extended listeningactivities, some children with ASD aremore engaged if language is presentedin song (Grandin, 2002).

Using Songs to FacilitateTransitions

When teachers transition from oneactivity to another, the likelihood ofmisbehavior increases (Kounin, 1977).Such transition times can be especiallydifficult for students with autism, asthey require shifts in attention andbehavior. A song indicating that it istime for a change in activity may helpgain students' attention by cueing therequired behaviors. By selecting songsfor common transitions, students learnwhat transition is occurring, where theyare to go, and what they are to do. Thesong must consistently be associatedwith the same transition for the strategyto be effective during the acquisitionphase of learning to comply with transi-tion requests. Teachers can measure theeffectiveness of this strategy by docu-menting the level of prompting neededor the length of time required by the stu-dents to complete the transition.

Example. Judy, a 7-year-old first-grade student with autism, was easilydistracted when the class was directed toput away materials. Although she initiat-ed clean up, she soon began to perse-verate on the items. Her behavior wasnoticed and reported by disapprovingclassmates, but when the teacherattempted to verbally redirect her behav-

Social Engagement—Preferred Activity

ior, Judy resisted and sometimes becamedisruptive. The teacher solved the prob-lem by teaching the class the familiarchildren's song, "Clean Up, Clean Up,Everybody, Everywhere." Initially, aclassroom aide provided physicalprompts requiring Judy to put away toysto the rhythm of the song. As theprompts were faded, the song was a suf-ficient reminder of what she should bedoing, and she was able to stay on task.

Using Songs During ListeningActivities

To be successfully included in generaleducation classes, students with ASDmust be able to participate in groupactivities, such as circle time and storytime. These activities require higherlevel listening skills that are difficult forsome students with ASD and may resultin inattention and self-stimulatorybehavior. To maintain engagementthroughout such activities, one helpfultactic is to intersperse brief songs with-in verbal instruction, especially whenthe student with ASD seems to be "drift-ing" off task.

Example. Jose, a 5-year-old kinder-garten student, was more interested inquoting his favorite movies than attend-ing to circle activities. Knowing that heenjoys music, his teacher began singingthe days of the week before the opening

activities and discussion of the calendar.She continued this approach throughoutcircle time, using songs to introduce thenext topic. She monitored Jose's atten-tion level by noting the frequency andduration of eye contact and his ability torespond appropriately to topic-relatedquestions, then inserted songs as need-ed to maintain the group's focus.

Visuai EngagementTypically, students demonstrate visualengagement by looking at instructors orsocial partners, as well as the materialsbeing presented and discussed.Students with autism, however, maybecome fixated on the movement ofobjects in the classroom and may alsoattend to other inappropriate visualstimuli (APA, 2000). This tendency isproblematic because visual engagementis a necessary requisite for increasingsocial and academic independence,maintaining focus on salient informa-tion required for academic skill mastery,and observing age-appropriate socialskilLs. Visual engagement is especiallydifficult in larger inclusive classroomsowing to the complexity of the environ-ment. The inability of students withASD to stay appropriately engaged ofteninterferes with their acquisition ofessential social skills and academicbehaviors. The use of visual aids has


Visual Engagement—Calendar Book

been recommended to elicit a higherlevel of appropriate social and academ-ic behavior on a variety of tasks in bothexperimental and natural learning envi-ronments (Quill, 1995), and they areequally adaptable and effective for usein applied educational settings.

Increasing Independence

The inability of students with autism tofunction independendy is often evidentin their lack of age-appropriate, goal-directed behavior. They also exhibit littlevariety and creativity in the high-fre-quency, free-time activities they choose(Schreibman, 2005). As a result, to par-ticipate in routine classroom activitiesthey require excessive prompting, whichcan be difficult for teachers to provide ininclusive classrooms. The use of visualschedules and a variety of modelingtechniques can be used to increase theirindependence and reduce the need forcontinuous teacher intervention.

Using Visual Schedules

Visual schedules are particularly helpfulto students with autism because theyclearly indicate what has been complet-ed and what must be done next (Markset al., 2003). These aids have been

found to be effective inreducing the latency timebetween activities and inincreasing students' abilityto transition independently(Dettmer, Simpson, Myles,& Ganz, 2000). This strate-gy is easily implemented ininclusive settings, becausemost classroom activitiesare composed of compo-nent parts that can be rep-resented visually insequence to create sched-ules made up of photo-graphs, drawings, or words(Treatment and Educationof Autistic and RelatedCommunication-handi-capped Children, 2004).

Example. A problem tol-erating the schedule exist-ed for 6-year-old Stevenwho enjoyed circle timebut preferred the followingactivity. He continuously

interrupted the class by asking whatwas next and when circle time would befinished. The teacher tried rewardinghim for speaking when given permis-sion, but this strategy failed to decreasehis interruptions. Recognizing hisdependence on the teacher for scheduleinformation, the IAT recommended avisual schedule of circle-time activitiesfor the class. Each activity (greetings,calendar, weather, book, and song) wasrepresented by a drawing, which, whencompleted, was removed from theschedule, revealing what would occurnext. As Steven learned to monitor theschedule, he could see progress towarda preferred activity and was able toattend without interrupting.

Visual schedules are particularlyhelpful to students with autism.

Visual schedules can also be imple-mented during less structured activities,such as "centers." In that environment,words, symbolic picture icons, or digitalphotographs can be used to represent

individual activities (puzzle, book,paint) or activity areas in the room(math center, library, art). A visualschedule can be created that helps stu-dents direct their own behaviorthroughout the work period. The effec-tiveness of this type of strategy is evi-dent when the student independentlydirects his or her attention to the pre-scribed activities and as the frequencyof prompting required by the student tostay on task decreases. Such schedulescan be used to direct the group or todirect individual students who may beworking independently on differentactivities at the same time. Ultimately,this strategy results in less reliance onteacher and paraprofessional assistance,an outcome that is particularly impor-tant in inclusive settings.

Example. Jose attended a generaleducation kindergarten class during freecenters, which included mathematics,reading, writing, art, and "dres.s-up." Histeacher chose the centers in which hewas to participate and arranged digitalpictures sequentially to create a sched-ule. She then placed it in a location thatJose could easily access and taught himto look at the first item on the scheduleand then proceed to the correct location.On completion of the first activity, Josewas taught through the use of fadedprompts to remove the picture repre-senting the completed activity and pro-ceed to the next. This interventionresulted in his acquiring the ability totransition independently. To reinforcethe use of the schedule, when he hadcompleted it, Jose was given tree timeduring which he chose and engaged in ahighly preferred activity.

incorporating Models for Play

Children with autism tend to play withtoys inappropriately or self-stimulateusing parts of the toys (Schreibman,2005). This atypical behavior interfereswith their inclusion in general educa-tion classrooms because it sets themapart from their general educationpeers. Providing models that elicitappropriate play is, therefore, helpful.By being shown photographs of pre-made structures of such items as inter-locking cubes, blocks, and train tracks,students who have difficulty developing


and executing original ideas are provid-ed with a model to copy. As a result,students use the materials as intendedand engage in fewer stereotypical activ-ities, as can be documented by record-ing the duration of time spent engagedin appropriate play.

Example. Isaac enjoyed buildingblock structures; however, he tended tobuild the same structure several timesand then lose interest in the activity.After analyzing this behavior, his spe-cial education co-teacher intervened byplacing 10 digital photographs of pre-made block structures in the tub ofblocks. Isaac was then referred to thephotos and instructed to copy the struc-tures, thus maintaining his focus in theinclusive activity for longer periods oftime. As a result, he was able to engagein age-appropriate behavior and inde-pendently meet a general educationacademic expectation. As his skill inblock building increased, the co-teacherprovided increasingly complex modelsfor Isaac.

Maintaining Academic GroupFacus

Many activities in general education,early childhood classrooms involve stu-dents' sitting as a group while attendingto teachers and materials positioned infront of the class. Even though this skillis a necessary requisite for successfulinclusion, it can be challenging for stu-dents with ASD, many of whom havedifficulty recognizing relevant informa-tion in visually complex environments.Marks et al. (2003) recommended using"hands-on" support materials thathelped students with Asperger's syn-drome follow along with the informa-tion presented during instruction in gen-eral education settings. This suggestionwas field-tested and found effective forstudents with ASD in an early child-hood classroom. The students increasedtask completion within the requiredtimeframe and decreased the need forredirection to task.

Following Information Presentedon Boards

Teachers' use of bulletin boards andchalkboards to display information is

Physical Luiciidiii Heiper

common practice. Such visual aids areoften arranged to reflect topics discussedduring circle time and other group activ-ities. Some of the larger boards typicallydisplay such information as morningroutines and speUing word lists.Children with autism may have difficul-ty attending to this information, as it istypically placed at a distance and in avisual field surrounded by other com-plex stimuli. Providing small individualreplicas of the information presented onthe boards for the student to hold orplace on his or her desk is helpful forincreasing engagement and maintainingthe student's group focus.

Example. Even though given prefer-ential seating, Nathan had difficulty fol-lowing along with the bulletin boardmaterials used during circle time. Histeacher, therefore, created a "hands-on"model of the bulletin board by creatingminiature symbolic icons and arrangingthem on a laminated file folder. Shethen gave this folder to Nathan so thathe could hold and refer to it throughoutthe activity. When she realized thatanother student was having similar dif-ficulties, she created a book with eachpage representing a circle-time activity.The students initially required physicalprompts to follow along, but as theydemonstrated increasing independence,the paraprofessionals were able to

reduce, and eventually eliminate, thisassistance.

Following Stories Read Aloud

Story time led by both teachers andpeers is often part of the daily schedulefor young students in general educationclassrooms. This activity builds impor-tant hstening and language skills neces-sary for elementary school success.Students with ASD may have difficultyattending to the story, as they are,again, required to focus on instructionand materials from a distance. On thebasis of success in their practice, Markset al. (2003) recommended remedyingthis situation by providing studentswith their own copy of the materials,thereby enabling them to turn the pagesand read along with the teacher.

Example. Miss Cowley, however,found that this recommendation wasnot always practical in inclusive set-tings, for example, when two copies ofreading materials are not always avail-able. So she adapted this idea for usewith Marcus, a student in her class whoengaged in self-stimulatory behaviorduring story time. To increase hisengagement, she devised simple,teacher-made books that reflected thestory's main concepts and that provedto be equally effective in maintaininghis group focus. The success of this

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • JULY/AUC 2007 • 57

Social Engagement—Preferred Activity

intervention was evident in hisincreased ability to respond to questionsrelated to the material.

Identifying Salient Information

Children with autism tend to persever-ate, having difficulty disengaging theirattention and shifting from one visualstimulus to another (Landry & Bryson,2004). In addition, they may be unableto filter excessive information and focuson main concepts and ideas. Becausegeneral education classrooms tend to bemore visually complex than those thatare more restrictive, this impairmentmay significantly interfere with stu-dents' ability to participate successfullyin inclusive activities. Therefore, a rec-ommended tactic for teachers is to high-light salient information for studentswith autism (Marks et al., 2003). Thisapproach can be employed during groupinstruction by using materials that canbe removed and presented within closevisual proximity to the student.

Example. Although Ms. Mendezpointed to the bulletin board to indicatewhat was being discussed, Joseph stillhad difficulty focusing on the relevantinformation. After consulting with theIAT, she modified the calendar bulletin

board so that the days of theweek and months of theyear were printed on cardsand attached with Velcro.Then, when discussing eachtopic, for example, "today,""tomorrow," and "yester-day," she removed that cardfrom the board and present-ed it to him. Ms. Mendezrepeated this procedureeach time the topic changedand found that Josephrequired fewer redirectionsand responded to questionsand instructions moreappropriately.

Social EngagementSocial engagement can bedescribed as active partici-pation in classroom activi-ties. Students evidence thisskill by responding tosocial initiations and ques-tions from others, express-

ing individual wants and needs, andinteracting with peers. The social skillsdeficits characteristic of students withASD include impairments in these skillareas and often result in the delayeddevelopment of interpersonal relation-ships (APA, 2000). Instead of engagingwith others, these students are oftencontent to spend excessive amounts oftime engaged in self-stimulatorybehaviors while avoiding other, moresocial activities (Schreibman, 2005).Because successful inclusion requiresthe abihty to sociahze and participatein a variety of interactive tasks, thesedeficits must be addressed. Requiringresponses to questions, encouragingthe student to make choices, andfacilitating interaction with peers areseveral ways to enhance social engage-ment and can be embellished by addi-tional teacher structure and clarity.

Requiring Responses

Teachers can encourage social engage-ment by simply asking questionsthroughout instructional activities andfacilitating responses through the use ofprompts and social reinforcement. Asstudents with ASD begin responding tosocial interactions initiated by others.

the probability that communication andjoint attention will occur increases. As aresult, these students become moreaware of others and learn that they areexpected to respond (Whalen &Schreibman, 2003). As this processoccurs, the teacher can begin decreasingprompts and thinning the schedule ofreinforcement required during theacquisition of those skills.

Example. During story time, oneteacher found that students with autismwere helped to be engaged with a taskby frequently being asked simple ques-tions about the information presented,such as, "What color is the bear?" or"How many monkeys are on the bed?"She also found that their attentionincreased when she checked for under-standing by asking questions thatrequired the students to immediatelyrepeat a piece of information. For exam-ple, during calendar, she engaged a stu-dent by saying, "Today is Monday.Holly, what day is today?" Having theclass respond in unison and usingchoral readings are effective variationsof this technique that enhance theengagement of all students.

Encouraging Choice Making

Reinhartsen, Garfinkle, and Wolery(2002) found that children's engage-ment in free play increased when theychose their toys. Favorable results werealso found when students were givenchoices during teacher-assigned tasks;disruptive behaviors were reported todecrease while engagement increased(Moes, 1998). Those strategies havealso been adapted to increase socialengagement of students with ASD dur-ing instruction in inclusive settings, andhave been found to be beneficial.During more structured work periods inwhich educational objectives wereclearly specified, engagement wasincreased by allowing students tochoose their own materials (i.e., crayonor marker; paper or white board). Whenparticipating in less structured activi-ties, such as free centers, students wereallowed to select the actual tasks thatconstituted their visual schedules. Tomonitor progress, students' engagementcan be measured according to the dura-tion or frequency of appropriate use of


materials and the frequency of compet-ing behaviors.

Example. Billy, a 5-year-old withautism, had no difficulty during freecenters but resisted more structuredacademic tasks. He was particularlyresistant during mathematics, so histeacher encouraged choices within themath activities by allowing him to selectboth work materials, such as manipula-tive teddy bears or dinosaurs, for acounting activity and the sequence ofassignments. When he was given somecontrol in making choices, his attentionto academic tasks increased and hisresistance decreased.

Facilitating Peer Interaction

Facilitating interactions with typicallydeveloping peers also enhances socialengagement. Reinhartsen et al. (2002)found that this outcome is more effec-tively accomplished when children areactively engaged in choosing the task;therefore, teachers may find studentswith autism are benefited by choosingactivities and then having peers join in.Most likely, a preferred and familiaractivity will be chosen, allowing the stu-dents to invest more attention in theinteraction.

Example. Ms. Mendez found that herstudents with autism excel in complet-ing puzzles, and they seem to enjoysequencing tasks. She facilitated inter-action among these students and theirgeneral education peers by having themcomplete an alphabet floor puzzletogether. Prompting the students withautism to request the next letter insequence or respond to peers' ques-tions, such as "What's next?" enhancedtheir communication with peers, asdemonstrated by the number ofresponses given and the duration ofshared attention to the task.

Physical Engagement

Students demonstrate physical engage-ment in classroom activities by main-taining appropriate body posture andcorrectly using materials related to thetask at hand. However, children withautism commonly engage in repetitivemotor movements with their hands ortheir whole bodies (APA, 2000). Duringtasks that require sitting and listening.

Social Engagement—Imitation

which are common in general educationclassrooms, these stereotypical behav-iors are more likely to occur and resultin decreased attention to task. Studentswith ASD can be physically engaged byproviding an appropriate object to hold,incorporating opportunities to move,and including observation and imitationactivities.

Providing Objects to Hold

One suggested practice that reducesstereotypical behaviors and engages stu-dents with ASD is the provision of anappropriate object to hold (Dahle,2003). Giving the student a small item,such as a squishy ball, to hold and rein-forcing the alternative behavior at vary-ing intervals can be helpful in decreas-ing inappropriate hand movements.This approach, however, can be dis-tracting to some students, so the use ofmanipulative materials that reflect thetask at hand may be more beneficial.

Example. Daniel's struggle with cir-cle time included difficulty controllingself-stimulatory hand movements. Toremedy this problem. Miss Cowley cre-ated a handheld replica of the calendarbulletin board using Velcro to attach thedays, months, and weather conditions.When talking about today, she prompt-ed Daniel to move the correct icon tothe "today" space in his book as she

moved the card on the bulletin board.To assess the effectiveness of this inter-vention, a classroom aide took a week-ly tally of the number of times self-stim-ulatory behaviors occurred during circletime, and found that as Daniel's inde-pendence in using these materialsincreased, the frequency of his self-stim-ulatory behaviors decreased.

Incorporating Opportunitiesfor Movement

Throughout activities that require exten-sive sitting and listening, students withautism are helped by being given oppor-tunities to move about. As a result, thestudents become actively engaged in thegroup activity and are less likely to with-draw. One way to accomplish this end isby having them assist in completing sim-ple tasks that permit them to leave theirseats and act as "teacher's helpers."

Example. Ms. Mendez noticed thatAlan had difficulty sitting still andattending to instructional activities. Toaddress this issue, she incorporatedways to allow him to physically assisther. For example, when reading a storyto the class, Ms. Mendez allowed Alanto turn pages when instructed. Duringcalendar activities, she had him point tothe days of the week as the class sang.When it was another student's turn toact as calendar helper, she encouraged

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • JULY/AUC 2007 • 59

Calendar Book Pages

Alan's involvement by asking him to"Please give the pointer to Matthew."By affording him brief opportunities tomove about and assist in group activi-ties, Ms. Mendez found that Alan wasless withdrawn and more attentive.

Inciuding imitation Activities

Finally, the ability to imitate is a coredeficit for children with autism and isimportant to address, because it is relat-ed to play, communication, and othersocial behaviors (Schreibman, 2005).Increasing engagement can be furtheraccomplished by including activitiesthat focus on the development of thisskill, because naturalistic imitationtraining had been shown to result ingains in object imitation, spontaneouslanguage, and joint attention (IngersoU& Schreibman, 2006). Incorporating imi-tation in classroom activities increasesstudent engagement and is evidenced asthe observation of, and response to, oth-ers' actions.

Example. Some teachers incorporatebooks that encourage movement duringstory time, for example. From Head toToe by Eric Carle (1997). Others haveused music to engage students, forinstance, by encouraging imitativeactions through dance. As studentsdevelop imitation skills during struc-tured activities, the teacher can then

shift the focus to encouraging the imita-tion of prosocial behaviors during otheractivities.

Final ThoughtsIn summary, the intervention strategiessuggested here are intended to be unob-trusive methods for increasing the prob-ability that students with ASD willmaintain academic engagement ininstructional activities. The normalizedbehaviors promoted by these strategiesare likely to determine whether theinclusion of these students in generaleducation classrooms is successful. Animportant point to note is that many ofthe interventions recommended are use-ful for increasing the engagement of allstudents, both those with ASD andother class members, because they areused during group activities in which allstudents participate. Other interventionsare individually prescribed but can beadapted for use with any student whohas an attention deficit, regardless ofwhether the student is identified withASD. Evidence has long shown(Kounin, 1966) that teachers who aremost effective in managing the behaviorof general education students are alsomore effective in managing the behaviorof students with behavioral issues. Mostof the strategies recommended here arethus designed for increasing teachereffectiveness in general as well as

increasing the engagement of individualstudents with ASD. To be successfulwith either group, however, severalpoints must be considered in the imple-mentation of these strategies.

First, engagement strategies mustexpressly be taught to these students.Such direct instruction is especiallyimportant for students with autismbecause they are not as likely as othersto vicariously acquire social and aca-demic skills. They also do not typicallyrespond to traditional verbal instructionand may require prompting (Harrower& Dunlap, 2001). Children with autismcommonly require full physical assis-tance when acquiring new social andacademic skills. Paraprofessionals orteacher aides are especially helpful dur-ing the acquisition phase of skill devel-opment, and their assistance can gradu-ally be faded as students become moreproficient.

Second, a great variation of skill lev-els exists among students with autism,and significant differences may be evi-dent in the amount of time required forparticular students to demonstrate inde-pendence in strategy use. Generally,interventions should be implementedand monitored for a 4- to 6-week period.If the student is demonstrating progress,the teaching phase of the interventionshould be continued until independentperformance on the part of the studentis exhibited and maintained through thenaturally occurring reinforcement in theclassroom environment. If the student is

Centers Schedule and Block Models


not progressing after this period, a dif-ferent strategy should be designed andimplemented.

Generalization strategies will be nec-essary for students with ASD who arebeing integrated into inclusive class-rooms. In this situation, an IAT, a spe-cial education consultant, or a specialeducation co-teacher may be required toanalyze the receiving environment toassure that the student has mastered theskills required for successful participa-tion and that the receiving general edu-cation teacher has the necessaryinstructional materials and teachingskills to implement the interventions.Such an individual can make certainthat previously acquired engagementstrategies are maintained in the inclu-sive environment.

Finally, the interventions suggestedhere should not be viewed as constitut-ing a finite list of recommendations forincreasing the engagement of the groupof diverse students labeled with ASD.Intervention strategies must be viewedas fluid and evolving rather than static.They are most effective when specialand general education teachers first col-laborate in a problem-solving analysisthat evaluates students' unique engage-ment deficits and then develop individu-ally designed interventions that arelinked with the unique requirements of aspecific class activity. As a result, theintervention strategies field-tested inthese inclusive settings are processesIhat provide general guidelines andstructure for prescribing others thatincrease the engagement of studentswith ASD. Furthermore, these strategies,although presented in isolation, areoften more effective when used in con-junction with one another. For example,during circle-time activities, the teacheris encouraged to increase auditoryengagement by singing about the days ofthe week, to increase visual and physicalengagement by providing a calendarbook with movable icons, and toincrease social engagement by askingquestions about the information present-ed. This comprehensive approach maybe challenging to implement, but it willresult in success for both the teacher andthe student with autism.

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behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Gay Goodman, Professor, Department ofEducational Psychology, University ofHouston, Texas. Cathy M. Williams (CEC TXFederation), Teacher, Autism Program. SpringBranch ISD and Doctoral Candidate, Edu-cational Psychology, University of Houston.

Address correspondence to Cay Goodman,Department of Educational Psychology,University of Houston, 4700 CalhounBoulevard, Houston, TX 77204 (e-mail:ggoodman® uh. edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 39,

No. 6, pp. 53-61.

Copyright 2007 CEC.


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