ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF GERANIUM

UNIVERSITY OF HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES

Geranium : Pelargonium graveolens, Family : Geraniaceae

Common Name : Rose-scented pelargonium

Geranium is one of the important aromatic plants, yielding an essential oil which is highly priced for its very profound and strong rose-like odour.

The plant is also known as rose geranium.

The chief constituents of the oil are (18%) geraniol and citronellol (25%).

Essential oil extracted through steam-distillation is used in fragrance, flavor and pharmaceutical industries

The pure geranium oil is almost a perfume by itself and blends well with all other perfumes.

As against the yearly consumption of about 150 t requirement of

geranium oil, India produces a meagre quantity of about 5 t per year.

Therefore, most of the 145 t requirement of geranium oil of the Indian

industry is being largely met through imports

The current international demand of about 600 tonnes geranium oil is

being largely met by China, Morocco, Egypt, Reunion Island and South

Africa (Qinghua 1993; Anon., 1996–1997).

India is a net importer of rose-scented geranium oil as demand far

exceeds its production, therefore excellent potential exists for extending it

cultivation.

INTRODUCTION

Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) is an erect, branched shrub, which can reach a height of up to 1.3m and a spread of 1m

The leaves are strongly rose scented

It is a native of dry rocky slops of Cape Province (South Africa) and grown chiefly in Reunion, Algeria, southern France, Spain, Morocco, Madagascar, Congo and Russia for the production of oil.

A number of species have been introduced into India and grown in gardens, some of which are found in the Nilgiri hills.

In India, it is cultivated mostly in south and grows well in temperate,

subtropical and tropical climates.

It is propagated by stem cuttings (Anon, 1991).

USES Geranium oil has historically been used in the treatment of dysentery,

haemorrhoids, inflammation, heavy menstrual flows and even cancer

Geranium oil is one of the top 20 essential oils in the world and used mainly in perfumery, cosmetic and food industry (Rashmi and Manjushri, 2010)

The French medicinal community currently treats diabetes, diarrhoea, gall bladder problems, gastric ulcers, jaundice, liver problems, sterility and urinary stones with this oil

Geranium oil provides relief within minutes whereas tropical capsaicin, the commonly prescribed conventional remedy for shingles pain, begins to alleviate pain in about two weeks (Greenway et al., 2003)

The aromatic oil is extensively used in various types of rose fragrances where petal and foliage effects are desired; in scenting of soaps due to its stability in slightly alkaline medium and in cosmetic products.

Leaves of geranium is also used in herbal teas and the oil is used as sachets in potpourris

Origin and Distribution

Geranium is a native of the Cape Province in South Africa.

Commercially cultivated in France, Belgium, Spain, Morocco, Madagascar, Egypt, Reunion Islands, Congo, china, India and the former USSR countries.

The world production of geranium oil is estimated at 250 -300 t, whereas the demand is more than 600 t annually.

The first planting of a high yielding Geranium introduced from Renuion island was grown at Yercaud by a French planter, in the early twentieth century.

From that time onwards it has been cultivated as a commercial crop, but only in high altitude areas with a milder climate.

Presently it is being commercially cultivated mainly in the Nilgiris and Kodaikanal Hills of Tamil Nadu and in and around Bangalore in Karnataka in an area of about 2000 ha

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophyta

Order: Geraniales

Family: Geraniaceae

CLASSIFICATION

Description of the plant

Geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant.

The stem is cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning brown with age.

The leaves are alternate, stipulate, simple with 5 primary lobes and secondary lobes and densely pubescent.

The leaves are highly aromatic in nature.

Geranium is a genus of 422 species 

Some of the commonly grown species include: P. cinereum P. clarkei (Clark's geranium) P. dalmaticum P. endressii (Endres's cranesbill) P . fremontii (Fremont's geranium) P . himalayense often sold under Geranium grandiflorum P . libericum (Caucasus geranium), P. macrorrhizum (bigroot cranesbill or bigroot geranium) P . maculatum (wild geranium) P . maderense (giant herb robert) P . magnificum (showy geranium)

SPECIES

P. platypetalum (broad- Petaled geranium)P.pratense (meadow cranesbill)P. psilostemon (Armenian cranesbill)P. renardii (Renard geranium)P. sanguineum (bloody cranesbill)P. subcaulescens (grey cranesbill)P. sylvaticum (wood cranesbill)

Genus Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) contains a large number of species with scented leaves of various odours, ranging from pleasantly fruity or floral to minty flovour

The numerous aromatic species,

P. citronellum : lemon scent (Demarne and Van der Walt, 1993);

P. tomentosum : peppermint odour (Demarne and Van der Walt, 1990)

P. graveolens and P. radens : mint-scented (Van der Walt and Demarne,

1988) P. fragrans : an unusual nutmeg smell (Rollet, 1998)

P. platypetalumP. maculatum P. sanguienum P. robertianum

P. dissectum P. peltatum

P. medense

P. hortorum P. graviolense

P. offenstein P. fromuva P. attarofroses

SOIL REQUIREMENTS

Grown on a wide variety of soils.

It prefers well-drained sandy to loam soils with a pH range of

5.8 to 8.5 and sunny, hot, frost-free conditions.

Ideal soil types should be rich in organic matter and have a clay content of not more than 40 %.

Pelargonium grow well in the sandy soils of the coastal belt.

It can tolerate high alkaline soils as well. Good drainage is required to prevent water logging and reduce the incidence of root diseases.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Temperature Prefers warm temperate to subtropical climates with a

long growing season without extreme weather conditions.

It grows well at a temperature range of 10 to 33 °C, and it

needs enough sunshine for the development of oil in the plant.

The plant is sensitive to cold weather and cannot

withstand frost. Optimum temp 20 to 25 °C.

Rainfall

The favourable rainfall should range from 700 to 1500 mm per year, uniformly distributed throughout the season.

In areas where rainfall is less, it can be grown with supplementary irrigation.

ESSENTIAL PART

Leaves and stalks are the essential parts of this plant.

The essential oil is extracted from fresh plant material mainly using steam distillation.

2. Reunion or Bourbon

Grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais, the plant is sturdier with light pink flowers and more suitable for wet conditions.

The oil content is higher during the summer months from April to June.

The terminal portion with 6 to 12 leaves contains more oil than the middle and basal portions.

Types

1. Algerian or Tunisian

This type of geranium is slender with flowers of a dark pink colour. It is being grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. This variety yields 50-60% more oil than that of the Reunion type.

In the evaluation trial of the Algerian and Reunion types PG-7 and PG-20 respectively at the Horticulture Research Station, Kodaikanal

The clone PG-7 recorded 0.3% essential oil and 2.32 ml of oil per plant.

And it has been released under the name KKL-1.

The IIHR, Bangalore has found Sel-8, a Reunion type as the highest yielder under Bangalore conditions and recommanded for cultivation.

Hemanti, Bipuli and Kunti are the other varieties released by the CIMAP, Lucknow, for cultivation in the plains of North India.

Kelkar, Ooty, IIHR Sel-8 and CIM Pawan are the other varieties available in this crop.

CIM PAWAN High yielding genotype, more herb and good quality oil 20-25%.

For cultivation of North Indian plains, reunion types.

HEMANTHI :  This variety is released by CIMAP, Lucknow for cultivation in

the plains of North India. It is same as Algerian type rich in citronellol.

BIPULI : This variety is released by CIMAP, Lucknow. It is the same as Bourbon type equally rich in both geraniol and

citronellol.

Narmada The invention is related to the development of a novel

geranium plant `Narmada` derived as a somaclonal variant "CIMAP/GER SA 44" from the Indian cultivar `Bourbon`.

The somaclone "CIMAP/GER SA 44" now named `Narmada` is propagated vegetatively through stem cuttings and is stable for commercial cultivation.

IIHR PG-8 Among 13 accessions evaluated this is selected as a superior

cultivar for herbage and oil yield. It yields 25-30 t herbage contains 0.25-0.30% oil leading to the

production of 65-90 kg oil/ha.

The chemical composition of the oil is Isomenthone---------13.54 % Linalool----------------2.86 % Citronellyl formate—13% Geraniol-----------------18% Guaiadiene--------------1.24 % Citronellol-------------52.63 %

Propagation:

Geranium is easily propagated by cuttings; since there is no seed setting in geranium, vegetative propagation is a must.

Terminal cuttings about 10-20 cm long and consisting of about 8 nodes are the best suited material for propagation, as they give 80% rooting even without any treatment.

However the middle portion and basal cuttings are reported to give poor rooting, which can be improved by treating them for 6 minutes with growth regulators like IBA or IAA at 200 ppm.

The transplanted cuttings have a characteristic initial slow growth and are susceptible to weed competition during this lag phase leading to yield losses (Rajeswara Rao and Bhattacharya, 1997)

Rao et al. (1988) found 60×45 cm spacing to be optimum for obtaining high yields of rose-scented geranium in Bangalore plains.

The cuttings are planted in raised beds 3m long and 1m wide.

The soil should be well mixed with powdered FYM.

The cuttings are planted closely at a spacing of 8-10 cm.

Before planting, the cut end of the cuttings is dipped in 0.1% Benlate solution.

Before root initiation, temporary shade is provided and the beds are watered regularly.

The nursery is sprayed with a 0.2% urea solution at biweekly intervals and the cuttings strike roots in 40 days.

After about 60 days, the cuttings are ready for transplanting.

They can also be rooted in polythene bags, which help to avoid damage to the root system while planting in the main field.

This practice ensures a high percentage of success in the field.

Recently its propagation through leaf petioles has also been reported to give a good rooting percentage (75%), which will help to multiply this plant in larger numbers than the traditional method of propagation using 20cm long cuttings.

The CIMAP, Lucknow, has developed a protocol for large scale production of geranium Calli-clones and plants have been obtained under field conditions with improved oil yield and quality.

IntercroppingTo enhance crop productivity, attempts were made to grow short duration legumes like

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)Blackgram (Vigna mungo) (Prakasa Rao et al., 1984, 1986) Greengram (Vigna radiata)Clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) (Rajeswara Rao et al., 2000)Butterbeans (Phaseolus luteus L.) (Narayana et al., 1986) and Garlic (Allium satium L.) (Muni Ram and Kumar, 1998)

PLANTING Terminal stem cuttings of uniform size (9–10 cm) in length

having seven to eight nodes and three to four terminal leaves) of rose-scented geranium cv. Bourbon were grown in polythene bags (10 cm in diameter and 16 cm in length, filled with native red soil, kept under partial shade and regularly watered.

One cutting was planted in each bag for Rooting

Healthy, profusely rooted, 60 days old cuttings were transplanted in the field

The feasibility and profitability of intercropping short duration legumes and menthol mint was successfully demonstrated under the semiarid and subtropical climatic conditions of Hyderabad and Bangalore (Prakash Rao, et al., 1986 and Rao et al., 2000)

Planting and after care:

About 30,000 cuttings are required for planting an area of 1 ha.

Before planting, the land should be properly prepared by ploughing and brought to fine tilth.

Ridges and furrows are made, the application of fertilizer and irrigation should be done a day prior to planting.

The cuttings are carefully dug out from the nursery and planted at a spacing of 60 x 45 cm.

They must be irrigated immediately after planting.

Irrigation is continued on alternate days for about 10-15 days and then reduced to twice a week.

The schedule is modified during the winter and summer months at intervals of 7 to 10 days depending on the situation.

Though geranium tolerates short periods of drought, but water logging of the crop must be completely avoided.

The crop growth is slow initially, so weeds should be removed periodically.

It has been experimentally observed at the CIMAP, Lucknow, that polyhouse cultivation reduces weed infestation, the number of irrigations and produced less weed biomass.

Manures and Fertilizers:

Prior to transplanting the cuttings, 10 t of good quality FYM, 35 kg N, 35 kg P2O5, and 35 kg K2O/ha are incorporated into the soil in the form of urea, super phosphate and murate of potash.

A second dose of nitrogen at 34kg/ha is applied about 2 months after the first application.

Further nitrogen is given in two equal split doses for each harvest – the first dose being just after the crop is harvested and second two months later.

Altogether, 210 kg/ha/yr of N is applied to the crop in six equal doses to cover three harvests. Application of 30 kg N/ha (15kg/ha as basal and 15 kg as a foliar spray with 1% urea solution, 45 and 90 days after basal application) is reported to increase herbage yield and oil yield by 447% and 140% respectively over the control.

In addition, the application of 20 kg/ha of zinc sulphate and 10 kg/ha of boron has been reported to increase the herbage yield.

Similarly, an application of copper (20kg/ha) and molybdenum (30Kg/ha/year) in four split doses after each harvest has been found to increase the yield by 37%

Rose-scented geranium were fertilized with 10t FYM, 150 kg N, 60 kg P2O5, 60 kg K2O and 25 kg ZnSO4 per hectare were applied prior to transplanting and thoroughly mixed with the soil. Nitrogen as urea was applied in four equal splits at one split per harvest. Urea was applied in 5–7 cm deep furrows, which were closed manually. (Rao, 2002)

Pest and Diseases

The incidence of pest and disease is not severe in the geranium crop.

However, it is found to be affected by wilt disease, caused by the Fusarium species and Botrydeplodia theobromoe, which are soil borne fungi.

Recently Alternaria alternata has been reported to cause leaf blight in the Terai region and the Kumaon Hills of Uttar Pradesh Sclerotium rolfsii causes, collar rot disease Rhizoctonia solani causes root rot Wilt in the Kodaikanal region of Tamil Nadu.

Control:Generally, the suggested control measures for these pathogens are only partially satisfactory, even if anthracnose and botrytis can be controlled by spraying specific fungicides. Despite the need for resistant varieties, a genetic improvement programme does not seem reasonable or economically viable regarding the economic importance of the crop in the individual oil-producing countries,

 Small, round spots in geranium infected with bacterial blight

Wilting and V-shaped necrosis on geranium Botrytis blight on geranium (concentric lines within brown, discolored tissue).

BACTERIAL BLIGHT

Harvesting:

Geranium is harvested 4 months after transplanting, when the leaves begin to turn light –green and exhibit a change from a lemon like odour to that of rose.

However this requires careful observation and experience.

The crop should be harvested using a sharp sickle and sent for distillation immediately.

The use of a sharp sickle is important as it minimizes the jerks, pulls and damage to the crop while harvesting.

After every harvest, hoeing, fertilizer application and irrigation are done according to the schedule.

The plants then put forth fresh shoots, grow faster, and reaches the next harvesting stage in 4 months. Thus a total of 3 harvests can be expected in a year.

Cultivation under poly house conditions is reported to reduce the harvest time by 21 days.

ESSENTIAL OIL The major constituents reported from essential oils of P. graveolens were: β-Citronellol; Citronellyl formate; Isomenthone; Eudesmol etc. Their essential oils possess a sweet rose-like odour with various

nuances, such as citrus and minty undertones. Often used as a substitute for the expensive rose essential oil, they are of high importance in perfumery and cosmetic formulations (Gilly, 1997).

The best quality geranium oil is used in high-grade perfumes, while the lower quality oil is used for perfuming in creams, soaps and toiletries

The main rose-scented geranium essential oil-producing countries are: Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, China and India

There are several cultivars of geranium that are commercially grown for the production of the essential oil.

The important cultivars of geranium are the Reunion Island type, the Egyptian or North African type, and the Chinese type

The oil of the Reunion Island type contains citronellol and geraniol (1:1) and citronellyl formate, guaia-6,9-diene and isomenthone in high amounts.

The Chinese type oil contains high amounts of citronellol and citronellyl formate and a low concentration of geraniol

The Egyptian type oil contains citronellol and geraniol (1:1) and citronellyl formate, isomenthone and eudesmol as major constituents

CONTD…. There are few research reports about the essential oil compositions of

three cultivars of geranium from India that are known by the names

Bipuli (intermediate to the Reunion Island and Egyptian types), Hemanti (similar to the Chinese type) and a third type, Kunti, whose

oil is rich in geraniol (40-50%) and poor in citronellol (1-10%) compared to Reunion Island type (Kaul et al. 1995; Mallavarapu et al., 1993)

According to one report by Jensen, an average annual worldwide demand for geranium oil of about 600 metric tons, it can be determined that 499 million of the 500 million geranium plants harvested yearly for oil production (Jensen, 2004)

The essential oil yield and quality of the variety Bipuli (Bourbon type) has been improved by somaclonal and mutation breeding approaches.

An improved product of these experiments is the cultivar “CIM Pawan”

VOLATILE OIL DISTILLATION

The above ground freshly harvested shoot biomass and aroma chemical rhodinol separated through fractional distillation of the volatile oil, are widely used in the fragrance industry, aromatherapy and sparingly used in the flavor industry (B.R.R. Rao, 2002).

Five hundred grams fresh sample of grounded, then immersed in water in a round bottom flask and hydro-distilled for 4h in a full glass Clevenger-type apparatus as recommended by British Pharmacopoeia giving yellowish oils.

The essential oil was dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate (Merck) until the last traces of water were removed and then stored in a dark glass bottle at 4 ºC prior to GC-MS analysis (Adams, 1991)

Oil composition is influenced by location, age of leaves, climatic changes, drying of herbage prior to distillation, cultivars and method of distillation, type of distillation, apparatus used, application of growth regulators, storage of oil, weeds, little leaf disease, partial shade of trees and the plant part distilled (Babu and Kaul, 2005)

DISTILLATION UNIT

The essential oil is distributed over the green parts of the plant, particularly in the leaves.

The terminal portion with 6-12 leaves contains more oil than the middle and basal portion.

Yield:

The quality and yield of oil will be better if the crop is harvested at the appropriate time of maturity.

For a higher yield a good plant population in the field is necessary.

A minimum of 25,000 plants should be maintained in a hectare in a year which in turn may yield 15 kg of oil on distillation.

The recovery of the oil ranges from 0.08 to 0.15 % depending upon the season of harvest and type of material.

Cultivation under poly house cover is reported to increase herb and oil yields up to 53% over the conventional planting of the geranium crop.

The extraction yields for the essential oils of three locations of were: 0.32% for sample G-1 collected from Solan (1467m), 0.27% for sample G-2 from Manali (2050m) and 0.21% for sample G-3 from Rahalla Fall (2501m).

The major constituents reported from essential oils of P. graveolens from all three locations were:

β-Citronellol; Citronellyl formate; Isomenthone; γ-Eudesmol etc.

RESULTS

By gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis the components of the essential oil were identified.

The essential oil analysis led to the identification of 36 constituents out of total 40 constituents

From the results, it is concluded that P. graveolens sample G-1 Solan (1467m) has more rosier as compared to G-2 Manali (2050m) and further G-3 Rahalla Fall (2501m) has more rosier and fruity notes than G-2 Manali 2050m)

Different row spacings (60×30, 75×30, 90×30 and 120×30 cm) and intercropping corn-mint cv. Shivalik on the biomass yield, essential oil yield and essential oil composition of rose-scented geranium cv. Bourbon.

The row spacing of 60×30 cm (60 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants) was superior to other and produced 57.4 t/ha (total of four harvests) biomass yield (132.4% higher than 120×30 cm) and 52.7 kg/ha total essential oil yield (98.9% greater than 120×30 cm).

RESULTS Intercropping of corn-mint did not affect biomass yield and essential

oil yield of rose-scented geranium and yielded 5.6 t/ha of biomass and 21.3 kg/ha of essential oil of corn-mint as bonus yields over and above that of rose-scented geranium

Biomass yield and essential oil yield of intercropped corn-mint suffered reductions of 53.4 and 59.1 %, respectively, compared with mono-cropped corn-mint

The chemical composition of essential oils of both the crops was not influenced either by row-spacings or by intercropping. The quality of essential oils of both the crops was good

Rose-scented geranium and corn-mint can be planted during the winter season in the semi-arid tropical climate of India and they need frequent, light irrigations for their optimum growth

The former is a deep rooted crop and the latter is a shallow rooted crop. Corn-mint takes 4 months and rose-scented geranium 5 months to come to maturity for their first harvest

Fertilization and Colors of Plastic Mulch Affect Biomass and Essential Oil of Sweet-Scented Geranium

Silva et al, 2014

Three colors of plastic mulch (black, white, and silver-colored) and a control without plastic mulch were assessed along with three fertilizers

20,000 L⋅ha−1 of cattle manure; 1,000 kg⋅ha−1 of NPK 3-12-6; 20,000 L⋅ha−1 of cattle manure + 1,000 kg⋅ha−1 of NPK 3-12-6) control without fertilizer

Results

The absence of a soil cover negatively influenced the agronomical variables, while coverage with plastic mulch was associated with increased biomass

When cattle manure + NPK 3-12-6 were used together, combined with white or black plastic mulch, the highest yields of essential oil were obtained

For the silver-colored plastic mulch, higher amounts of essential oil (6,9-guaiadien) were obtained with mineral fertilizer

Mulching is a common technology used in the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic species to increase the production of active ingredients

The analysis of the essential oil chemical composition was performed in a gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS)

YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF Pelargonium graveolens L. IN DIFFERENTS FORMS OF CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZATIONS

Rabelo et al., 2013, Brazil

Materials & Methods

The experimental design was randomized blocks factorial 2x2, with 6 repetitions and two cropping systems (greenhouse and field) at 2 fertilizations (mineral and organic).

The spacing used : 60X40cm.

Fertilization consisted by formulated fertilizers and animal waste.

RESULTS

The higher biomass and greater heights of plants were found in the greenhouse using organic fertilizer.

Regarding the production of essential oil content and yield did not differ among treatments.

The mono-terpene geraniol, citronellol, linalool and iso-menthone presented as a majority in all treatments, averaging 40-53%, 17-22%, 9-12%, 6-13%, respectively.

The environmental conditions of the greenhouse associated with organic fertilization showed higher biomass of geranium

The contents (%) were obtained by dividing the weight of essential oil obtained from leaves and the mass used for extraction

Yield (g/m2) was calculated by multiplying the essential oil

content with the biomass of plants (Blank et al., 2012, Singh et al., 2011)

Materials & Methods

Eight treatment combinations of two variables of organic mulch (paddy straw at 7t/ha and no mulch)

Four levels of nitrogen (0, 80, 160 and 240 kg/ha) were examined to observe the effect of organic mulching on N-use efficiency

And essential oil yield in a multi-harvested geranium crop

RESULTS Application of paddy straw mulch increased the herb and

essential oil yields by 23% and 27%, respectively, over the un-mulched.

A significant response to N was observed with 160 kg/ha in mulched plot over the same level of N in the un-mulched plot

Using paddy straw mulch, nitrogen uptake by plants was increased by 33%, over the un-mulched control

The quality of essential oil of geranium in terms of its major constituents, citronellol and geraniol, was not affected by the use of organic mulching and nitrogen fertilization

The use of an organic mulch with 160 kg N/ha proved better in terms of economising to produce an economic yield of 86.9 kg geranium oil from two harvests under subtropical conditions of the North Indian plains

At 160 kg N/ha, paddy straw mulch application permitted the geranium crop to produce 18.4 kg/ha more oil which gave an additional return of Rs. 53,600/ha than that of un-mulched control

Materials & Method

A large number of essential oil samples were collected during different seasonal months (once a month) and daily during the peak summer season months of May and June. They were analysed for terpenoid composition by GC and GC-MS.

RESULTS The crop yielded the lowest values for biomass yield,

essential oil yield and essential oil concentration in the summer months of April to June.

The percentages of geraniol and its esters were highest during cool winter season months of December and January followed by rainy and autumn season months.

Iso-menthone, 1-epi-gamma-eudesmol and other minor terpenoid compounds (present in ~1% amounts in the essential oil) did not exhibit any definite seasonal trends.

Favorable environmental conditions encouraged crop growth and produced highest biomass yields, essential oil yields and maximum concentration of essential oil in rose-scented geranium plants.

To optimize the geographical area and a season particularly for geraniol content in the plant leaves

Both the percentage yield of the oil and geraniol contents were determined for the samples obtained from different eco-geographical area and seasons

The variation in geraniol content was quantified using highly sensitive and efficient Gas chromatographic (GC) technique.

Four different geographical locations viz., Y.S. Parmar University, Nauni (H.P.), IHBT, Palampur (H.P.), Southern Nilgiris and Moga, in four different seasons (Autumn, Winter, Spring and Summer) from each geographical location.

RESULTS Maximum yield of oil and geraniol content (% v/v) was found

in plant collected from Solan and in winter season (29.87%) and minimum was found in plant collected from Moga (9.52 %) in summer season.

Generally winter season cause increase in concentration of geraniol as well in the percentage yield of oil while summer season is reported to cause reduction in the content

Maximum oil yield, plant material should be collected in the autumn but as the geraniol content is very important for the quality purposes of the oil, which may be maximum if the material is to be harvested in the winter season

RESULTS

Application of phosphorus at 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 proved significantly better than control (no P) in the production of geranium oil and garlic bulbs.

Uptake of Zn also increased significantly up to 40 kg P2O5 ha-1.

Higher rates of P decreased the Zn uptake by the plants.

Application of 30 kg Zn SO4 ha-1 showed a significant response on the herb and oil yields over the no zinc application

Application of 40 kg P2O5 and 30 kg Zn SO4 ha-1 is, recommended for achieving the maximum yield advantages in a geranium-garlic intercropping system

To standardize protocols for derivation of cuttings from rose-scented geranium plants and converting them into rooted propagules

Studies were taken up in India to standardize economic production of essential oil of geranium in the Indo-Gangetic plains and Himalayan hills of north India and Nilgiri and Palni hills and plains of south India cv ‘CIM Pawan’ which is a somaclone of the Bourbon type variety Bipuli.

‘CIM Pawan’ yields more herbage and essential oil than Bipuli.

RESULTS

The protocol could give more than 1,500 cuttings/plant in ∼16 weeks.

The cuttings planted in poly-bags or in field plots over soil + FYM/NPK developed into rooted propagules suitable for field cropping in 6 weeks

The propagules produced in poly-bags were suitable for planting both locally and for transporting to distant location

Production of Propagules on Split Shoots buried infield Soil Apical segments of shoots ∼25 cm long were split longitudinally and buried in the field soil ∼3 cm deep for up to 6 weeks in early winter in December.

The plot in which the split twigs had been buried was irrigated twice a week for first 3 weeks and after that fortnightly in the remaining period

Splits were excavated at the end, washed, and observed for the number of rooted nodes and propagules yield.

On an average only 5.6 ± 0.7 rooted cuttings were available from each split twig

PRODUCTION OF PROPAGULES ON NEAT LIVESTOCK DUNG Beds were prepared by laying a 7-cm-thick rectangular patch

of fresh livestock dung (1 × 0.5 m2) on black polythene. Each bed of 0.5 m2 was planted with 200 phytomers, each

phytomer composed of a piece of stem bearing a node carrying a leaf and its axial bud which were transferred to field later.

The phytomers had developed well-grown root systems after 1 month of transplanting. Each rooted phytomer (propagule) was given the shape of a pellet for further use. The success in propagule production from phytomers on livestock dung was > 95%.

PRODUCTION OF ROOTED PROPAGULES IN POLYBAGS AND FIELD NURSERY

The rooted cuttings saved from the previous crop over the monsoon season in the glass house were planted in the field in October.

The field had been applied vermi-compost at 5 tons ha−1. The field plot was divided into four parts and each part planted with 30

cuttings in six rows of five plants each. The plant-to-plant and row-to-row distance was kept at 50 cm. When geranium plants were 75 days old, was the starting time for

obtaining the cuttings from resource plants. cuttings were taken every fifth day

Taking of cuttings from the plants continued until the resource plants were of 120 days old.

The four treatments could be arranged in the following order in terms of the number of cuttings obtained: 20 days interval (82.3 per resource plant) < 15 days interval (98.8 cuttings per resource plant) < 10 days interval (114.2 per resource plant) < 5 days interval (145.6 per resource plant).

Obtaining of cuttings every fifth day from the resource plant after they had attained the age of 11 weeks resulted in the highest yield of propagules

Materials & Methods investigated under mist chamber during 2009-2011 to standardize concentration of IBA on rooting of geranium stem cutting

for commercial cultivation The terminal cuttings of 12-15 cm length with 3-5 leaves were taken

from one year old healthy plants in the month of September The cuttings were treated with 0, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA for one minute

to investigate its efficacy on rooting and shoot development in different rooting substrates viz., garden soil, sand, vermiculite, perlite and coco-peat

RESULTS

Maximum rooting (94.05%) was recorded in coco-peat followed by perlite (84.89 %) as compared to garden soil (58.96 %)

Length of root system and number of roots were found maximum in coco-peat (11.19 cm and 34.41), respectively

Root fresh and dry weight were found highest (4.00 g and 527.73 mg) in coco-peat and lowest in garden soil

Shoot length and number of leaves were recorded maximum in garden soil (23.05 cm and 13.03) followed by coco-peat (22.21 cm and 12.28), respectively and minimum in sand.

Among different substrates, coco-peat was found superior followed by perlite in rooting of cuttings, while poorest rooting was observed in garden soil.

Maximum rooting percentage and length of root system were recorded with IBA 1000 ppm (80.56 % and 8.28 cm)

Survival percentage was recorded highest with IBA 1000 ppm (72.09 %) as compared to control (65.26 %).

FUTURE THRUSTS The effect of soil, nutritional elements, photoperiod and

rainfall can be studied for future prospects

A constraint in the large-scale cultivation of short-duration geranium is the availability of planting material (propagules) in sufficient quantities

A 1-ha geranium field needs to be planted with 60,000 plantlets.

To meet the needs of plantlets for cultivating over large areas,

improved technology is needed for the economic production for rapid field planting materials (of propagules).

Thank you

all