FromViraltoVerbal:TheRoleofJournalismDuringaDiseaseOutbreak

Accra,16th – 18th August2017

Workshop:

FromViraltoVerbal:TheRoleofJournalismDuringaDiseaseOutbreak

Frames&News Values

TomRauschPhDCandidate,AppliedLinguisticsQueenMaryUniversityofLondont.rausch@qmul.ac.uk

Example:press-coverageofEVDintheUS

• U.S.CentreforDiseaseControl(2014):• Initialrecommendation:‘providedpublichealthauthoritiesandpartnerswithrecommendationsformonitoringpeoplepotentiallyexposedtoEbolaandforevaluatingtheirintendedtravel,includingtheapplicationofmovementrestrictionswhenindicated’;‘self-monitoringformostexposures,andcontrolledmovementforhigherriskexposures,withthegoalofapplyingtheleast-restrictivemeasuresnecessary’.(myemphasis)Ø Risk-basedrestrictions

• Selletal.2016:Ebola-relatedpoliciesaddressedbymediaandCDCintheUnitedStatesØFrequencyofmentionsofEbolapolicyresponsesinprint,televisionandinternetnewsstories:1monthbeforefirstcase– twoweeksafterfinalEboladeath

Mentionedpoliciesbythemedia:

Ø ‘Ifpublichealthpolicymakersdonotintroducescience-basedpoliciesinatimelymanner,thenother,lessdesirablepoliciesmaydominatethenewsmediadialogue’(Selletal.2016:119)

‘Everyday,journalistsmustmake[…]choicesaboutwhatreaderswantorneedtoknow.[…]Editorsneed[newsjudgement]todecidewhichfloodofpressreleasesandtipstheygeteverydayareworthpursuing,andwhichstoriesineachday’spaperdeservethemostprominence.’

(Lanson andStephens1994:10)

Whattocover?Howtocoverit?Whattoemphasize?Whototalkto?Whentoproceed/holdback?etc.

NewsValues

• Whatare‘newsvalues’?

• ‘thecriteriaemployedbyjournaliststomeasureandthereforetojudgethe‘newsworthiness’ofevents’andto‘select,orderanprioritisethecollectionandproductionofnews’(Richardson2007:91)

• ‘propertiesofeventsorstories,orascriteria/principlesthatareappliedbynewsworkersinordertoselecteventsorstoriesasnewsortochoosethestructureandorderofreporting’(BednarekandCaple2014)

• ‘(imagined)preferencesoftheexpectedaudience’(Richardson2007:94)• ‘functionasguidelinesfordecision-makingandareinvoked,unconsciouslyorexplicitly,ateverystepofthenewsprocess’(Cotter2010;67)

ØWhatisnews?Ø Newsvaluesafforddecision-makingparameters.

• Note:space,contentmix,deadlinesareofcoursefactorsthatinfluenceproductionaswell

NewsvaluesandtheirdefinitionsNewsValues Definition

Timeliness Relevanceofaneventorissueintermsoftime:recent,ongoing,abouttohappenorseasonal

Negativity Negativeaspectsofaneventorissue

AestheticAppeal Aestheticallypleasingaspectsofaneventorissue

Consonance Stereotypicalaspectsofaneventorissue;adherencetoexpectations

Personalisation Personalor‘human’faceofaneventorissue;adherencetoexpectations

Novelty Newand/orunexpectedaspectsofaneventorissue,includingeyewitnessreports

Impact Highsignificanceofaneventorissueintermsifitseffects/consequences

Eliteness Highstatusofindividuals,organisationsornationsinvolvedinaneventorissue

Superlativeness Largescopeorscaleofaneventorissue

Proximity Geographicalorculturalnearnessofaneventorissue

(CapleandBednarek2016;439)

Framing‘Toframeistoselectsomeaspectsofaperceivedrealityandmakethemmoresalientinacommunicatingtext,insuchawayastopromoteaparticularproblemdefinition,causal

interpretation,moralevaluation,and/ortreatmentrecommendation fortheitemdescribed.’(Entman1993:52,myemphasis)

• ‘[T]hesocialworldis…akaleidoscopeofpotentialrealities,anyofwhichcanbereadilyevokedbyalteringthewaysinwhichobservationsareframedandcategorized.’(Edelman1993;232)

• Selection:choosingtohighlightsomebitsofinformationofaneventoverothers

• Salience:increaseofsalienceleadstohigherprobabilitythatreceiverswillperceivetheinformation,discernmeaningandthusprocessit,andstoreinmemory

• Primeelementsaneventdifferently,establishingthesalienceoftheoneovertheother (Snidermanetal.1991)

SummarisingThoughts

v Newsvaluesasdecisionmakingparametersguidingjournalists’selectionofevents,storiesandelementsofthese

v Framescallattentiontosomeaspectsofrealitywhileobscuringotherelements,whichmightleadaudiencestohavedifferentreactions.(Entman1993:55)

v ‘Thenewsstorieswereadandheararetheend-productofaseriesofdecisions,practices,andvaluesthatarefundamentaltothenewscommunity’(Cotter2010;87)

ReferenceList• Cotter,C.(2010)NewsTalk:InvestigatingtheLanguageofJournalism.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.• Caple,H.andBednarekM.(2016)Rethinkingnewsvalues:Whatadiscursiveapproachcantellusabouttheconstructionofnews

discourseandnewsphotography.Journalism17(3):435-455.• Donsbach.W.(2004)Psychologyofnewsdecisions:Factorsbehindjournalists’professionalbehaviour.Journalism5(2):131–157.• Edelman,M.J.(1993)Contestablecategoriesandpublicopinion. PoliticalCommunication10(3):231-242.• Enman,R,M.(1993)Framing:TowardClarificationofaFracturedParadigm.JournalofCommunication 43(4):51-58.• Lanson,G.andStephensM.(1994)WritingandReportingtheNews(2nd ed.).FortWorth:HarcourtBrace).• Masterton,M.(2005)AsianJournalistseekvaluesworthpreserving.AsiaPacificMediaEducator16(6)41-48.Availableat:

http://ro.uow.edu.au/apme/vol1/iss16/6• Richardson,J.E.(2007)AnalysingNewspapers:AnApproachfromCriticalDiscourseAnalysis.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.• Sell,T.K.,Boddie,C.,McGintyE.E.,Pollack,K.,CleggSmith,K.,Burke,T.A.andRutkow L.(2016)NewsMediaCoverageofU.S

Ebolapolicies:Implicationsforcommunicationduringfutureinfectiousdiseasethreats.PreventiveMedicine93:115-120.• Sniderman,P.M.,Brody,R.A.andTetlock,P.E.(1991)ReasoningandChoice:Explorationsinpoliticalpsychology.Cambridge:

UniversityPress.• U.S.Centers forDiseaseControlandPrevention(2014)InterimU.S.GuidanceforMonitoringandMovementofPersonswith

PotentialEbolaVirusExposure.http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/exposure/monitoring-and-movement-of-persons-with-exposure.html.AccessedAugust7,2015.

Ebola:therolesofscientificandnonscientificinformation

BankoleFaladePhD3rd AfricanConferenceonEmergingInfectiousDiseases&Biosecurity16th to18th August,2017Accra,Ghana

Sciencecommunicationandbehaviouralchange

• Internationalscene

Themessage:Theoreticalperspectives

• Freire(1998)Extensionorcommunication

• Extensionassumesmessageisgoingintoablankcognition

• Communicationassumesnooneisignorantandwhatyoualreadyknow

willinfluencewhatisnew

• Habermas(1984;1987;Burkart,2007)Communicativeaction

• Conditionsformutualunderstanding

• intelligibility– unambiguous

• truth- bothpartiesaccepttheobjectexists

• trustworthiness– partiestrusteachother

• legitimacy- mutuallyacceptedvaluesandnorms

Themessage:Theoreticalperspectives

• Luhmann(1986)Theautopoiesisofsocialsystems

• Inadditionto“information”and“utterance”,communicationincludes

understandingbutdoesnotfunctiontoproduceaconsensus,instead,

resultsinanopensituationofacceptanceorrejection.

• Moscovici(1976;2008)LaPsychanalyse,sonimageetsonpublic

• Threecommunicationmodalities:Propaganda,PropagationorDiffusion

leadtoRejection,AccommodationorAcceptance

(thereceptionofpsychoanalysisinFranceinthe50’s)

2013 2014 2015 TotalWestAfrica

ThisDay(Nigeria) 804 112 916Vanguard(Nigeria) 699 102 801TheInquirer(Liberia) 559 221 780ConcordTimes(SierraLeone) 85 349 434TheAnalyst(Liberia) 237 3 240DailyObserver(TheGambia) 130 24 154FOROYAA(TheGambia) 44 22 66CameroonTribune(Cameroon) 34 15 49GhanaianChronicle(Ghana) 20 16 36

East/SouthernAfricaTheStar(Kenya) 191 51 242TheNewTimes(Rwanda) 3 121 32 156TheHerald(Zimbabwe) 101 32 133TheTimesofZambia(Zambia) 55 18 73NewEra(Namibia) 1 44 6 51TheNamibian(Namibia) 3 31 6 40TheIndependent(Uganda) 6 10 7 23ZimbabweIndependent 4 3 7

TOTAL 13 3169 1019 4201

TheEbolamessageinAfricannewspapers

• Newspapercoverageandreporteddeaths• Massmediaasmirrorofpublicanxietyoverdiseaseincidence

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Mar-14

Apr-1

4

May-14

Jun-14

Jul-1

4

Aug-14

Sep-14

Oct-14

Nov-14

Dec-14

Jan-15

Feb-15

Mar-15

Apr-1

5

May-15

%Reporteddeaths %Vanguard(Nigeria) %Inquirer(Liberia) %Star(Kenya)

TheEbolamessageinAfricannewspapers

Theory Keywords Meaning units Frames

Scientificinformation

Contracted,disease,infection,risk,transmit,vaccine,virus,viraldisease

Ebolasymptoms:Fever,vomiting,headache,musclepain,diarrhoea,nausea,bleeding,etc

ContainmentDiffusion

The‘uneducated’vsinadequategovernmentresponses

Obstacle

Dengue,Lassa,Malariasymptoms:Fever,vomiting,headache,musclepain,diarrhoea,nausea,bleeding.

Obstacle

TheEbolamessage:scientificinformation

Theory Keywords Meaning units Frames

TraditionsTraditions,mourning,mats,traditionalhealers,spiritualhealers

mourning,hugging,washingObstacleclaimstocure

suspensionofmourning,huggingetc. Containmentaccommodation

Religiousbeliefs

Christian,religionchurch,mosque,Muslim,prayers.Spirits

layingofhands,prayingforthesick Obstacle

ReligiousbeliefsandgatheringsProtectioninprayerbut avoid

Paradoxicalaccommodation

Suspensionofshakinghands,touching,careforsick

Containmentaccommodation

Rumours andconspiracytheories

Rumour,corruption

corruption,diversion,accountability.Obstacle

localremedy– salt,bitterkolaRumoursofspreadofdisease Accommodation

Stigma/revoltConspiracydepopulation,racism,racist,stigma,terrorist,newworldorder

ConspiracytheoriesofspreadeconomicsofanAfricandisease

Obstaclerejection

viralterrorismbioterrorism,depopulation,newworldorder

TheEbolamessage:nonscientificinformation

Td-idf:Statimportanceofsciandnonsciinformation

Graphsofmonthlychangesintd-idf fromJuly2014(19)toMay2015(29).

Toptobottom:

ThisDay newspaper,Nigeria;TheInquirer,Liberia;ConcordTimes SierraLeone*

*DatamissingforSeptembertoNovember2014.

• Ebolaasascientificphenomenon• TheEVDshutsdowntheimmunesystem,causinghighfever,headachemusclepain,weakness,headaches,muscleachesandchills.Lossofappetite,feeldiarrhoeaandnausea.

• SimilaritywithLassafever,DenguefeverandMalariafever

• Ebolaasspiritualdisease– paradoxicalaccommodation• pastorswerelayinghandsonthesicktocurethemof“spiritualattacks”• achurchleadertoldpastorsthatallthosewhofastedfor100daysshouldhavenofearofEbolabutshouldavoidlayinghandsthesick

• WemusthoweverkeepawayfromEbolabut“TheProphetsaid:(Thereisno"Adwa")i.e.transferofadiseasebyitself,butwiththepermissionofAllah...

Scientificandnonscientificinformation

• Ebolatheplagueofloveandtradition• Bassonians,Kru andGrebo peoplespendtimeonmatsmourningtheirdeadonesandwashthebodiesaspartoftraditionalrites

• Manytraditionalsecretsocietiesbelievethatfollowingacovenant,adeadmember’sghostwilltormentothersiftheyfailedtoobservethetraditionalritesofpassageofwashingthecorpse

• Batmeatisgoodmeatandsocialstatusenhancer

• Africanherbalcure• Promisesofacurewascommononradioadvertisements.• Preventiveremedies:AsoapfromLiberia;drinkingandbathinginsaltwater,sostrongitwasrelayedbytowncriersandinchurchesandmosques;eatingbittercola

Scientificandnonscientificinformation

• Rumoursandconspiracytheories• BitterKolaandNanoSilverarenotintheinterestofwesternpharmaceuticalswhoareunderminingtheuseoflocalcures

• FormerGambia’spresident,YahyaJammeh describedthetreatmentofwesternerswithnewdrugsandtheneglectofAfricansasracism...“ThesamethingwasalsodoneforHIV/AIDS...Thenwhocreatedthevirus”.

• Corruptionanopportunityforsleaze• “Wearesofraud- mindedinNigeriathatevenmisfortunesexciteus”.• Inadequatecontrolsoverthedisbursementoffunds;missinggenerators,inflatedpayroll,missingallocations.

• Acommunityoutreachworker:"Theysay…‘wecangiveyouacertificatefromtheMinistryofHealththatitwasn'tEbola.’Sometimesitis$40.Sometimesitis$50.Thentheyofferbagstothemand(thefamily)carryontheirownthing."

Scientificandnonscientificinformation

• Poverty:hungerversusdisease;foodbeforemedicine• Ebolaisreal,residentssaybutcriticizedgovernment’sactionswhichrestrictedpeople’smovementasacontainmentmeasure,butwhichalsoleftmanywithfewsurvivaloptions

• Stigma(Goffman,1963)Notesonthemanagementofspoiledidentity• Westpoint,Liberia,theETUwaslootedbyresidentsshouting“NoEbola”.Agovernmentofficialsaidthelootingwastorenderthefacilityunusableandstoptheinfluxofthesicktothearea.

• InGuinea,theRedCrossandDoctorsWithoutBordersofficialswereattackedbylocals.Eightawarenessofficialswerekilledinanotherincident.SimilarattackstookplaceinSierraLeone.

• AhomelessmansaidfriendsdrovehimawaywhenhewassickfearinghemighthavebeeninfectedwiththeEbolavirus.An80-year-oldmanwasdeniedaccesstohishomeevenafterbeingdischarged

Scientificandnonscientificinformation

Scientificandnonscientificinformation

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Total

Coverage 8 10 16 24 11 14 4 7 5 100

Pre-revolt Revolt Postrevolt

Religious/Un-Islamic 6 10 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

Westernconspiracy 0 5 12 24 9 0 0 7 0 9

EffectiveVaccine 78 67 47 69 87 40 11 33 27 57

Riskfromvaccine 6 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Logistics/funding 0 10 29 4 0 53 89 60 73 26

Others/corruption 11 10 3 2 4 7 0 0 0 4

Percentage 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Nothemes 4 5 6 5 3 3 2 3 2

OralPolioVaccineControversyinNigeria(Falade,2015)

Country Year Communicationthemes/suspected effects

Opposing groups Vaccine

United States 1721 to1722

Transmitssyphilis,blackplague,leprosy

Clergyandscientists Smallpox

England 1840 to1871

Markofthebeast,againstcivilliberties,transmitssyphilis

Workingclass,reformers,church,scientists,etc

Smallpox

United States 1890 to1922

Medicaltyranny,coercion,un-Godly

Scientists,anti-vaccinationLeague,ChristianScientists

Smallpox

Brazil 1904 Torturecode,vilesecretionsexpelledfromsickanimals

Middleclass,elite,church,press,congress,etc

Smallpox

United Kingdom 1974 Neurologicalcomplications Scientists,public DTPJapan 1975 Neurologicalcomplications (FalloutofUKepisode) DTPUnited Kingdom 1998 Autism Scientists,public MMR

ScientificandnonscientificinformationVaccinationcontroversiesinhistory(Falade,2014:2018!?

Country Year Communication themes/suspectedeffects

Opposing groups Vaccine

USA, Australia,

New Zealand1998+ Autism FalloutofUK

episode)MMR

Cameroon 1990 SterilisingvaccineCatholicpriestsandoppositionpoliticians

TetanusToxoid

Tanzania 1990 Sterilisingvaccine(anti-hCG) Scientists,Islamicpreacher

TetanusToxoid

Nigeria 2001 to2009

Westernconspiracy,contaminatedwithHIVandanti-fertilitysubstances

Islamicgroups,politicians,scientists

OPV

United States Post2000

Asthma,diabetes,Gullian-Barresyndrome,encephalopathy,autismandinflammatoryboweldisease,mercuryexposure,etc

Scientists,thepublic

DT,DTaP,DTP,HepatitisB,Measles,OPV,MMR,Rubella

ScientificandnonscientificinformationVaccinationcontroversies