Foundations of Individual Behavior (Diversity in Organizations)

Foundations of Individual Behavior(Diversity in Organizations)2Individual Behavior

AbilitiesPhysical AbilitiesBiographical Characteristics such as age, gender, race, social group affect physical abilities.Other Biographical Characteristics are tenure, religion etc.Intellectual Abilities

PersonalityThe sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.Why Measuring PersonalityHelpful in hiring decisionsMost common method: self-reporting surveysObserver-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality often better predictors

4Personality DeterminantsHeredityFactors determined at conception: physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level etcThis heredity approach argues that genes are the source of personalityThere is some personality change over long time periods

(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.5Personality DeterminantsEnvironmental FactorsSituational ConditionsPeople we interact withFamily BackgroundCultural ValuesAnd many more.

Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytical Theory of personality (1856-1939)3 Levels of Awareness ConsciousPreconscious Unconscious

7Conscious Current contents of your mind that you actively think of What we call working memory Easily accessed all the timeFreud believed that the conscious level of the mind was similar to the tip of the iceberg which could be seen, but the unconscious was mysterious and was hidden.

8Preconscious Contents of the mind you are not currently aware of but we can try and remember.Thoughts, memories, knowledge, wishes, feelingsAvailable for easy access when needed

9UnconsciousContents kept out of conscious awareness Not accessible at all Processes that actively keep these thoughts from awareness

10Freudian Components of Personality The IdThe Ego The Superego

11IdAccording to Freud the human mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden in the unconscious. Id Resides completely at the unconscious level The unconscious also consists of aspects of personality of which a person is unaware. Acts under the pleasure principleimmediate gratification, not willing to compromise Generates all of the personalitys energy

12Id Cont.Freud believed that every human had a life and death instinct. The life instinct is called eros while the death instinct is called thanatos. Both are integral parts of the id. And the energy for this mechanism is libido, a flowing, dynamic force.

SuperegoThe moralist and idealistic part of the personality Resides in preconsciousOperates on Ideal/Moral principle Begins forming at 4-5 yrs of ageinitially formed form environment and others (society, family etc)Internalized conventions and morals14EgoResides in all levels of awarenessOperates under reality principle Attempts negotiation between Id and Superego to satisfy both realistically Regulates the flow of libido and keeps the id in check, thus acting as a "control center" of the personality.15Summary

Personality as a consequence will be..According to Freud, the disparity and development of the id, ego and the superego, determines an individuals behavior in a given situation, which in turn results in the development of the personality. Freud placed great importance on the early years of a child as he believed that what we are as adults is determined by childhood experiences.Conflicts of Personality ComponentsConflicts between the Id, Superego and Ego arise in unconscious mind Defense mechanisms are used by the ego to protect the person from anxiety.A defence mechanism is a coping technique that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful impulses.Defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is usedDefense Mechanisms. 18Defense MechanismsDenial: Refusal to accept external realities because too threatening to enter awarenessRepression: Internal impulses and memories too threatening so bared from entering awareness (Unconscious to conscious) (Blocking a threatening idea, memory, or emotion from consciousness).

19Defense MechanismsProjection: Attribute unacceptable thoughts or impulses onto others (project these inappropriate thoughts etc onto others) (Projection is when something goes wrong and you blame it on someone that had nothing to do with it, and couldn't possibly. ) (you have an ill intention about someone, but blame other for that)Attributing one's own unacknowledged unacceptable or unwanted thoughts and emotions to another; includes severe prejudice and jealousy

20Defense MechanismsDisplacement Shifting attention from one target that is no longer available to a more acceptable or safer substitute (Displacement is blaming someone for something, when they aren't the person at fault; maybe you are). Kick a dog after poor interview or a mother may yell at her child because she is angry with her husband.Sublimation Healthiest defense mechanism, Compromise, Takes socially unacceptable impulses and turns them into something positive & acceptable.Transformation of unhelpful emotions or instincts into healthy actions, behaviours, or emotions, for example, playing a heavy contact sport such as football or rugby can transform aggression into a game.

21Defense MechanismsReaction Formation Converting unacceptable and dangerous impulses into something positive to reduce anxiety (Reversal of motives). Behaviour that is completely the opposite of what one really wants or feels; taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety.Rationalization (making excuses): Explaining an unacceptable behavior in a way that overlooks present shortcomings or failures . Convincing oneself that no wrong has been done and that all is or was all right through faulty and false reasoning.

22Defense MechanismsRegression Reverting to behavior that is characteristic to an earlier stage of development when confronted with stress or anxiety. Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way, for example, A child suddenly starts to wet the bed after years of not doing so (this is a typical response to the arrival of a new sibling).A college student carefully takes their teddy-bear with them.

23Freud: criticisms and critiquesHe studied very few people so not representative sampleProcess of psychoanalysis interviewing- exhibit preconceived notions and biases His measures/methods were untreatableDefinitions dont lend themselves to experimentationOnes personality is fixed and unchanging Obsessed with aggression

24The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorMost widely used instrument in the world.Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of 16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ. Flexible and SpontaneousSociable and AssertiveQuiet and ShyUnconsciousProcessesUses Values & EmotionsPractical andOrderlyUse Reasonand LogicWant Order& Structure(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.25The Types and Their UsesEach of the sixteen possible combinations has a name, for instance: Visionaries (INTJ): original, stubborn, and drivenOrganizers (ESTJ): realistic, logical, analytical, and businesslikeConceptualizers (ENTP): entrepreneurial, innovative, individualistic, and resourcefulResearch results on validity mixedMBTI is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling.Should not be used as a selection test for job candidates.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.26The Big Five Model of Personality(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.27Big Five Personality Factors

2829Extraversion-IntroversionThe degree to which individuals are gregarious, assertive, and sociable (extraverts) versus being reserved, timid, and quiet (introverts).30AgreeablenessThe extent to which individuals are cooperative and warm (highly agreeable) versus cold and belligerent (highly disagreeable).31Conscientiousness/MeticulousnessThe extent to which individuals are hardworking, organized, dependable, and persevering (high conscientiousness) versus lazy, disorganized, and unreliable (low conscientiousness).32Emotional StabilityThe degree to which individuals are insecure, anxious, depressed, and emotional (emotionally unstable) versus calm, self-confident, and secure (emotionally stable).33Openness to ExperienceThe extent to which individuals are creative, curious, and cultured (open to experience) versus practical and with narrow interests (closed to experience).How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior?Research has shown this to be a better framework.Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance:Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better performance.Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills.Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.Agreeable people are good in social settings.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.34Hollands Theory of PersonalityFormal StatementsIndividuals can be classified by personality typeEnvironments can be classified by personality typeWe search for environments that are a good fitBehavior is an interaction of personality and environmentLimitationsThe theory leaves no room for variables such as: gender, ethnicity, age etc. and the impact these variables play in the career matching process35Hollands Theory of Personality6 Modal Personality TypesRealisticInvestigativeArtisticSocialEnterprisingConventional

366 Modal Personality TypesRealistic-People who have athletic or mechanical ability, prefer to work with objects, machines, tools, plants or animals, or to be outdoors.Investigative-People who like to observe, learn, investigate, analyze, evaluate or solve problems.Artistic-People who have artistic, innovating or intuitional abilities and like to work in unstructured situations using their imagination and creativity.

6 Modal Personality TypesSocial-People who like to work with people to enlighten, inform, help, train, or cure them, or are skilled with words.Enterprising-People who like to work with people, influencing, persuading, performing, leading or managing for organizational goals or economic gain.Conventional-People who like to work with data, have clerical or numerical ability, carry out tasks in detail or follow through on others' instructions.

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OrganizationsLocus of ControlMachiavellianismNarcissiamSelf-EsteemSelf-MonitoringRisk-TakingType A PersonalityType B PersonalityProactive Personality39Locus of ControlThe degree to which people believe they are in control of their own fate.InternalsIndividuals who believe that they control what happens to them.ExternalsIndividuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance. 40MachiavellianismDegree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.

Niccolo Machiavelli-How to gain and use power4142MachiavellianismA personality trait involving willingness to manipulate others for ones own purposes.Machiavellian tactics:Neglecting to share important information (e.g., claiming to forget to tell you about key meetings and assignments).Finding subtle ways of making you look bad to management (e.g., damning you with faint praise).Failing to meet obligations (e.g., not holding up their end on joint projects, thereby causing you to look bad).Spreading false rumors about you (e.g., making up things about you that embarrass you in front of others). NarcissiamLikes to be center of attractionConsiders himself to be person with many talentsLoves himself.Self-EsteemIndividuals degree of liking or disliking of themselves.44Brandens Six Pillars of Self-Esteem

Source: Adapted from N. Branden, Self-Esteem at Work: How Confident People Make Powerful Companies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), pp. 33-36). 45The Effects of High Self-EsteemPeople with high self-esteem possess the following characteristics:-They like to meet new people.-They dont worry about how others will judge them.-They have the courage to express themselves.-Their lives are enriched with each new encounter. - They are nicer to be around.-Their ideas are met with interest because others want to hear what they have to say.-They are magnets to positive opportunities!

The Effects of Low Self-EsteemPeople with low self-esteem possess the following characteristics:-They dont believe in themselves.-They see themselves failing before they begin.-They have a hard time forgiving their mistakes and make themselves pay the price forever.-They believe they can never be as good as they should be or as others.- They are afraid to show their creativity because they will be ridiculed.-They are dissatisfied with their lives.-They spend most of their time alone.-They complain and criticize.-They worry about everything and do nothing.

Self-MonitoringA personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust behaviour to external situational factors.4849Self-Monitoring

YesNoRisk-TakingRefers to a persons willingness to take chances or risks.Risk AverseRisk Seeking50Type A PersonalityMoves, walks, and eats rapidlyImpatientMultitasksDislikes leisure timeObsessed with numbers, measures success in terms of how many or how much of everything is acquired51Type B PersonalityNever suffers from a sense of time urgencyDoesnt need to display or discuss achievements or accomplishmentsPlays for fun and relaxation, not to winCan relax without guilt52