field techniques for surgically implanting radio transmitters: … · 2019-11-26 · field...

Field Techniques For Surgically Implanting Radio Transmitters: Slide 1

FIELD TECHNIQUES FOR SURGICALLY IMPLANTING RADIO TRANSMITTERS IN VENOMOUS SNAKES

NATIONAL MILITARY FISH AND WILDLIFE ASSOCIATION HERPETOLOGICAL WORK GROUP

TESSA E. MARTIN-BASHORE and TERRY L. BASHOREAUGUST 2001

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The objective of this demonstration is to provide resource managers information on the importance of studying herpetofauna and specifically to provide methods for radio-transmitter implantation in snakes.

Methods used in this demonstration are described in Martin-Bashore (1997); Martin and Bashore (1993); and Reinert and Cundall (1982).

We believe that the methods described herein allow the greatest degree of safety to both snakes and handlers

For those who do not intend to do the work themselves, this information is useful for preparing scopes of work






WHY STUDY SNAKES

Herpetological studies are essential to the Department of Defense (DoD) legal mandates, military missions, and natural resource stewardship responsibilities

LEGAL MANDATES

The legal basis for natural resources management on DoD land is the Sikes Act of 1960, as amended (16 United States Code (U.S.C.) § 670(a)-(f), et seq.). This act authorizes the Secretary of Defense to conduct a program coordinating natural resource management through cooperation with federal and state agencies.






This coordinated program is implemented through the use of Integrated Natural Resources Management Plans (INRMPs). The INRMP, in coordination with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process, provides DoD staff with information they need to make natural resources management decisions

32 CFR 190; DoDI 4715.3; AFI 32-7064; AR200-3; Navy OPNAVINST 5090.1; Marine Corps MCO P5090.2A; and Coast Guard Commandant Instruction M5090.3 require lands and waters suitable for conservation of fish and wildlife resources to be managed to conserve wildlife resources, including non-game as well as game species

The term conservation means to utilize methods and procedures necessary to protect, conserve and enhance wildlife

16 U.S.C. 2901 et seq. (Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act) defines wildlife as wild vertebrate animals in an unconfined state, including, but not limited to, non-game fish and wildlife






Population management objectives to be set forth in Installation Integrated Natural Resource Management Plan (INRMP) include, as a minimum, the maintenance of healthy, sustainable, wildlife populations

CFR 1500-1508 (NEPA and agency planning) require that federal agencies identify environmental effects, and study, develop, and describe appropriate alternatives to proposed courses of action

Cumulative effects, categorical exclusions, environmental assessments (EAs), and environmental impact statements (EISs) often rely on species baseline data






MILITARY MISSION

Species that become federally listed as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) have the potential to deny use of training lands

The eastern indigo (Drymarchon corais couperi), New Mexico ridge-nosed rattle snake (Crotalus willardi obscurus), giant garter (Thamnophis gigas), Atlantic salt marsh (Neroida clarkii taeniata), and copperbelly water (Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta) are examples of snakes protected under the Endangered Species Act

There has been a recent and seemingly sudden decline in herpetofaunas (Zug, 1993). The eastern timber rattlesnake (Crotalus hordius), mottled rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus lepidus), and Texas lyre snake (Trimorphodon biscutatus vilkonsonji) are examples of state listed species.






Military personnel safety and health is related to certain species of snakes. Venomous snake bites to unwary personnel in the field usually are not fatal, but can result in loss of time and impaired mission. Avoidance of areas with high snake density (i.e., hibernacula) and knowledge of snake behavior can reduce these types of injuries

Snakes, particularly rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.) and bull snakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi), are beneficial to human health by reducing rodent populations which can transmit diseases such as plague (Yersinia pestis) and Hantavirus (Degenhart et al., 1996).

Over broad geographic regions, increased abundance of rodents has been linked to outbreaks of Hantavirus (Childs et al., 1995). In the southwest Hantavirus was found in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus; Elliott et al., 1995); a common species.






A twenty-year-old male airman assigned to the 366th equipment maintenance squadron was admitted to the Mountain Home AFB hospital on Thursday 11 January 2001 with pneumonia like symptoms. His condition deteriorated and he was transported to the St. Alphonsus hospital in Boise, ID on Friday January 12th. The airman was placed in intensive care and his condition continued to deteriorate. On Wednesday, 17 January, he was diagnosed with the Hantavirus and determined to be terminally ill. Luckily, the airman survived, but due to complication he was not expected to return to active duty.

The Center for Disease Control (CDC) reports that 30% of the Hantivirus cases are fatal.

Rodent-borne hemorrhagic fever is also linked to increased rodent density (Childs et al., 1995). Plague, another contagious disease is known to occur in prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) and ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.)






NATURAL RESOURCES STEWARDSHIP

The Department of Defense’s goal is to systematically conserve biological diversity on military lands (within the context of its mission) by protecting the diversity of naturally occurring organisms and ecological processes

Ecologically, snakes are key food chain components in ecosystems, particularly desert ecosystem. Snakes feed on small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds and insects. Snakes in turn are eaten by mammals (i.e., coyotes and raccoons) and birds (i.e., residential and migratory hawks)

Installation Planning Level Surveys (PLS) characterize essential components of an installation’s natural resources. The kinds, locations and sensitivity of resources serve as the foundation for environmental planning, including preparation of the INRMP






BASIC GUIDELINES AND COMMON SENSE

1. If you have not performed implant surgery, do not do it unless you receive proper training

2. Do not attempt surgery if you have a fear of handling snakes, particularly venomous ones

3. Know how and where to get medical help BEFORE you get bitten

4. Always work with a partner who is not afraid of venomous snakes

5. Handle and treat snakes with care. Snakes can be injured (i.e., broken ribs)

6. Keep surgical areas sanitized and surgical equipment sterilized

7. Always work carefully. If you are a Federal employee remember – IT’S NOT THE SNAKE BITE, IT’S THE PAPER WORK






HANDLING VENOMOUS SNAKES

DO NOT use your finger tips and thumb. A snake can break free with sudden thrashing (after Fitch 1987)







DO NOT extend forefinger forward beneath the chin. A snake can bite through its own lower jaw and pierce your finger (after Fitch 1987)







CORRECT. Use a firm grip just behind the head, with the throat in bend of your forefingers and your thumb on the snake’s nape (after Fitch 1987)






MATERIALS AND APPROXIMATE COSTS

Snake stick $80.00 Bacteria zincneomycin ointment

2.50/oz

30 gallon garbage can 15.00

10 gallon aquarium 25.00 4.0 mono-film cuticular 30.00/dz

½ Sheet of ½” Plexiglas 25.00 New Skintm or Vetbondtm 10.00/30 ml

Cat play toy 1.00 Recovery cage 12.00

Cotton balls 2.50 Transmitters 190.00/ea

Isopropyl alcohol 18.00/gal Telemetry receiver 600.00

Halothane 25.00/250 ml Telemetry antenna 200.00

Organic respirator 35.00 Surgical gloves 5.00/bx

Bees wax 5.00/pk Handles for lids 10.00

Paraffin 4.00/bx Surgical tape 5.00

Plastic baby bottle 2.50 Silicon sealant 8.00

Shoe string 1.00 Bungee cord 1.00

Betadine solution 10.00/ 8oz Needle-nosed pliers 6.00

Dissecting Kit 35.00






It makes sense to use a snake stick when handling venomous snakes

Plastic tubing or foam padding can be taped to the jaws for extra padding and to reduce slipping

Round bodied snakes tend to slide out of the jaws of snake sticks

Use just enough pressure to hold the snake. Remember snakes can be injured




http://www.nmfwa.org/Herp/ppt/images/slide15.jpg



Pillow cases or cloth bags are O.K. to transport NON-VENOMOUS snakes

IT IS NOT RECOMMENDED to use pillow cases or cloth bags to transport venomous snakes. Snakes can and will bite through the bag






We prefer a 30 gallon garbage container with locking handles. Use a Bungee cord to secure the handles

The garbage container also serves as the initial anesthetizing chamber






BEFORE UNDERTAKING SURGERY

1. Coat the transmitter and antenna wire (if attached) with a 50:50 mixture of bees wax and paraffin

2. Make sure that your transmitters are turned off and are only turned on immediately before implantation

3. Construct the 30 gallon garbage container to serve as the initial anesthetizing chamber (see discussion to follow)

4. Construct a intermediate anesthetizing chamber from a 10 gallon aquarium (see discussion to follow)

5. Construct an operating anesthetizing chamber (see discussion to follow)






INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE INITIAL ANESTHETIZING CHAMBER WITH A PLEXIGLAS LID






INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE PLEXIGLAS LID

4. Put a small nail through one of the string’s loops. Put the nail with the attached string through the small drilled hole

5. Place a pencil in the other loop and pull the string tight. Proceed to draw a circle using the string as a compass

6. A skill saw will cut the Plexiglas

7. Tape the edges of the Plexiglas with duck tape. This ensures a tight fit

8. Seal the drilled hole with a silicon sealant to prevent vapors from escaping






INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE PLEXIGLASS LID

9. Attach a handle to the Plexiglas

10. If you use wood screws sand off the tips of the screws in order to prevent injury to the animal

11. If you use screws with nuts put the screw heads on the Plexiglas side and the nuts on the handle side.






CONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERMEDIATE ANESTHETIZING CHAMBER FROM A 10 GALLON AQUARIUM

1. Measure the inside length and width of the aquarium and cut 2 sets of Plexiglas strips. The strips need to be 4” inches high

2. Glue matching Plexiglas strips together for double thickness using a silicon glue

3. Glue the double thick strips to the sides at the bottom of the aquarium






4. Cut a Plexiglas lid smaller than the lip of the aquarium

5. Attach a handle to the lid the same way you did for the lid for the 30 gallon garbage can

6. Duck tape around the lid to make a secure seal






CONSTRUCTION OF THE OPERATING ANESTHETIZING CHAMBER

1. Take an 8oz plastic baby bottle and cut the bottom off using a hack saw

2. Tape a piece of rubber over bottom. You can use a piece of latex glove or dental dam. Make a 1” inch slit in the bottom rubber

3. Drill a small hole in the neck of the bottle and thread a flat shoe string through it and the slit on the bottom. Tie a slip knot on the string.

4. Put a cotton ball into the cap






NOTE: Slit in rubber taped to the bottom of the baby bottle

Use surgical or duck-tape to tape the rubber to the bottom of the bottle






STEP 1

Place the snake in the 30 gallon garbage container. Put a soft pad on the bottom. This will prevent injury to the animal. If the snake crawls under the pad do not reach in with your hand to remove the pad; USE A SNAKE STICK.






STEP 2

Use a knife and carefully take apart this type of cat toy that you can get at most pet supply stores






STEP 3

Take a cotton ball and put it into one of the cat toy halves






STEP 4

Tape both halves of the cat toy together using a strong tape. Surgical tape worked well for us






HALOTHANE is one of several anesthetics that can be used for snakes. We prefer to use this compound

ISOFLURANE is another anesthetic that can be used on snakes






WARNING: Do not use Halothane without wearing an organic respirator if you are pregnant or think that you may be pregnant. Halothane is a mutagen and can cause birth defects






STEP 5

Pour Halothane onto the cotton inside the cat toy

Caution: Halothane is highly flammable. Do step 5 in a well ventilated area






STEP 6

Quickly drop the cat toy soaked with Halothane into the 30 gallon garbage container and secure with a Plexiglas lid

We recommend using Plexiglas so the the snake can be seen at all times






STEP 7

The lid should fit snuggly inside the container and about 1’ foot from the bottom of the container

It will take between 20 minutes and one hour for the snake to be sufficiently anesthetized

The time it takes to anesthetize a snake depends on the size of the snake; room temperature; and the snake’s ability to hold its breath

A snake is sufficiently anesthetized when there is little or no response to prodding with a snake stick

You will notice the tail and/or rattle have begun to droop or lay still

The snake should act like a limp piece of rope when the container is tilted






STEP 8

Use a snake stick to gently remove the snake from the garbage container

Move the snake to the 10 gallon aquarium

Be sure to have the lid to the aquarium in a position to be quickly closed.

Be careful. The snake will not be fully anesthetized and may be able to bite or get away






STEP 9

Re-soak the cat toy with Halothane

CAUTION: Halothane is highly flammable. Do step 9 in a well ventilated area






STEP 10

Place the cat toy with Halothane in the aquarium with the snake

Quickly place the lid into the aquarium

The aquarium allows one to tell when the snake is fully anesthetized

Hold the lid tight, pick up, and invert the aquarium

A fully anesthetized snake will not role back onto its stomach. This is called a “righting response”






STEP 11

When the snake is fully anesthetized remove it from the aquarium

Place the snake’s head into the operating anesthetizing chamber

Handle the snake carefully. Any movement or muscle tone indicates that the snake is still awake






STEP 12

REMEMBER: Prior to inserting the snakes head into the anesthetizing chamber put Halothane on the cotton in the cap and put the cap back on the baby bottle






STEP 13

Take the shoe string and loop it over the snake’s head and tighten snuggly around the neck. Do not choke the snake

Push the snake’s head through the slit in the rubber on the bottom of the bottle

Use forceps to open the slit to push the head in if necessary

Keep a good hold on the string. This prevents the snake from pulling out if it awakens






A fully anesthetized snake






Prior to surgery sterilize your instruments in isopropyl alcohol

A scalpel, pointed scissors,heavy scissors, and needle-nosed pliers (not shown) are essential to you surgery






WHERE TO IMPLANT A TRANSMITTER IN A SNAKE

STEP 14

1. Gently lay the snake’s body in a straight position

2. Observe the snake and note its breathing. The point along the lower body where you no longer see breathing occurring is the lower end of the lung

3. Wash the area from the lower end of the lung to the anal plate(s) with Betadine solution

4. Make your incision about 4” below the lower lobe of the lung.

NOTE: Snakes have only one functioning lung. If you cut into the lung the snake will probably die






Make a ¼” to ½” inch incision about 4” inches below the lower lobe of the lung






STEP 15

Wash area with Betadine solution before you make an incision

DO NOT make a deep cut. The opening to the body cavity is immediately below the skin and muscle tissue






Using a sterilized sharp scalpel, make a 0.5” inch incision between the body scales and the belly scales or scutes. Cut through the skin and muscle into the body cavity. Make sure that you do not cut any ribs. There should be minimal bleeding that can be cleaned up with a sterile gauze pad






STEP 16

The incision must be below the lung but high enough to allow room for the transmitter antenna

If you find the transmitter aerial too long after making the incision you can cut the antenna wire. You will loose some transmitter efficiency

Place a tape measure on the table. The best time to measure a snake is when it is anesthetized






A WORD ABOUT TRANSMITTERS

There are two basic types of transmitters

Those with whip antennas and those with coiled antennas

Coiled transmitters are easier to implant but have less range

A transmitters comes with a magnet taped to it that serves as an off/on switch






Transmitters are not only used to locate snakes but may also be equipped with activity, temperature, depth, and mortality functions

Note: the more functions a transmitter has the shorter its life expectancy

Discuss your project requirements with the transmitter manufacturer before buying the transmitters - they will customize to suit your needs

Remove the magnet before implanting the transmitter in the snake






STEP 17

Once you have an opening into the body cavity you are ready to insert the transmitter

Just before implantation check the transmitter to confirm that it is transmitting a signal (have a back-up in case it fails)

Next, coat the transmitter and aerial wire with a triple topical antibiotic such as Bacitacin Zinc-Neomycin ointment

If working with an aerial transmitter, slide the antenna wire into the cavity first, then gently push it towards the tail in the body cavity






STEP 18

Next insert the transmitter into the body cavity towards the snakes head






STEP 19

After the transmitter is properly placed, suture the skin closed

Use monofilament or silk thread and a number 4 curved cuticular needle

NOTE: Monofilament thread is recommended since silk thread can act as a wick for infection if the incision is not properly sealed. We have found that stitches usually come out with the skin shed.






Do not suture through the scales. Only suture through the skin between the scales






We recommend using needle-nosed pliers to pull the needle through the skin






Tie each suture using a square or surgeon's knot

We found that square knots were sufficient

Place sutures about an 1/8” inch apart







For more information on knot tying go to http://www.ussdgsutures.com/ Look under education and training




http://www.ussdgsutures.com/



STEP 20

After suturing, apply New Skin™ or Vetbond™ to the incision. This is a surgical adhesive that protects the incision

Make sure to allow time for the adhesive to dry or the snake will stick to the bottom of the cage






RECOVERY FROM ANESTHESIA

STEP 21

The snake will need help recovering from the anesthesia

Without help the snake may not recover

CAUTION – Snake’s recovery is very variable and you need to be aware of the snake’s condition at all times. There is an increased risk of getting bit during this procedure






Use an ordinary soda straw as a ventilation tube

Be sure that you mark one end of the straw or you will be swapping spit with the snake






Place the soda straw against the trachea and blow gently

The trachea is the opening located immediately above the tongue

Blowing hard can cause damage to the snake’s lung

Watch the snakes sides, they should rise as you force air in

Give the snake two or three puffs of breath at a time; let the snake exhale with each puff. You will smell Halothane escaping from the lung

Note: the fangs are retracted when the snake is anesthetized






As the snake recovers, pick up the tail and check for increased muscle tone

Snakes usually recover tail first, but we had a Mojave rattler recover head first – BE CAREFUL

NOTE: As the snake recovers, the fangs also become protracted (extended forward)

After the snake is breathing on its own and has regained some muscle tone place it in a recovery container.

If you have not previously weighed the snake, the container may be placed on a triple beam balance to determine its weight. Do Not forget to weigh the empty container and deduct that amount from the total weight






If the snake is showing signs of quick recovery, put a lid on the recovery cage before weighing

The recovery cage needs a ventilated lid

Halothane has a high specific gravity and will lay at the bottom of a container and can kill a snake

Place the recovery cage upside down on the scale or other suitable surface in a well ventilated area to allow the Halothane to escape






STEP 22

24 hours after surgery the snake can be released

Always release the animal where you found it unless your research protocol dictates otherwise






Wait 2 weeks for the snake to recover from surgery before beginning data collection






REFERENCES

Childs, J.E., J.N. Mills, and G.E. Glass. 1995. Rodent-borne hemorrhagic fever viruses: a special risk to Mammalogists? Journal of Mammalogy. 76:664-680.

Degenhart, W.G., C.W. Painter, and A.H. Price. 1996. Amphibians and reptiles of New Mexico. Univ. NM press, Albuquerque,NM 431pp.

Elliott, L.H. et al. 1994. Isolation of causative agent of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Am. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 51:102-108

Fitch, H.S. 1987. Collecting and life-history techniques. Pages 143-164 in Seigel, R.A., J.T. Collins, and S.S. Novak, eds. Snakes:Ecology and evolutionary biology. MacMillian, Publ. Co., NY. 529pp.

Martin-Bashore, T.E. 1997. Spatial and activity patterns of black rat snakes (Elaphe o. obsoleta) on a barrier island in Virginia, MS Thesis. Univ. of MD, Princess Anne, MD 61 pp.

Martin, T.E. and T.L. Bashore. 1993. Activity, home range, and thermoregulation in black rat snakes: a feasibility study. U.S. Dept. of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Ser., Chincoteague Nat. Wildl. Refuge. Chincoteague, VA.23336. Work Request No. 51570-2-6383. 35pp.

Reinert, H.K. and D. Cundall 1982. An improved surgical implantation method for radio-tracking snakes. Copeia. 1982:702-705.

Zug, G.R., 1993. Herpetology: An introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. Academic Press, Inc. 527pp.






Additional Suggestions

The transmitters were set up by my contractor and we used Teflon-coated wire for the antennas. Second, we ran the antenna wire under the skin, using a small catheter for this process in order to pull the wire through (had the antenna facing towards the head). Then, apply a coat of New Skin to the incision we removed the catheter through. The one other point was that the following year we would recapture the snake and remove the transmitter. – Jim Beemer, West point

Some of the transmitters were removed after one year, in other studies, like Ed McGowan's, after two years. I had one NH snake that had a dead transmitter for several years. That one had a lot of tissue adhesions to the transmitter. Generally after one year they are still moving freely. After two, there is some connective tissue build-up to hold them in place and isolate them. There has never been any inflammatory or infected looking area, the only physical change is that the area becomes more vascular. – Jim Beemer, West Point

The catheter is stainless steel 1/16" X .04". It is about 20" long > and has a blunt beveled end to separate connective tissue under the skin but not puncture the skin. - Jim Beemer, West point






Comments and Suggestions (continued)

I always wore a thick leather glove (welding glove) as an extra precaution. The glove comes in very handy when the snake makes an unexpected twist or jerk that may cause the handler to lose their grip. - Jay Rubinoff, U.S. Army

Isoflurane is not tolerated well by some species - such as my original black rat snakes (Elaphe o. obsoleta) - it seemed to induce a fluid build up in the lungs during surgery. – Tessa Bashore






ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Tessa Martin-Bashore has an B.S. in biology and a M.S. in ecology from the University of Maryland. Tessa was trained by Dr. Howard Reinert to do implantation surgery. Her herpetological work includes a study of species composition, diversity, and relative abundance of reptiles and amphibians in West Texas and New Mexico; home range and habitat use by barrier island black rat snakes; an annotated bibliography of reptiles and amphibians; and she developed the National Military Fish and Wildlife Association’s (NMFWA) Herp Project Data Base. Tessa is the CEO and owner of her own consulting firm; a environmental program manager; and President of the Worcester Coastal Foundation, a non-profit educational, research, and coastal land acquisitions organization. Tessa is a member of the

NMFWA and the Herp Work Group.

Dr. Terry L. Bashore serves as the HQ Air Combat Command’s Director of Aerospace Operations authority, scientific expert, single point of contact, and program director for all MAJCOM range and airspace activities related to the management and conservation of fish and wildlife, threatened and endangered species, natural/cultural resource management, outdoor recreation, flood plain and wetland protection, and other related programs. Terry has served as a senior wildlife ecologist/operations officer at Ft. Bliss, TX; natural/cultural training program manager for the Army Corps of Engineers; and the

Army’s natural resources subject matter expert. Terry is a member of the NMFWA and the Herp Work Group.






FIELD TECHNIQUES FOR SURGICALLY IMPLANTING RADIO TRANSMITTERS IN VENOMOUS SNAKES

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