English as a English as a lingua franca:lingua franca: A A threat to multilingualism?threat to multilingualism?

Juliane HouseJuliane House

jhouse@uni-hamburg.dejhouse@uni-hamburg.de

http://www.uni-hamburg.de/fachbereiche-einrichtungen/sfb538/http://www.uni-hamburg.de/fachbereiche-einrichtungen/sfb538/

1. Clarifying the term „English as a lingua 1. Clarifying the term „English as a lingua franca (ELF)franca (ELF)

2. ELF as a threat to multilingualism or a 2. ELF as a threat to multilingualism or a chance for global understanding from three chance for global understanding from three perspectives:perspectives: (1) socio-political(1) socio-political (2) linguistic(2) linguistic

(3) psycholinguistic (linguistic relativity)(3) psycholinguistic (linguistic relativity) 3. Conclusion3. Conclusion

1. ‚English as lingua franca’ (ELF)1. ‚English as lingua franca’ (ELF)

Functional flexibility, global spread over many Functional flexibility, global spread over many domains of language use, openness for domains of language use, openness for foreign forms (Firth 1996)foreign forms (Firth 1996)Decreasing influence of „inner circle“ Decreasing influence of „inner circle“ (Kachru 1992) as a hegemonic variety (Kachru 1992) as a hegemonic variety ELF is not a language for specific ELF is not a language for specific purposes, a pidgin- or creole language, purposes, a pidgin- or creole language, „foreigner talk“ or learner language„foreigner talk“ or learner languageThe interlanguage paradigm is inadequateThe interlanguage paradigm is inadequate

The multilingual individual and its The multilingual individual and its „multicompetence“ as norm (Cook 1992)„multicompetence“ as norm (Cook 1992)Simultaneous activation of L1 und ELF Simultaneous activation of L1 und ELF (Grosjean 2001)(Grosjean 2001)ELF as „register“ (Widdowson 2003) and ELF as „register“ (Widdowson 2003) and as a language for communication (House as a language for communication (House 2003)2003)Crucial difference between a language for Crucial difference between a language for communication and a language for communication and a language for identification identification

2. ELF viewed from three perspectives2. ELF viewed from three perspectives

(1) The socio-political perspective(1) The socio-political perspective

Why English? Crystal‘s (1997) so-called Why English? Crystal‘s (1997) so-called „triumphalism“. Former British empire, present „triumphalism“. Former British empire, present day US global power day US global power Preference for a „simple language?“Preference for a „simple language?“

ELF as Threat, Killer Language, Agent of ELF as Threat, Killer Language, Agent of Linguistic Imperialism?Linguistic Imperialism?

Voluntary use of ELF as language with wide Voluntary use of ELF as language with wide communicative rangecommunicative rangeSubjectively felt difference between languages Subjectively felt difference between languages for communication and for identification for communication and for identification Artificial dichotomy through assumption of Artificial dichotomy through assumption of monolingual individuals and societies monolingual individuals and societies ELF as language for communication und L1(s) ELF as language for communication und L1(s) as language(s) for identification are NOT in as language(s) for identification are NOT in competition, but supplement each othercompetition, but supplement each other

““I really don’t mind speaking English at all, I I really don’t mind speaking English at all, I speak it fairly well – and I have to in this speak it fairly well – and I have to in this multinational company. But German, my multinational company. But German, my mother tongue, is something completely mother tongue, is something completely different. German will for me be linked for different. German will for me be linked for ever with my childhood, my family, my ever with my childhood, my family, my grandparents and my dreams” grandparents and my dreams”

(MCInt 13,3) (MCInt 13,3)

"As for English I do speak the language "As for English I do speak the language but I don't think I'll ever talk it. English but I don't think I'll ever talk it. English flows from the mind to the tongue and then flows from the mind to the tongue and then to the pages of books... I only talk to the pages of books... I only talk Vietnamese. I talk it with all my senses. Vietnamese. I talk it with all my senses. Vietnamese does not stop on my tongue, Vietnamese does not stop on my tongue, but flows with the warm, soothing lotus tea but flows with the warm, soothing lotus tea down my throat like a river giving life to the down my throat like a river giving life to the landscape in her path. It rises to my mind landscape in her path. It rises to my mind along the vivid images of my along the vivid images of my grandmother's house and my grandmother's house and my grandmother...“ (Kramsch 2002: 98-99).grandmother...“ (Kramsch 2002: 98-99).

““Linguistic Human Rights” ?Linguistic Human Rights” ?

ELF speakers often know what they’re doing ELF speakers often know what they’re doing when they choose to use ELFwhen they choose to use ELFDe Swaan: “Alas, what decides is not the De Swaan: “Alas, what decides is not the right of human beings to speak whatever right of human beings to speak whatever language they wish, but the freedom of language they wish, but the freedom of everybody else to ignore what they say in the everybody else to ignore what they say in the language of their choice.” (2001:52)language of their choice.” (2001:52)Double Bind Situation for ELF speakersDouble Bind Situation for ELF speakers

A Chinese colleague from Hongkong:A Chinese colleague from Hongkong:"I always feel that non-native speakers of English are "I always feel that non-native speakers of English are forever caught in a kind of double bind. Take for forever caught in a kind of double bind. Take for example those of us who were brought up in Hong example those of us who were brought up in Hong Kong. I got criticized at school and at university if I Kong. I got criticized at school and at university if I didn't speak English, but I also got criticized (mostly didn't speak English, but I also got criticized (mostly by those who pretended to be politically correct) if I by those who pretended to be politically correct) if I spoke English. It was only in the last few years that I spoke English. It was only in the last few years that I stopped wishing I had two mouths. English, I believe, stopped wishing I had two mouths. English, I believe, can never replace our mother tongue, certainly not can never replace our mother tongue, certainly not where the emotional intensity of feelings is where the emotional intensity of feelings is concerned.“concerned.“

Paradox: Use of ELF as language for Paradox: Use of ELF as language for communication often provokes and strengthens use communication often provokes and strengthens use of indigenous languages and dialects for of indigenous languages and dialects for identification purposes and as a vehicle of protest identification purposes and as a vehicle of protest against ELF dominanceagainst ELF dominance

Strong counter-currents even in modern music Strong counter-currents even in modern music scene and INTERNET, classic „killers“ of other scene and INTERNET, classic „killers“ of other languages: ELF and native varieties increasingly co-languages: ELF and native varieties increasingly co-exist or mergeexist or merge- Expression of Chinese rhetorical traditions - Expression of Chinese rhetorical traditions

in medium of English (Bloch 2004)in medium of English (Bloch 2004)- New „mixed varieties“ of ELF and Chinese- New „mixed varieties“ of ELF and Chinese

used to demonstrate and expand their multilingualused to demonstrate and expand their multilingual competence (Lam 2004)competence (Lam 2004)

(2) The Linguistic Perspective(2) The Linguistic Perspective

Main argument against ELF: Disadvantage of Main argument against ELF: Disadvantage of non-native speakers („reduced personality“) non-native speakers („reduced personality“)

Results of empirical studies of ELF Results of empirical studies of ELF interactions contradict this claim (Firth 1996; interactions contradict this claim (Firth 1996; House 2002; Lesznyák 2004)House 2002; Lesznyák 2004)

No misunderstandings, no repairs (stark No misunderstandings, no repairs (stark contrast to native/non-native interactions)contrast to native/non-native interactions)

Tolerant “Let-it-Pass“ behaviour, Tolerant “Let-it-Pass“ behaviour, „Robustness“ and „Normality“ of ELF talk „Robustness“ and „Normality“ of ELF talk despite its „seemingly linguistically lawless despite its „seemingly linguistically lawless nature“ (Firth and Wagner, to appear) nature“ (Firth and Wagner, to appear)

The Hamburg ELF ProjectThe Hamburg ELF ProjectData BasisData Basis

1.1. Interactions in L1 English Interactions in L1 English 2.2. Interactions between L1 English Interactions between L1 English

speakers and ELF speakersspeakers and ELF speakers3.3. ELF interactions between speakers of ELF interactions between speakers of

different L1sdifferent L1s4.4. Retrospective interviews re 3 for Retrospective interviews re 3 for

collaborative interpretationcollaborative interpretation

Results:Results:

Confirmation of previous findings Confirmation of previous findings

Three further ELF characteristics.Three further ELF characteristics.

1. Transfer of L1 Discourse Conventions1. Transfer of L1 Discourse Conventions

Example: Asian ELF speakers‘ tendency Example: Asian ELF speakers‘ tendency towards cyclical topic management. towards cyclical topic management. Result: Non-sequitur turns. This is Result: Non-sequitur turns. This is however consistently ignored by other however consistently ignored by other participants: Discourse remains totally participants: Discourse remains totally „normal“ and „ordinary“.„normal“ and „ordinary“.

DATA Excerpt 1DATA Excerpt 1Joy:Joy: Does maybe the nationalism erm in QuebecDoes maybe the nationalism erm in QuebecWei:Wei: For us weFor us we don't have problem I mean don't have problem I mean Asian people Chinese for exampleAsian people Chinese for example--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Brit:Brit: I've seen several movies in Japanese recently like Manga Comics are very I've seen several movies in Japanese recently like Manga Comics are very popular popular Wei:Wei: Since perhaps twenty years (2 sec) a lot of Since perhaps twenty years (2 sec) a lot of Chinese peopleChinese people began to learn a began to learn a

second foreign language it’s..@ second foreign language it’s..@ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Joy:Joy: When you speak English so you can @ translate in English or you can use the When you speak English so you can @ translate in English or you can use the one one language and not three languageslanguage and not three languagesWei:Wei: You know the problem is You know the problem is Taiwan Hongkong and Mainland ChinaTaiwan Hongkong and Mainland China and the different and the different and the difference (2 sec) how to say and the very different history this is the and the difference (2 sec) how to say and the very different history this is the problem @problem @--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Brit:Brit: But people have an interest in keeping their languages (1 sec) like Wales or erm But people have an interest in keeping their languages (1 sec) like Wales or erm in in Ireland they try to revive the Gaelic Irish (2sec) I think it's got something to doIreland they try to revive the Gaelic Irish (2sec) I think it's got something to dowith identitywith identityWei:Wei: I think in I think in South-East AsiaSouth-East Asia perhaps the first foreign language be English and a perhaps the first foreign language be English and a second foreign language perhaps second foreign language perhaps JapaneseJapanese or German (5sec) perhaps a or German (5sec) perhaps a ChineseChinese

2. Frequency of Multi-functional Gambit 2. Frequency of Multi-functional Gambit „„Represent“ (Edmondson and House Represent“ (Edmondson and House

1981)1981): :

(Parts of) previous speaker‘s moves are “re-(Parts of) previous speaker‘s moves are “re-presented“ - Why?presented“ - Why?Supports working memory in comprehension Supports working memory in comprehension and productionand productionCreates coherence (construction of lexical-Creates coherence (construction of lexical-paradigmatic clusters)paradigmatic clusters)Signals receipt and confirms understandingSignals receipt and confirms understandingFunctions as meta-communicative Functions as meta-communicative procedure, thus strengthening awareness procedure, thus strengthening awareness

Data Excerpt 2Data Excerpt 2

Joy: And you mean that English (2sec) is Joy: And you mean that English (2sec) is really getting important or taken for the really getting important or taken for the education because the grammar is education because the grammar is syntactic erm the grammar syntactic erm the grammar is veryis very

easyeasy

Wei: Wei: is easy is very easyis easy is very easy

RepresentsRepresents (also “echo-, “mirror- or (also “echo-, “mirror- or “shadow elements“ ) are typical of psycho-“shadow elements“ ) are typical of psycho-therapeutic interviews, instructional- and therapeutic interviews, instructional- and aircraft control discourse, where aircraft control discourse, where information is deliberately restated to information is deliberately restated to create coherencecreate coherence

ELF speakers‘ imitation of this convention ELF speakers‘ imitation of this convention is proof of their strategic competence!is proof of their strategic competence!

3. Solidarity and consensus through co-con-3. Solidarity and consensus through co-con-construction of utterancesconstruction of utterances

Demonstration of consensus in the face of Demonstration of consensus in the face of cultural differences leads to a feeling of cultural differences leads to a feeling of community and group identity (Tajfel 1981)community and group identity (Tajfel 1981)

ELF as egalitarian tool („We are all in the same ELF as egalitarian tool („We are all in the same boat“). Speakers support each other, even pay boat“). Speakers support each other, even pay each other compliments („My English is I think each other compliments („My English is I think very bad“----“No no no it’s much better than very bad“----“No no no it’s much better than mine“, Firth und Wagner, to appear). mine“, Firth und Wagner, to appear).

Data Excerpt 3Data Excerpt 3

Joy:Joy: I recently read an article in a Korean I recently read an article in a Korean erm (2 sec) Moment (4 sec).erm (2 sec) Moment (4 sec).

Brit:Brit: Newspaper, Internet?Newspaper, Internet?Joy:Joy: Yes thank you @ erm the article is Yes thank you @ erm the article is

about new foreign language about new foreign language education in Japaneducation in Japan

Data Excerpt 4Data Excerpt 4Mau: I think it begins erm of course with the Mau: I think it begins erm of course with the

colonialism I think too because the colonialism I think too because the history of this development how the history of this development how the language in the very early period erm language in the very early period erm (3 sec)(3 sec)

Joy:Joy: Build up this basis Build up this basisMau: YesMau: YesJoy:Joy: To be a world language To be a world languageMau: YesMau: Yes

ELF users‘ strategic competence intact: ELF users‘ strategic competence intact: They are able to carry out meaningful, They are able to carry out meaningful, normal discourse. normal discourse. No reduced personality syndrom!No reduced personality syndrom!ELF as a useful tool for communication ELF as a useful tool for communication and understanding whenever no other and understanding whenever no other common language available common language available

Another argument against ELF: It Another argument against ELF: It „contaminates“ other languages„contaminates“ other languages

This argument can be relativised on the This argument can be relativised on the basis of the results of another empirical basis of the results of another empirical research project. research project.

The Project “Covert Translation“ in the The Project “Covert Translation“ in the German Science Foundation‘s Research German Science Foundation‘s Research

Center on MultilingualismCenter on Multilingualism

Intitial Hypothesis:Intitial Hypothesis:Due to ELF‘s global status and massive Due to ELF‘s global status and massive uni-directional translations from English, it uni-directional translations from English, it influences – over and above lexical influences – over and above lexical invasions – communicative norms in other invasions – communicative norms in other languageslanguages

Communicative Norms Communicative Norms English – GermanEnglish – German

(House 1996)(House 1996)

EnglishEnglish

IndirectnessIndirectnessOrientation towards Orientation towards personspersonsImplicitnessImplicitnessVerbal routinesVerbal routines

interactionalinteractional

involvedinvolved

GermanGerman

DirectnessDirectness

Orientation towards Orientation towards contentcontentExplicitnessExplicitnessAd-hoc-FormulationAd-hoc-Formulation

transactionaltransactional

detacheddetached

ImitationChange

EnglishEnglish

IndirectnessIndirectnessOrientation towards Orientation towards personspersonsImplicitnessImplicitnessVerbal routinesVerbal routines

interactionalinteractional

involvedinvolved

CorpusCorpusEnglish-German originals and translations (French and Spanish English-German originals and translations (French and Spanish control texts)control texts)

Popular Science TextsPopular Science Texts

– Scientific American,Scientific American, New ScientistNew Scientist and their satellite journals and their satellite journals

– Micro-diachronic: 1978-1982; 1999-2002Micro-diachronic: 1978-1982; 1999-2002

– 500 000 Words500 000 Words

Economic TextsEconomic Texts

– Annual reports by internationally operating companies Annual reports by internationally operating companies

Letters to shareholders, Missions, Visions, Corporate statementsLetters to shareholders, Missions, Visions, Corporate statements

– Reverse Translation Relation: German-English, French/Spanish-Reverse Translation Relation: German-English, French/Spanish-EnglishEnglish

– 130 000 Words130 000 Words

MethodMethodCombination of qualitative and quantitative Combination of qualitative and quantitative methodsmethods

Qualitative: House Translation Evaluation Model Qualitative: House Translation Evaluation Model

Quantitative: Frequency CountsQuantitative: Frequency Counts

Renewed qualitative analysis Renewed qualitative analysis

Three Phases of StudyThree Phases of StudyPhase 1: Qualitative Analyses Phase 1: Qualitative Analyses

- Result: differences in subjectivity and addressee - Result: differences in subjectivity and addressee orientation in originals and translationsorientation in originals and translations

Phase 2: QuantificationPhase 2: Quantification

- Result: differences in frequency of linguistic means of expressing - Result: differences in frequency of linguistic means of expressing

subjectivity and addresssee orientationsubjectivity and addresssee orientation

Phase 3: Re-contextualising qualitative analyses: isolation of all Phase 3: Re-contextualising qualitative analyses: isolation of all

occurrences of vulnerable elementsoccurrences of vulnerable elements

- Manual annotation to locate co-occurences with e.g. tense, mood - Manual annotation to locate co-occurences with e.g. tense, mood

- Do equivalent elements occur in same linguistic context?- Do equivalent elements occur in same linguistic context?

- Are equivalent elements used for same communicative function?- Are equivalent elements used for same communicative function?

- translation relation, genre-contrastive- translation relation, genre-contrastive

Statistics: Multivariate analyses, complex co-occurrence patternsStatistics: Multivariate analyses, complex co-occurrence patterns

Refined Hypothesis: Increased frequency of Refined Hypothesis: Increased frequency of certain means of realising subjectivity and certain means of realising subjectivity and addressee orientation in German texts over addressee orientation in German texts over past 25 years imitating Anglophone past 25 years imitating Anglophone communicative norms. E.g.:communicative norms. E.g.:

- Speaker-hearer deixis- Speaker-hearer deixis- Modality - Modality - Mental processes- Mental processes

Popular science articlesPopular science articles

Orientation towards persons

Genre-specific resultsGenre-specific results

Preliminary ResultsPreliminary Results

Changed use of certain forms expressing Changed use of certain forms expressing subjectivity and addressee orientation subjectivity and addressee orientation

Only for German, not for French and Only for German, not for French and Spanish texts!Spanish texts!

InterpretationInterpretation

Did communicative norms change because of Did communicative norms change because of direct contact with English in translation? direct contact with English in translation?

Mono-causal interpretation of results too easy. Mono-causal interpretation of results too easy. Also: in some cases, originals change more Also: in some cases, originals change more than translations! At least three explanations:than translations! At least three explanations:

1. The Booh-Faktor:1. The Booh-Faktor: Translation as Mediator of Translation as Mediator of the English Take-overthe English Take-over

Translation EFFECTS change!Translation EFFECTS change!

2. The 2. The X-FaktorX-Faktor: Universal Impact of : Universal Impact of Globalisation: Translation reflector of change, not Globalisation: Translation reflector of change, not

instigator thereof instigator thereof

Translation REFLECTS change!Translation REFLECTS change!

3. The Green Factor: Tr3. The Green Factor: Translation as anslation as cultural conservationcultural conservation

Translation RESISTS change!Translation RESISTS change!

(3) Psycholinguistic Perspective (3) Psycholinguistic Perspective (Linguistic Relativity)(Linguistic Relativity)

Claims that masssive import of English Claims that masssive import of English lexis influences thinking and concept lexis influences thinking and concept formation in L1 is compatible with strong formation in L1 is compatible with strong Humboldt-Sapir-Whorf HypothesisHumboldt-Sapir-Whorf HypothesisAccordingly, L1 speakers‘ thinking is Accordingly, L1 speakers‘ thinking is exposed to „acts of organized violence“ exposed to „acts of organized violence“ through ELF, which damages their L1- through ELF, which damages their L1- mediated knowledgemediated knowledge

This strong linguistic relativity hypothesis can be This strong linguistic relativity hypothesis can be refuted for at least three reasons:refuted for at least three reasons:

1.1. The universal possibility of translation The universal possibility of translation (Jakobson 1966)(Jakobson 1966)

2.2. Languages in use are „anachronisms“: their Languages in use are „anachronisms“: their forms do not normally rise to our forms do not normally rise to our consciousness (Ortega y Gasset 1960)consciousness (Ortega y Gasset 1960)

3.3. Converging evidence suggests that Converging evidence suggests that multilinguals possess a „deep“ common multilinguals possess a „deep“ common conceptual store to which „lower level“ conceptual store to which „lower level“ language-specific systems are attached language-specific systems are attached (Grosjean 2001; Myers-Scotton 2006)(Grosjean 2001; Myers-Scotton 2006)

Neurolinguistic studies of translation (e.g. Altarriba Neurolinguistic studies of translation (e.g. Altarriba 1992; Price et al 1999) show: multilinguals move 1992; Price et al 1999) show: multilinguals move flexibly from L1 to L2, and L2-L1, the two systems flexibly from L1 to L2, and L2-L1, the two systems being distinct but permeable.being distinct but permeable.With experts, processing often „shallow“, i.e., no With experts, processing often „shallow“, i.e., no semantic-conceptual processing at all (Sanford & semantic-conceptual processing at all (Sanford & Graesser 2006).Graesser 2006).No proof of a direct link of only one particular No proof of a direct link of only one particular language to thinking and conceptualizing.language to thinking and conceptualizing.Consequence: Increased use of ELF as language at Consequence: Increased use of ELF as language at tertiary levels of education must not necessarily tertiary levels of education must not necessarily inhibit knowledge in students‘ indigenous language.inhibit knowledge in students‘ indigenous language.

3. Conclusion3. ConclusionELF not necessarily a threat to multilingualism. ELF not necessarily a threat to multilingualism. Useful tool for communication, additional language, Useful tool for communication, additional language, never a substitute for L1s.never a substitute for L1s.

Neurolinguistic studies of translation and code-Neurolinguistic studies of translation and code-switching do not confirm that ELF inhibits or switching do not confirm that ELF inhibits or damages conceptualization in L1damages conceptualization in L1

ELF is both a pheno- and a geno-typically hybrid ELF is both a pheno- and a geno-typically hybrid language: Transfer from L1 widespread. ELF users‘ language: Transfer from L1 widespread. ELF users‘ L1s live on underneath the English surface!L1s live on underneath the English surface!

Because of ELF speakers‘ inner dialogicity Because of ELF speakers‘ inner dialogicity evaluation norms should not be L1 English evaluation norms should not be L1 English speakers‘ competence, but multilingual ELF speakers‘ competence, but multilingual ELF experts.experts.

Influence of ELF on German, but not French and Influence of ELF on German, but not French and Spanish, communicative norms, confirmed for Spanish, communicative norms, confirmed for specific linguistic forms, origin however unclear.specific linguistic forms, origin however unclear.

Association of ELF with global US Association of ELF with global US economic power. English language is but economic power. English language is but an instrument.an instrument.Power via language may lead to Power via language may lead to deplorable sameness, e.g. in service deplorable sameness, e.g. in service encounters in global chains (Cameron encounters in global chains (Cameron 2000). But: Mounting resistance!2000). But: Mounting resistance!Challenge to the academy: instead of Challenge to the academy: instead of blaming ELF from academic distance, blaming ELF from academic distance, research that may help expose and research that may help expose and change real social and political injustice, change real social and political injustice, discrimination and oppression.discrimination and oppression.

Thank you very much!Thank you very much!