energy policy and climate change in turkey

Energy policy and climate change in Turkey

Kamil Kaygusuz *

Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey

Received 10 April 2002; accepted 10 July 2002

Abstract

The problem of massive emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the burning of fossil fuels and their

climatic impact have become major scientific and political issues. Future stabilization of the atmospheric

CO2 content requires a drastic decrease of CO2 emissions worldwide. In this study, energy utilization and its

major environmental impacts are discussed from the standpoint of sustainable development, includinganticipated patterns of future energy use and subsequent environmental issues in Turkey. Several aspects

relating to energy utilization, renewable energy, energy efficiency, environment and sustainable develop-

ment are examined from both current and future perspectives. Turkey is an energy importing country; with

more than half of the energy requirement being supplied by imports. Domestic oil and lignite reserves are

limited, and the lignites are characterised by high ash, sulfur and moisture contents. Because of increasing

energy consumption, air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern for the future in the country.

In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions for

sustainable energy development and environmental pollution prevention in Turkey. Turkey’s geographicallocation has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy sources.

� 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Energy policy; Sustainable development; Renewable energy; Environmental impact

1. Introduction

Humanity has been faced with a lack of energy from time immemorial. The chief mobilizableenergy sources, with very limited yields, were animal traction, wind energy (windmills, sailingships), low energy hydropower (watermills) and biomass (mainly for home requirements). Only inthe last two centuries, thanks to scientific progress, has the energy constraint progressivelyloosened, with the possibility of drawing from more concentrated energy sources, including coal,

Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 1671–1688www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

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E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Kaygusuz).

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oil, gas and uranium. This revolution has sparked unprecedented economic development. How-ever, energy production and consumption have undeniable environmental repercussions. On theother hand, the environmental damages linked to production, transformation, transport and useof different energy sources have been substantial in the past and are still far from negligible [1].Energy is considered a prime agent in the generation of wealth and also a significant factor in

economic development. The importance of energy in economic development has been recognizedalmost universally. Historical data attest to a strong relationship between the availability of en-ergy and economic activity. During the past two decades, the risk and reality of environmentaldegradation have become more apparent. Growing evidence of environmental problems is due toa combination of several factors, since the environmental impact of human activities has growndramatically because of the sheer increase of world population, consumption, industrial activityetc. Achieving solutions to environmental problems that we face today requires long term po-tential actions for sustainable development. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear tobe one of the most efficient and effective solutions. That is why there is an intimate connectionbetween renewable energy and sustainable development [2].Turkey has dynamic economic development and rapid population growth. It also has macro-

economic, and especially monetary, instability. The net effect of these factors is that Turkey’senergy demand has grown rapidly almost every year and is expected to continue growing, but theinvestment necessary to cover the growing demand has not been forthcoming at the desired pace.On the other hand, meeting the energy demand is of high importance in Turkey, but exploiting thecountry’s large energy efficiency potential is also vital. Air pollution is a significant problem, andas the government’s projections show, carbon emissions could rise sharply if current trendscontinue [3].Turkey, according to 2000 data, produces 27.67 mtoe (million ton of oil equivalent) per year

from its own primary sources and consumes 79.46 mtoe a year of primary energy (see Table 1). It

Table 1

Primary energy production and consumption of Turkey during 1997–2000 (ktoe)

Energy production Energy consumption

1997 1998 1999 2000 1997 1998 1999 2000

Hard coal 1347 1678 2729 1769 8495 8160 11286 8149

Lignite 11,759 12,514 12,685 12,830 12,280 12,414 12,984 12,830

Oil 3630 3230 3056 2925 30,515 32,083 32,916 34,893

Natural gas 230 684 662 631 9165 10,635 12,902 14,071

Total fossil 16,966 18,106 19,132 18,155 60,455 63,292 70,088 69,943

Hydropower 3424 3632 2982 2656 3424 3632 2982 2656

Geothermal 179 256 274 286 179 256 274 286

Solar 80 98 114 120 80 98 114 120

Wood 5512 5512 5293 5081 5512 5512 5293 5081

Waste and

dung

1512 1492 1510 1376 1512 1492 1510 1376

Total renewable 10,707 10,878 10,650 9519 10,707 10,878 10,650 9519

Source: Ref. [4,5].

1672 K. Kaygusuz / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 1671–1688

is expected that by the year 2020, the primary energy production will be 85 mtoe, while primaryenergy consumption will be 318 mtoe. Based on an evaluation of its fossil fuel reserves, whichtotal 2454 mtoe, it is expected that Turkey will be forced to import energy in increasing pro-portions. However, the country has the potential for 122.3 TWh/year of hydropower, 1.8 mtoe/year of geothermal power, 50 TWh/year of wind power and 32 mtoe/year of biomass energy inusable and/or economic quantities. For this reason, Turkey attaches considerable importance torenewable energies [4].

2. Turkey’s energy policy and energy utilization

The energy demand of Turkey will be doubled between the years 2000–2010 and will be fourfoldbetween the years 2000–2025. This rapid increase in demand is due to the high economic deve-lopment rate of Turkey. The estimated amount of investments for the production facilities by theyear 2010 is around 45 billion dollars. Transmission and distribution facilities will require anadditional 10 billion dollar investment in the same period. The government has undertakenmeasures to attract local and foreign private sector funds for new investments, and also to transferoperational rights of existing units to the private sector for their renewal and efficient operation [5].Turkey is an energy importing country, with more than half of the energy requirement being

supplied by imports. Oil has the biggest share in total primary energy consumption. As a result ofthe diversification efforts of energy sources, the use of natural gas, newly introduced into theTurkish economy, has been growing rapidly. Turkey has large reserves of coal, particularly oflignite. The proven lignite reserves are 8.0 billion ton. The estimated total possible reserves are 30billion ton. A majority of these lignites, mostly situated in Afs�in-Elbistan, Soma and Tunc�bilek,are characterized by high ash contents in the range of 14–42%, high moisture contents rangingfrom 15% to 50% and volatile matter contents of 16–38%. On the other hand, important devel-opments have been recorded in primary energy and electricity consumption during the last fortyyears. In this period, primary energy consumption has increased by an average of 5.0% andelectricity consumption by 10% annually. Despite high growth rates, primary energy and elec-tricity consumption are quite below the levels of OECD countries [4,5].As of the end of 2000, the installed capacity and generation capacity of power plants reached

26,457 MW and 124,922 GWh (75% thermal and 25% renewables), respectively. As of 2000, theelectricity demand in the amount of 94 billion kWh was met continuously with a high reservemargin. However, it is crucial to ensure continuity of the investments in order to meet the elec-tricity demand, which is increasing rapidly, continuously and safely in the coming years. TheMinistry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) is planning for a very large increase inelectric generating capacity over the next twenty years. As shown in Table 2, the largest growth isplanned for natural gas fired generation. The MENR had intended that most of the new powerplants would be built by foreign developers on a ‘‘Build, Operate and Transfer’’ (BOT) basis.The findings of the MENR suggest that the primary energy demand will be equivalent to 91

mtoe in the year 2002, and 314 mtoe in 2020 in Turkey. In line with this trend, in 2023, markingthe centennial of the country, the primary energy consumption will reach 367 mtoe and 407 mtoetwo years later in 2025. According to the Ministry’s production forecasts, domestic production ofprimary energy will reach the level of 31 mtoe in 2000 and 79 mtoe by 2020. The projections

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 1671–1688 1673

foresee domestic generation to top 95 mtoe in 2025 and 106 mtoe in 2030. In other words, in 2000,domestic energy production met 35% of the total primary energy demand and will probably meet28% in 2010 and 24% in 2020. Table 3 gives the findings related to primary energy resources andtheir domestic production planning [4].

3. Environmental impacts of energy utilization

Turkey has been undergoing major economic changes in the 1990s, marked by rapid overalleconomic growth and structural changes (privatisation of State enterprises, price liberalisation,integration in the European and global economies). However, the share of the informal sector inthe Turkish economy remains high. Turkey’s population has reached 65 million and remains oneof the fastest growing countries from 1990 to 1999 in the OECD. Major migrations from ruralareas to urban, industrial and tourist areas continue. In this context, Turkey confronts thechallenge of ensuring that economic growth is associated with environmental and social progress,namely that its development is sustainable.

Table 2

Electric power capacity development in Turkey

Fuel type 2000 2010 2020

Installed

capacity (MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Installed

capacity (MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Installed

capacity (MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Coal 7465 38,186 16,106 104,040 26,906 174,235

Natural gas 6756 46,217 18,923 125,549 34,256 225,648

Fuel oil 2124 9531 3246 18,213 8025 49,842

Renewablesa 10,112 30,988 25,102 86,120 30,040 104,110

Nuclear 0.0 0.0 2000 14,000 10,000 70,000

Total 26,457 124,922 65,377 347,922 109,227 623,835

Source: Ref. [4,5].a Renewables includes hydropower, biomass, solar and geothermal energy.

Table 3

Primary energy production targets of Turkey from 2005 to 2030 (ktoe)

Energy sources 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Hardcoal and lignite 21,259 28,522 31,820 39,385 42,732 45,954

Oil and natural gas 2127 1735 1516 1604 1505 1465

Central heating 495 884 1336 2018 2427 2758

Hydropower 5845 7520 8873 9454 10,002 10,465

Wood and waste 6760 6446 6029 5681 5498 5413

Geothermal 1380 3760 4860 4860 5400 5430

Nuclear 0.0 3657 9143 18,286 26,988 29,600

Solar 459 907 1508 2294 2845 3268

Wind 250 620 980 1440 1786 2154

Source: Ref. [4,5].


Air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in Turkey. Air pollution from energyutilization in the country is due to the combustion of coal, lignite, petroleum, natural gas, woodand agricultural and animal wastes. On the other hand, owing mainly to the rapid growth ofprimary energy consumption and the increasing use of domestic lignite, SO2 emissions, in parti-cular, have increased rapidly in recent years in Turkey. The major source of SO2 emissions is thepower sector, contributing more than 50% of the total emissions. As given in the literature [6], SO2

concentrations in the flue-gas of some lignite fired power stations are extremely high and differnotably between power plants, owing to the variation of the sulphur content of the fuels. Al-though the NO2 emissions are lower than the SO2 emissions in Turkey, they have likewise in-creased rapidly, following the growth of energy requirements. Contrary to the development ofSO2 emissions, a similar upward trend of NO2 emissions has been observed in many EuropeanCommunity countries as well, resulting mainly from the increased traffic density. Also, in Turkey,nearly 50% of the total NO2 emissions are from the transportation sector, while less than 20% arecaused by power generation. Per capita NO2 emissions are still much lower in Turkey than in theEuropean Community countries, i.e. less than one-third of these countries, average.

3.1. Environmental regulations

At the beginning of the 1970s, the government plan showed that the utilization of low gradedomestic lignites for electricity generation would make a significant contribution to the country’seconomy. Most of these plants were then constructed from 1974 to 1984. However, at that time,there were no effective environmental regulations. The power plants were designed in order tokeep ground level pollutant concentrations lower than the limits of some international standards.Model studies were performed considering the meteorological conditions at the site and the powerplants. The most important design parameter in keeping a site free from pollution was determinedto be a stack height of about 300 m. Table 4 shows the air pollutant emissions of the lignite firedpower plants in Turkey. High costs prevented the old power plants from being equipped withdesulfurization systems. At present, there are five flue-gas desulfurization systems in operationin C�ayırhan (300 MW), Orhaneli (210 MW), Yata�ggan (630 MW), Kemerk€ooy (630 MW) andYenik€ooy (420 MW). The authorities have recently become aware of the environmental conse-quences of fossil fuel consumption and the inadequacy of the standards. In addition to the par-ticulate and gaseous material emissions, ash deposition and waste water discharge have becomeenvironmental problems. The first environmental law for air quality was enacted in 1983 [6].Table 5 summarizes the air quality regulations. It gives limiting values for particulate matter,

NOx and SO2 emissions. The figures are listed for burning solid, liquid and gaseous fuels and newpower plants. Water quality regulations have required installation of waste water treatment fa-cilities for both old and new power plants. However, there still remain a number of policy issues tobe implemented.

3.2. Air pollutant emissions

Air pollution from energy utilization in Turkey is due to the combustion of fossil fuels andbiomass resources. The emission data were calculated by using standard methods that were givenin the Revised 1996 IPPC because it is simple to calculate and did not require detailed emission


Table 5

Air quality limits in Turkey

Air quality parameter Present limits Probable revisions limits

Short term Long term Short term Long term

SO2 (lg/m3) 400 150 250 100

PM10 (lg/m3) 300 150 200 100

NO2 (lg/m3) 300 100 200 80

VOC (lg/m3) 140 – 140 –

CO (lg/m3) 30,000 10,000 10,000 5000

CH4 (lg/m3) 140 – 140 –

Source: Ref. [6].

PM: particulate matter; lg/m3: micrograms per cubic meter.

Table 4

Air pollutant emissions of the lignite-fired power plants (kg/saat)

PM SO2 NOx CO VOC CH4

Yata�ggan 263 27,945 4140 207 28 10

Afs�in-Elbistan 1518 67,200 19,200 960 128 48

Yenik€ooy 302 33,600 3360 168 23 8.4

Seyit€oomer 1-2-3 1302 18,000 3600 180 24 9.0

Seyit€oomer 4 660 7980 1596 80 11 4.0

Soma A 67 937 528 26 4.0 1.3

Soma B 1-2 618 4880 1992 100 13 5.0

Soma B 3-4 329 7470 1992 100 13 5.0

Soma B 5-6 684 12,263 3270 164 22 8.0

Tunc�bilek 1-2 123 1800 360 18 2.4 0.9

Tunc�bilek 3 78 1500 300 15 2.0 0.7

Tunc�bilek 4-5 920 6143 2100 105 14 5.0

C�ayırhan 94 1776 1528 76 10 3.8

Kangal 756 16,620 3324 166 22 8.3

Orhaneli 30 5700 1200 60 8.0 3.0

Total 7743 213,813 48,490 2424 323 121

Source: Ref. [19].

Table 6

CO2 emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming

sectors

CO2 emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 20,534 33,698 50,965 61,664 87,975

Industry 20,968 24,876 37,123 41,246 55,463

Transportation 15,965 18,245 25,878 32,460 44,658

Households 14,355 19,568 21,356 23,456 26,876

Others 3818 5876 6143 8456 10,920

Total 75,640 102,263 141,465 167,282 225,892

Gg: giga gram.


data. The IPPC Guidelines were first accepted in 1994 and published in 1995. The Kyoto Protocolto the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reaffirmed thatthe Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories should be used as‘‘methodologies for estimating anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks ofgreenhouse gases’’ in calculation of legally binding targets during the first commitment period [7].Tables 6–8 show the calculated carbon dioxide (CO2), CH4, and N2O emissions for the main

Table 7

CH4 emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming sectors CH4 emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 0.40 0.51 0.70 0.88 1.23

Industry 1.84 2.41 3.56 3.84 5.32

Transportation 2.30 2.37 3.61 4.82 5.68

Households 114.51 130.24 134.25 118.67 118.96

Others 9.42 12.41 11.32 10.12 9.68

Total 128.47 147.94 153.44 138.33 140.87

Gg: giga gram.

Table 8

N2O emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming

sectors

N2O emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 0.16 0.30 0.41 0.54 0.63

Industry 0.30 0.39 0.53 0.56 0.62

Transportation 0.13 0.16 0.22 0.31 0.40

Households 0.56 0.60 0.64 0.70 0.73

Others 0.93 0.96 1.00 1.04 1.07

Total 2.08 2.41 2.80 3.15 3.45

Gg: giga gram.

Table 9

Total emission estimates with five-year intervals in Turkey (mg/year)

PM SOx NOx VOC CO CH4

1980 4,113,234 1,735,344 342,876 335,567 321,897 128,473

1985 4,465,323 2,123,134 446,786 384,678 895,654 147,942

1990 4,976,456 2,620,105 612,345 427,864 1,443,276 153,441

1995 6,012,112 3,123,344 696,678 413,976 1,584,554 138,334

2000 6,964,224 3,486,623 834,776 443,568 1,786,645 142,873

2005 7,789,677 4,134,543 956,744 465,765 1,986,865 149,673

2010 8,986,687 4,875,789 1,214,762 504,443 2,243,543 154,534

2015 9,345,256 5,668,922 1,764,322 539,543 2,554,567 159,789

2020 10,122,342 6,234,544 2,344,176 591,344 2,943,876 162,356

VOC: volatile organic compounds.

PM: particulate matter.


sectors (energy and cycle, industry, transportation, households and others) by years in Turkey,respectively. Table 9 also shows the total emission estimates with five year intervals in thecountry.

4. Turkey’s energy/carbon assessments

Turkey has not signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Al-though Turkey was a member of the OECD in 1992 when the UNFCCC was adopted (and assuch was included among the countries of the Conventions’s Annexes I and II), it is still not fullyindustrialized [8].There are understandable reasons for this position: with respect to a variety of indicators,

Turkey falls below OECD norms. For example, its GDP, as well as its per capita CO2 emissions,are lower than the OECD average and more in line with many of the advanced non-OECDcountries. Concerned about the potential economic implications of compliance, Turkey has,therefore, not signed the UNFCCC, nor has it made commitments under the Convention’s KyotoProtocol. To date, the government has argued that the country does not have the financial ortechnological capability of Annex I and Annex II countries and, therefore, cannot meet theemissions reduction commitments. It has also claimed that it does not have the capacity to providefinancial and technical assistance to non-Annex I developing countries. For these reasons, Turkeyhas sought to have the Convention amended to remove Turkey from both Annexes I and II of theUNFCCC.

Table 10

Taxes on oil products in Turkey (2001)

Products Customs duties (%) FPSF (TL) FCT (TL) VAT (%)

Premium gasoline (per litre) 4.7 5,000 431,500 18

Regular gasoline (per litre) 4.7 0 409,500 18

Unleaded gasoline (per litre) 4.7 0 424,500 18

Naphtha (fuel) 3 – – 18

Naphtha 0 – – 18

Kerosene (per litre) 4.7 17,750 311,500 18

Jet fuel (per litre) 4.7 0 – 18

Diesel oil (2% sulphur) (per litre) 3.5 0 291,200 18

Diesel oil (other) (per litre) 0 0 291,200 18

Motor diesel (per litre) 3.5 3,600 291,200 18

Heating oil (per litre) 3.5 150 113,000 18

Fuel oil 6 (industry) (per kg) 3.5 7,100 15,000 18

Fuel oil (power gen.) (per kg) 3.5 0 15,000 18

LPG (propane, butane) (per kg) 0.7 40,000 185,000 18

LPG (automotive) (per kg) 0.7 40,000 185,000 40

LPG (heating) (per kg) 0.7 40,000 185,000 18

Propane (fuel) (per kg) 8 40,000 185,000 18

Source: Ref. [4].

TL: Turkish Liras; FPSF: Fuel Price Stabilisation Fund.

FCT: fuel consumption tax.


In order to limit international emissions of GHGs, the authorities introduced carbon taxes.These carbon taxes vary, however, both across different fuels and across industries. Emissions ofall GHGs, other than CO2, are exempted from taxation. On the other hand, broad based carbon/energy taxes are among the most promising and important of the emerging tools for promotingreductions in CO2 emissions. The potential for relocating fuel intensive production in low taxnations is especially troubling because it damages the taxing nations industries without anycorresponding benefit to the global environment [1].Turkey’s main tax on oil products is the fuel consumption tax (FCT). The FCT rates for

various oil products are given in Table 10. To alleviate the effects of oil price fluctuations and thepronounced exchange rate fluctuations of the Turkish lira against the dollar on domestic oilprices, the government linked this tax to a pre-existing mechanism, called the Fuel Price Stabi-lization Fund (FPSF), as of 5 February 2000. On the other hand, the purpose of the FPSF is tostabilize domestic oil prices, and it is financed through a compensatory FPSF tax. The tax ratefluctuates and is inversely proportional to developments in international oil prices and the ex-change rate of the Turkish lira against the dollar. The tax does not apply to fuels used in gene-rating electricity [8].

5. Renewable energy sources

Turkey has substantial reserves of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy productionrepresented about 9.51 mtoe in 2000, and renewables are the second largest domestic energy sourceafter coal. Slightly less than two-thirds of this production is supplied by biomass and animal waste.Another third is supplied by hydropower, and about 0.5% of the total is produced from geothermal,wind and solar sources. On the other hand, government projections for the near future indicate aprogressive decrease in the use of wood, animal wastes and other combustible and renewable energysources. The reasons for this are the expected rise in living standards as well as limits on defores-tation. In the following sections, each renewable energy resource is discussed briefly.

5.1. Hydropower

There are 436 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, distributed on 26 main riverzones (Table 11). Turkey has a gross annual hydro potential of 433,000 GWh, which is almost 1%of the world total potential. Of the total hydropower capacity in Europe, Turkey’s share is about14%. Almost half of the gross potential is technically exploitable, and 28% (122,322 GWh/year) iseconomically exploitable. As of November 2000, there were 120 hydro plants in operation. Thesehave a total installed capacity of 11,588 MW and an annual average generation capacity of 42,015GWh, amounting to almost 34% of the total exploitable potential. Presently, this generationmeets about 35% of the electricity demand. Thirty-four hydropower plants with an installed ca-pacity of 3305 MW and an annual generation capacity of 10,981 GWh, which is almost 9% of thetotal potential, are under construction. On the other hand, Turkey has an enormous task ahead tocomplete its full hydropower development programme. In the future, 329 more hydropowerplants will be constructed to exploit the remaining potential of 69,326 GWh/year, bringing thetotal number of hydro plants to 483 with a total installed capacity of 34,592 MW. This is foreseen


to be accomplished upon the realization of a total development of 19,699 MW. In financial terms,it requires an investment of more than US$30 billion [9,10].The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is one of the largest power generating, irrigation

and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3 million ha of agricultural land.This is over 10% of the cultivable land in Turkey. The land to be irrigated is more than half ofthat presently irrigated in Turkey. The GAP is an integrated development project. It is expectedto affect the entire structure of the region in its economic, social and cultural dimensions througha process of transformations to be triggered by agricultural modernization. The GAP projecton the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers encompasses 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants.Once completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated and 1.7 million ha will be irrigated[11].The Atat€uurk Dam has been important in the completion of the Lower Euphrates Project and

even the entire GAP project, for it is the water source of four projects aimed at the irrigation of852,781 ha. The type of dam is packed rock with 169 m height from the river bed and 1664 m longcrest. The body packed volume of the dam is 84.5 millionm3. The Atat€uurk Dam has eight unitswith 300 MW installed capacity of each unit, and the mean value of electrical energy production is8.5 billion kWh/year. On the other hand, the energy potentials of the Tigris and Euphrates areestimated as 12,000 and 35,000 GWh, respectively. These two rivers constitute 10% and 30% ofthe total hydroelectric energy potential of the country. The GAP region will be an importantelectric power producer with 1000 MW installed capacity from Karakaya Dam, 2400 MW in-stalled capacity from Atat€uurk Dam and 1360 MW installed capacity from Keban Dam. The GAP

Table 11

Water and energy potential of selected river basins in Turkey

Name of basin Land area

(km2)

Average rain-

fall (mm/year)

Number of

dam

Stored water

(hm3)

Installed ca-

pacity (MW)

Average genera-

tion (GWh)

Susurluk 22,399 711.6 25 3509.3 537.0 1697

Gediz 18,000 603.0 14 3369.4 250.0 425

B. Menderes 24,976 664.3 19 2722.1 214.5 848

B. Akdeniz 20,953 875.8 24 1836.6 674.7 2495

Antalya 19,577 1000.4 15 2885.3 1251.6 4411

Sakarya 58,160 524.7 45 6920.3 1062.5 2362

B. Karadeniz 29,598 811.0 24 2518.8 592.7 2110

Yes�ilırmak 36,114 496.5 45 6301.8 1657.6 6468

Kızılırmak 78,180 446.1 82 21260.0 2007.0 6512

D. Akdeniz 22,048 745.0 11 9121.5 1495.9 5176

Seyhan 20,450 624.0 18 6124.5 1885.6 7117

Ceyhan 21,982 731.6 25 7719.5 1408.7 4634

Fırat 127,304 540.1 83 112791.5 9844.8 38,939

D. Karadeniz 24,077 1198.2 43 1522.5 3323.1 10,927

C�oruh 19,872 629.4 20 7544.4 3227.4 10,614

Aras 27,548 432.4 20 4084.8 585.2 2291

Dicle 57,614 807.2 36 30295.0 5081.9 16,876

Total Turkey 779,452 642.6 702 240763.6 35309.2 124,568

Source: Ref. [12].


region, with this capacity, will supply 25% of Turkey’s electricity and 85% of its hydroelectricenergy [12,13].

5.2. Biomass

Biomass energy includes fuelwood, agricultural residues, animal wastes, charcoal and otherfuels derived from biological sources, is used by approximately half of the world’s population ascooking and/or heating fuel and currently accounts for about 14% of world energy consumption.Biomass is the main source of energy for many developing countries, providing more than 90% ofthe energy supply in some developing countries. Fuelwood and other biomass fuels are handledand combusted primarily by women, who are largely responsible for repetitive chores, such ascooking, and are often involved in any household industries. Women and children generally havethe main responsibility for collecting fuel [14].Among the renewable energy sources, biomass is important because its share of total energy

consumption is still high. Since 1980, the contribution of biomass resources in the total energyconsumption dropped from 20% to 10% in 1999. Biomass in the forms of fuelwood and animalwastes is the main fuel for heating and cooking in many urban areas. The total recoverablebioenergy potential is estimated to be about 16.92 mtoe as given in Table 12. The estimate is basedon the recoverable energy potential from the main agricultural residues, livestock farming wastes,forestry and wood processing residues and municipal wastes [15].On the other hand, fuelwood is important for rural areas in Turkey, as in other developing

countries. About half of the world’s population depends on fuelwood or other biomass forcooking and other domestic use. In 2000, an estimated 11.5 million steres of fuelwood wereproduced by the State, while from both public and private sectors, the recorded production wasestimated at about 13.2 million steres from undeclared production. In other words, approximatelyhalf of the total demand for fuelwood is met by informal cutting in State forests and other sourcesof fuelwood in agricultural areas [16].

5.3. Geothermal energy

Turkey is the seventh richest country in the world in geothermal potential for its direct use andfor electricity generation. Most of the country is located on the Alpine-Hymalayan orogenic belt,

Table 12

Total recoverable bioenergy potential in Turkey (1998)

Type of biomass Energy potential (ktoe)

Dry agricultural residue 4560

Moist agricultural residue 250

Animal waste 2350

Forestry and wood processing residues 4300

Municipality wastes and human extra 1300

Firewood 4160

Total bioenergy 16,920

Source: Ref. [2].


which constitutes the major factor in having high geothermal potential. The first geothermalresearches and explorations in Turkey were started by the General Directorate of Mineral Re-search and Exploration (MTA) in the 1960’s. Up to now, approximately 170 geothermal fieldsthat can be useful at the economic scale and about 1000 hot and mineral water resources (springdischarge and reservoir), which have temperatures ranging from 20 to 242 �C, have been deter-mined. As a result of the researches and drillings performed by the MTA, the recorded data oftemperatures and flow rates of the thermal sources in geothermal fields have been increased veryseriously. Data accumulated since 1962 show that there may exist about 4500 MW of geothermalenergy usable for electrical power generation in high enthalpy zones. The heating capacity in thecountry runs at 820 MWt equivalent to 52,000 households. These numbers can be increased somesevenfold to 2250 MWt, equal to 350,000 households, through a proven and inexhaustible po-tential. Turkey must target 1.3 million households, equivalent to 7700 MWt. Geothermal centralheating, which is less costly than natural gas could be feasible for many regions in the country. Inaddition, 31,000 MW of geothermal energy potential is estimated for direct use in thermal ap-plications. The total geothermal energy potential of Turkey is about 2268 MW in 1998, but theshare of geothermal energy production, both for electrical and thermal uses, is only 1200 MW.There are 26 geothermal district heating systems now in Turkey. By summing all these geothermalutilizations in Turkey, the installed capacity is 820 MWt for direct use (Table 13). The main citygeothermal district heating systems are in G€oonen, Simav and Kırs�ehir cities. To date, at least fourother geothermal fields with electric power generating potential have been discovered and studiedto varying degrees. These are: Seferihisar, Salvatlı, Simav and Dikili-Bergama. Holes drilled toevaluate these fields found temperatures up to 171 �C with variable degrees of permeability. TheTurkish geothermists claim to have virtually overcome the consequences of scaling and corrosionin both high and low temperature wells, so scientific research continues. Plans are to be generating125 MWe from Germencik, Kızıldere, C�anakkale and several of the other fields by the year 2000,150 MWe by 2005 and 258 MWe by 2010. On the other hand, utilization of geothermal energy forelectric power generation is rather advantageous because of its relatively low installation andoperational cost, as well as being more friendly to the environment in comparison to conventionalthermal and hydraulic power plants [17,18].

5.4. Solar energy

Turkey lies in a sunny belt between 36� N and 42� N latitudes. The yearly average solar radi-ation is 3.6 kWh/m2 day, and the total yearly radiation period is approximately 2620 h (Table 14),

Table 13

Capacities in geothermal utilization in Turkey (January 2001)

Geothermal utilization Capacity

District heating 493 MWt

Balneological utilization 327 MWt

Total direct use 820 MWt

Power production 20.4 MWe

CO2 production 120,000 ton/year

Source: Ref. [17].


which is sufficient to provide adequate energy for solar heating applications. Turkey’s gross solarenergy potential is 88 mtoe. In spite of this high potential, solar energy technologies are not nowwidely used, except for flat plate solar collectors. They are only used for domestic hot waterproduction, mostly in the sunny coastal regions. In Turkey, 18% of the total residents are usingsolar collectors for hot water production. The industry of solar water heaters expanded veryquickly and today reaches an annual production of about 200,000 m2 of collectors. In 2000, about3.2 millionm2 total of solar collectors were produced and mounted on the roof of residents in theMediterranean and Aegean regions, generally. In this sector, there are over 100 companies and2000 employees. At the present time, it is predicted that the total solar energy production is about0.090 mtoe. In Turkey, solar systems for water heating are the thermosyphon type and consist oftwo flat plate solar collectors having an absorber area between 3 and 4 m2, a storage tank withcapacity between 150 and 200 l and a cold water storage tank, all installed on a suitable frame[5,19].In the field of passive solar systems, sufficient studies have not been done, except in some

universities and institutes. There are a few solar houses in Turkey, such as the Ankara SolarHouse located on Aks�emsettin street in the Yenimahalle District, Ankara, Turkey, the BelkoSolar Building in Ankara, the Building of the Ege University Solar Energy Institute, _IIzmir,Turkey, and the Erciyes University Active Solar House in Kayseri, Turkey. The Erciyes ActiveSolar House is 144 m2 and is heated by air collectors constructed on the roof. Eighty to eighty-fivepercent of its heat load has been met by solar energy. In these kinds of buildings, although it isimpossible to meet all the energy demand for heating, ventilating, cooling and air conditioningthrough solar energy, more than 50% of the annual energy requirement can be obtained [20,21].Turkey, currently, does not have an organized commercial and domestic photovoltaic (PV)

program. The Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIE) laun-ched various demonstration projects in order to identify the production technologies and ope-ration specifications, such as manufacturing a 2 W solar cell module, a solar cell system of 1600W, a solar cell system of 5 kW connected to the national grid and others of utilization of solar cellsas street lighting, small scale agricultural irrigation and mobile PV systems. Global energystrategies and policies are laid down in periodic five year development plans. The Government hasno intentions in PV production. The newest five year development plan, being prepared, foresees a

Table 14

Solar and wind energy potential by regions of Turkey

Annual average

wind density (W/m2)

Annual average

wind speed (m/s)

Annual average solar radi-

ation (kWh/m2 year)

Sunshine duration

(h/year)

Marmara 51.91 3.29 1168 2409

Southeast Anatolia 29.33 2.69 1460 2993

Aegean 23.47 2.65 1304 2738

Mediterranean 21.36 2.45 1390 2956

Black Sea 21.31 2.38 1120 1971

Central Anatolia 20.14 2.46 1314 2628

East Anatolia 13.19 2.12 1365 2664

Turkey average 25.81 2.57 1303 2623

Source: Ref. [5].


more ambitious program and estimates approximately 40 MWp installed power by the year 2010[4].

5.5. Wind energy

There are a number of regions in Turkey with relatively high wind speeds (Table 14). Thesehave been classified into six wind regions, with a low of about 3.5 m/s and a high of 5 m/s at 10 maltitude, corresponding to a theoretical power production between 1000 and 3000 kWh/(m2 year).The most attractive sites are the Marmara Sea region, Mediterranean Coast, Aegean Sea Coastand Anatolia inland. In Turkey, electricity production through wind energy for general usagepurposes was first realized at the Cesme Altınyunus Resort in 1986 by using a 55 kW nominalpowered wind turbine. The wind turbine has a diameter of 14 m and provides an electric power of55 kW at a wind speed of 12 m/s. Annually, in Cesme, 100,000 kWh of electric energy are ob-tained, and this amount of energy meets 4% of the Resort’s energy demand. Turkey’s first windfarm was commissioned in 1998 and has a capacity of 1.5 MW. Capacity is likely to grow rapidly,as plans have been submitted for just under a further 600 MW of independent facilities. Themajority of the proposed projects are located in the C� es�me, _IIzmir and C�anakkale regions. Theelectrical power resources survey and development administration (EIE) performs wind mea-surements at various locations to evaluate the wind energy potential over the country and hasstarted to compile a wind energy atlas (in cooperation with other organisations). Approval ofindependent wind energy projects requires at least a six months history of wind measurements.The estimated wind energy capacities are 1359 MW in 2005, 2979 MW in 2010, 5142 MW in 2015,7849 MW in 2020 and 11,200 MW in 2025 [5].

5.6. Wave energy

Energy can also be extracted from the non-tidal surface sea waves. Wind energy is the mainproducer of wave energy. The coast length of Turkey is approximately 8210 km. Turkey’s wavepotential is not sufficient to build small wave energy systems in every coastal region. One-fifth ofthe total coast length of Turkey has 18.5 TWh/year wave energy technique potential. On the otherhand, it is estimated that Turkey’s annual wave energy potential is an average 140 billion kWh.When we consider the 120 billion kWh annual electricity production of Turkey in 2000, we mayconclude that the wave energy potential of the country should be used in order to meet Turkey’selectricity demand [5].

6. Energy efficiency and conservation

In Turkey, the per capita energy consumption (measured as TPES/population) in 1998 wasequal to 1.11 ton of oil equivalent (toe), much less than the average of 5.10 toe for all IEAcountries [8], but its growth is much faster than the IEA average and is projected to remain fast inthe coming two decades as the economy develops. Energy intensity (measured as toe/$1000 GDPat 1990 prices and exchange rates) in 1998 was 0.35 toe, compared with an IEA average of 0.24 toe,


and has increased slowly in recent years. If purchasing power parities are used, Turkey’s energyintensity fell well below the IEA average. On the other hand, the government acknowledges theneed to reduce the energy intensity of GDP and to improve the energy efficiency of the economy.According to estimates of the MENR, Turkey has an energy conservation potential equal to 12–14 mtoe/year, or nearly 15–20% of total consumption in 1998, and therefore, $3 billion could besaved through conservation measures in three main end-use sectors [4,5].The industrial sector accounted for 40% of total final energy consumption and for 54% of

electricity consumption in 2000, while the agriculture, household and services sectors togetheraccounted for 40% of final energy consumption and 46% of electricity consumption. Although allfour sectors have important potential for energy conservation, industry has been targeted as apriority area for energy conservation programmes owing to the projected rapid expansion ofindustrial energy demand. On the other hand, the structure of industry in Turkey is energy in-tensive. Within the industrial sector, iron and steel manufacturing (about 35% of industrial energyuse) and cement production (about 20%) are by far the largest energy users. However, thepetrochemical industry, the fertilizer industry, the textile industry, ceramic products and papermanufacturing, as well as sugar production, are also major users. According to the MENR, thepotential for conservation in these sectors ranges from 20% to 40% in the country.A considerable share of the energy intensive industries and some of the most energy inefficient

ones remains under government control. Industry privatisation, if pursued according to plan, islikely to result in closure of the oldest and most inefficient operations and in modernization for thesurviving ones. The progressive elimination of energy price subsidies will also stimulate energyconservation. This process may well boost the overall energy efficiency of Turkish industry, andgovernment projections of industrial energy demand may prove to have been significantly over-estimated. On the other hand, in 1996, a study of the MENR assessed the potential for energyconservation in industry at 4.2 million toe (nearly 25% of industrial energy use for that year) andan approximate cash value of $1 billion/year. The total investment required to achieve thisconservation potential would be close to $2.4 billion. The payback period for these investmentswould range from a minimum of one year to a maximum of three years. The measures requiredto bring these savings about would include the adoption of various forms of waste heat reco-very, increased use of cogeneration of electricity and heat/steam and the use of more efficientboilers.In the residential/commercial sector, more than 70% of the energy consumed is used for heating.

Energy use per unit of building area could be reduced by nearly half through the application to allbuildings of the new Heat Insulation Standards on building envelopes, issued in 2000 [4]. Whileexisting buildings require 200–250 kWh/m2, the new standards could bring requirements down to100–150 kWh/m2. At current rates of building stock turnover, the estimated energy efficiencygains could take several decades to materialise. In addition, according to a study conducted in theframework of the World Bank’s ESMAP programme [8], major efficiency improvements are alsopossible in power generation by increasing power plant size from the existing average of 150–340MW (coal fired units) by requiring higher efficiency specifications for new plants and by increasingthe use of cogeneration, especially in industry.Transport energy use can be reduced by improving the efficiency of transportation technology

(e.g. improving automobile fuel economy), shifting to less energy intensive transport modes (e.g.substitution from passenger cars to mass transit), improving the quality or changing the mix of


fuels used in the transportation system and improving the quality of the transportation infra-structure. For all modes of transport, substantial opportunities exist to improve transportationequipment. The technical savings potential for passenger cars and trucks is estimated at 15–45%for Turkey. In the transport sector, the energy efficiency is changing from 15% to 20% [22].

7. Conclusions

Turkey is an energy importing country because domestic fossil reserves are limited and insuf-ficient. Therefore, the Turkish government’s investment needs in the energy sector for the period2002–2015 will be around 65 billion US dollars, and of this, about 82% is total planning in-vestments. A major dilemma now faced by Turkey is how to invest in new electric power capacity,while at the same time, adhering to foreign debt ceilings under lending rules set by the Interna-tional Money Fund (IMF). Therefore, Turkey has to adopt new long term energy strategies toreduce the share of fossil fuels and to increase the share of renewables in primary energy con-sumption.Turkey has a major potential for energy efficiency improvements. Exploitation of this potential

could reduce environmental emissions and improve the security of supply. The potential for re-newables is also significant. Turkey’s main renewable energy sources are fuelwood and hydro-power. The use of fuelwood and animal wastes will decline in share and absolute terms as Turkeybecomes more prosperous, as has happened in all other IEA countries, because of the convenienceof using oil, gas or even electrical heating and cooking where these options are available. If the useof biomass is to be sustained in future, measures will, at some stage, have to be phased in tosupport it. In this respect, Turkey could benefit from other countries’s experiences.Several issues must be considered in this context. First, fuelwood must be used in a sustainable

manner. Turkey conducts afforestation programmes in deforested, arid areas for environmentalreasons; which must not be jeopardised, and forest exploitation and wood harvesting must occurin a controlled manner. Second, waste incineration for electricity generation should be consideredas a renewable option in the future, but this should be done using appropriate technology toensure high health and environmental standards, in particular with respect to air emissions. Onthe other hand, in Turkey’s situation, where government expenditure has to be tightly controlled,it is of great importance that the most cost effective resources be developed. Therefore, thegovernment should attempt to develop competitive renewables first, and base support for re-newables, if necessary, on cost effectiveness. The government should investigate what options areviable without financial support. This may be the case for certain hydro projects and for solarthermal applications. The potential of these and other renewable energy sources should beevaluated regularly. For those renewables that need support, bidding procedures should be im-plemented to ensure that the most cost effective renewables are supported.In recent years, progress has been made in both fields. New energy efficiency legislation and

regulations are under preparation that will go some way towards using this potential. Turkey nowhas a clear target for wind generation, and numerous wind projects were submitted under theBOT programme in recent years. On the other hand, more efficient energy pricing should becomplemented by a balanced mix of other measures: mandatory energy efficiency standards forappliances, motors and buildings, voluntary agreements, energy labelling and information and


training campaigns. Within the limits of its resources and legal and administrative mandate, theMENR has applied energy efficiency policy effectively.In the present study, the environmental impacts of energy utilization in Turkey have been in-

vestigated, and two potential solutions in terms of the use of appropriate renewable energytechnologies and the application of energy efficiency programs are discussed in detail. Overall, thefollowing concluding remarks may be drawn from this study:

1. There are a number of environmental problems in the country that we face today. These prob-lems span a continuously growing range of pollutants, hazards and ecosystem degradation overthe country. So, all government agencies and other non-governmental agencies in the countrymust work together to utilize their renewable energy and choose the appropriate applicationsin Turkey.

2. The technology of hydropower involved has proven itself over a long period of time and is,therefore, very reliable. The actual service of hydroelectric power plants is extremely long incomparison to other fossil fired power plants. This makes power very attractive from an eco-nomic point of view.

3. Growing environmental and social concerns, both on the part of decision makers and publicopinion, have brought a new perspective to the perception of renewable energy sources as avalid alternative in the long term and a useful and practical complement to traditional sourcesof energy in the short and medium term. In this respect, geothermal, solar and wind sourcespresent a considerable opportunity for our country to obtain a significant part of its future en-ergy needs from these sustainable, clean and domestic sources.

4. Solar energy systems should immediately be placed in Turkey’s energy production policy tomeet the increased demand for energy. It is necessary to plan the use of solar energy by costeffective methods. More residential and commercial buildings heated and cooled by solar en-ergy should be constructed. The government, universities and companies should be encouragedby financial support to research and develop the uses of solar energy in the country. Researchand development studies on the efficiency of PV cells should be financially supported, and theutilization of these cells in the residential sector should also be supported by the government.

5. By heating 52,000 residences equivalent by geothermal energy in Turkey, 516,000 ton ofCO2 emission will not have been discharged to the atmosphere. This is equivalent to avoiding320 000 cars from the traffic and 660,000 ton/year in oil saving.

6. Biomass energy (especially fuelwood) presents a considerable opportunity for Turkey to obtaina significant part of our future energy needs from this sustainable energy source because, at pre-sent, modern technologies are increasingly being applied to fuelwood development. Many in-dustrialised countries are deliberately increasing wood energy use for environmental andsocio-economic reasons.

7. Turkey has extensive biomass sources that can be developed as a significant energy source atthe local and regional levels. The energy demand in rural areas of the country can be met bythe use of biogas where livestock are plentiful. On the other hand, fuelwood seems to be oneof the most interesting as a renewable energy because its share of the total energy consumptionof Turkey is high at 13%.

8. Studies for exploration of new oil, coal and natural gas fields should continue for sustain-able development in the energy sector. Special importance should also be given for the use


of the most proper burning technologies for fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissionsin the country. For this reason, energy utility owners and sectors should be increasing en-ergy efficiency and conservation in all power plants and fuel consuming engines and ma-chines.

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http://www.menr.gov.tr

http://www.ipcc.org/

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http://gap.gov.tr/

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