Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Research Methodology II (CAMS 412)

Lecture: 8Date: 06/11/2016

Dr. Senthilvel Vasudevan, M.Sc., M.Phil., DST., PGDBS., Ph. D,Lecturer in Pharmacy (Biostatistics),

Dept. of Pharmacy Practice,College of Pharmacy,

KSAU-HS,Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counter disciplinary field.

It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time.

It is multi-paradigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multi method approach.

They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to the interpretative understanding of human experience.

At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.

Qualitative Research (Contd…)

Qualitative Research involves finding out what people think, and how they feel? or at any rate, what they say? they think? and how they? And what they feel about a particular thing?

This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than

numbers.

Qualitative Research (Contd…)

Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts

It describes the routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.

Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrast

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Multiple realities Single reality

Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective

Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free

Holistic Reductionistic

Strong philosophical perspective Strong theoretical base

Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and inductive

Discovery of meaning is the basis of knowledge

Cause-and-effect relationships are the bases of knowledge

Develops theory Tests theory

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted (contd…)

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

Theory developed during the study Theory developed a priori

Meaning of the concepts Measurement of variables

Process oriented Outcome oriented

Control unimportant Control important

Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables

Basic element of analysis is words Basic element of analysis is numbers

Uniqueness Generalization

Trustworthiness of findings Control of error

Research Methods in Qualitative

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Steps in Quantitative and Qualitative Studies (contd…)

Overview of Data Collection Techniques in Qualitative Research

Data collection techniques allow us to systematically

collect information about out objects of study (people,

objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which

they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If

data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to

answer our research.

Main Activities in Qualitative Research

Qualitative approaches on:

Literature review

Explicating researcher’s beliefs

Role of participants: subject or informant?

Selection of participants

Setting for data collection

Approach to data analysis

Saturation

Literature Review

Conducted after the data have been collected and

analyzed

Rationale for delaying the literature review:

To avoid leading the participants in the direction of

what has already been discovered

Purpose of literature review:

To show how current findings fit into what is already

known

Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs

Bracketing – setting aside one’s biases and

personal views on a topic

Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts

and feelings about the topic

Purpose: the researcher is made aware when

interpretations of the data reflect personal

beliefs rather than those of the participants

About Subject or Informant

People being studied are viewed as participant or

informant, not “subject”

Viewed as active participants in the research

They “inform” the researcher about their culture

Researcher seeks to understand the participants’ cultural

knowledge

Hence, requires learning about the participants’ culture

through on-going discussion and involvement with them

Selection of Study Participants

Method is called “purposive sampling” Participants must

have first-hand experience with the research topic (e.g.,

homelessness, gang involvement, attending medical

school) and be able to talk about it.

Researcher establishes clear criteria and rationale for

sample selection (Sampling Methods).

Goal is not generalization of findings but rich descriptions

of phenomenon by those who have experienced it.

Setting for Data Collection

“Informant-driven” rather than “theory-driven”

Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or

experience being studied

Informant teaches the investigator

Data is collected in the “field” – the natural world where

people live and experience life. Investigator should:

be nonintrusive

spend a prolonged time in the field

Some researchers used multiple methods

Data Analysis (Introduction)

Researcher involves self in data to bring order and meaning to vast narrative Come to truly understand what the data are

saying? Cyclical process – data collection occurs

simultaneously with data analysis Analysis begins when data collection begins Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing,

synthesizing, and reporting on data Sometimes called theoretical sampling (collect

data until saturation is reached)

Refers to a situation in data analysis where

participants’ descriptions become repeated

and then confirm with the previously

collected data.

An indication that data analysis is complete

When data analysis is complete, data collection

is terminated.

Saturation

Three Qualitative Methods

TABLE COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE METHODS

METHOD STUDY FOCUS ANALYTIC FOCUS

DISCIPLINES

Ethnography culture/cultural group

describe a culture/cultural

group

Cultural Anthropology

Grounded Theory

cultural groups generate theory about a basic social process

Sociology/ Symbolic

Interaction/ Criminology

Phenomenology individual experience

discern the essence of the

lived experience

Philosophy/ Psychology/

Sociology

Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Studies

Three data collection strategies introduced:

1. Participant observation

2. In-depth interviews

3. Focus group interviews

Qualitative researchers may combine more than

one method

Data Collection Methods:1. Participant Observation

Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social group, an organization, etc.

Researcher becomes a participant in the lives of group members Observes their behaviour and learns meaning

systems (which are tied to language)

Most closely associated with Ethnography, as developed in Classical Anthropology

Now done in a variety of disciplines

Steps Involved in Participant Observation Research

A. Gaining entry into the group

B. Developing and maintaining rapport

C. Developing a method for taking field notes

D. Integrating data collection and data analysis

Steps in Participant Observation:(A). Gaining Entry into the Group

Take into consideration the type of group

formal organizations require formal entry; involves

letter writing, permission requests, etc.

Informal groups – different strategy needed

Access may be gained through a gatekeeper (an

individual with special status)

Want to involve key informants (those who are most

knowledgeable about the group)

Steps in Participant Observation: (B). Developing/Maintaining Rapport

Researcher must work hard to develop and maintain

good relationships in the field

E.g., be sure not to become associated with one

part in a group or an organization

Researcher could be blamed for problems that arise

in the setting or group.

Steps in Participant Observation: C. Strategies for Taking Field Notes

Field notes – integral to participant observation

Include descriptions and interpretations of individuals, interactions,

and events

Distinguish descriptions from interpretations

Record time and location of observations, as well as key information

(weather, events happening and their significance)

Keep theoretical memos – which are the tentative interpretations

emerging and being assessed through further data collection

Field Notes (cont’d)

May not be possible or advisable to take notes while in the field

Important that they be done as soon after field observation as possible

Note-taking is time-consuming because it is integral to guiding the data collection and continuing the analysis

Steps in Participant Observation: D. Integrating Data Collection and Analysis

Organizing field notes into different types of files facilitates data

analysis

Master field file – complete journal of field notes; number pages and

include entry dates

Background, history file – sub file organizing background material

Key character files – sub files on key players in the group or

organization

Analytic files – sub files for different types of observations or

relationships

Data Collection Methods: 2. In-depth Interviews

Some studies cannot employ the participant

observation method.

In-depth interviews allow participants to describe

their experiences and the meaning of events

taking place in their lives.

Interviews are flexible and allow for investigation.

Data Collection Methods3. Focus Group Interviews

Interview format, but in a group setting

6-12 participants with common experience

Dates back to the 1940s – used to assess effectiveness of morale-

boosting radio shows

1970s onward – used by market researchers

1980s onward – used by academics

Transcript of discussion is the data

Plus accompanying notes

Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to analyze

the data

3. Focus Group Interviews (cont’d)

Strengths: Open-ended question

Spontaneously deal with issues as they arise

Cost-effective method of collecting data

Less time consuming

Weaknesses:

One or two participants may dominate

Not done in a natural setting, so little

“observation” to help understand the

experience of the participants

Advantages and Limitations

Focus on the whole of the human experience and the

meanings ascribed to them by participants

They provide the researcher with deep insights that would

not be possible using quantitative methods

The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the

data it produces

Participants true reality is likely to be reflected

Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and

generalizability