considerations for a manned flyby of the planet mars final...

Considerations for a Manned Flyby of the Planet Mars Final Report Submission to the Inspiration Mars Competition

Team Barsoom: John Beatty, Keith Lindemann, James Mueller, Mary Wilkins SPST 595 – Space Studies Capstone

University of North Dakota – Fall 2013/Spring 2014

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TEAM BARSOOM: GLORY FOR AMERICA, INSPIRATION FOR MANKIND

ABSTRACT

A manned flyby of the planet Mars presents an ambitious goal spanning a myriad of cultures, communities and competencies. It represents centuries of dreams and ambition, inspiration and innovation all wrapped around an epic challenge. This problem set is the foundation of the Inspiration Mars Competition and this year’s Space Studies Capstone project: designing a two-person Mars flyby mission for 2018 as cheaply, safely and simply as possible.

There is some nuance between the two challenges. “Inspiration” focuses on technical quality as well as operational, budgetary and schedule economy but Capstone goes further. To fulfill the Capstone requirement we must answer the question of the holistic; the interdisciplinary nature of the problem. Building off a foundation discussion of the history that compels our cause we will examine the science and engineering of the interactions between man, mission and the heavens. And while the crew will consist of two brave souls, this mission will require the efforts of many. Discussions of policy, business and economics will further define society’s role in making this dream a reality.

In the end, it will be the interrelationship of all the modes in this project which will bring man to the edge of Mars and define mission success or failure.

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INTRODUCTION

“Inspiration: a divine influence directly and immediately exerted upon the mind or soul” - Dictionary.com

When Dennis Tito announced the launch of an international student design competition

on August 16th, 2013 he set out to harness the skill, creativity and ambition. His hope: to

demonstrate the power of space exploration to inspire a generation of engineers and explorers

founded in a two-person Mars flyby in the year 2018. (Stoltz, 2013) Two months later that

inspiration manifested in the University of North Dakota Space Studies program adopting the

Inspiration Mars Competition as the topic for its 2013-2014 graduate level Capstone course.

While there are some differences in the focus of the two programs, most notably the engineering

vs. interdisciplinary focus, there is one transcendent theme: inspiration.

Today, as in previous generations, space represents a calling to man. Though diminished

in national and budgetary priority in a chaotic world, space remains a great source of inspiration

to many. And therein lays perhaps no greater aspiration in current times than a manned mission

to Mars. While the specific call for a holistic response is unique to the Capstone project it is not

entirely exclusive. In an effort to harness the inspiration that calls us to this mission Barsoom

submits the following final report in support of mission success through an interdisciplinary

solution.

The Barsoom approach is vested in deriving inspiration from those that precede us and

inspiring those that will follow. The context of history will demonstrate what compels us to this

mission as well as what achievements can be leveraged in the project. Science and Engineering

support the Barsoom mission through a combination of existing knowledge and the unknowns

that permeate it. The formation of that technical basis will become a driver of business and

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policy support requirements, ensuring compliance and generating resources and advocacy. In the

end, our ability to integrate these themes will define our ability to parlay inspiration from Mars

into action here on Earth.

SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS

According to the rules of the Mars Society International Student Design Competition,

only five points of the maximum 30 points for technical quality will be awarded for mission

science return (Mars Society, 2013). Although science return comprises only 5% of the

evaluation criteria, science objectives will nevertheless play a necessary and vital role in

justifying mission risk, providing purpose to the crew, and enhancing prospects for funding of a

successful flyby of Mars. The primary mission of cost-effectively sending a two-person crew on

a flyby of Mars in 2018 and returning them safely to Earth, however, imposes powerful

constraints on the potential instrumentation, and thus science objectives. Potential science

objectives are therefore assessed against the goals set forth by the Mars Exploration Program

Analysis Group (MEPAG) in 2010, updated in 2012 as constrained by time, cost and mass. To fit

within these mission parameters, the life science objectives will be primary, with secondary

focus on public education and tertiary focus on investigating the putative Phobos and Deimos

dust tori.

MEPAG Goals

In Mars Science Goals, Objectives, Investigations, and Priorities: 2010 (2010), MEPAG

sets forth four long-term scientific goals broadly referred to as Life, Climate, Geology, and

Preparation for Human Exploration, with each goal comprising one to three prioritized objectives

necessary to achieve the goal. Investigations that would collectively achieve each objective are

identified, with the measurement (or measurements) necessary to complete each investigation

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constituting a fourth tier in the organizational hierarchy: the MEPAG goals document only

considers scientific objectives amenable to measurement. Several of these goals, objectives, and

investigations require additional technical development, including: access to a wide variety of

latitudes, surfaces, and elevations; access to the subsurface; access to planetary phenomena

varying over time; access on microscopic scales; advanced planetary protection methods; and

advanced instrumentation for life detection and age dating in situ. The very nature of a Mars

flyby further constrains the measurements that may be made, and thus the investigations that

may be completed, and the objectives and goals that may be addressed.

Goal I of the MEPAG goals document is to determine if life ever arose on Mars, with the

objectives of characterizing past habitability, characterizing present habitability, and determining

the impact of long-term environmental evolution on habitability and the possible emergence of

life. Investigations into the characterization of past habitability and the search for ancient

biosignatures include the identification of previously habitable surface environments; assessment

of the potential for the enhanced preservation or degradation of biosignatures; and the search for

evidence of ancient life. Investigations into the characterization of present habitability and the

search for evidence of extant life include the identification of any presently habitable

environments; assessment of the potential for the enhanced preservation or degradation of extant

life; and the search for extant life. Investigations into how the long-term evolution of Mars

affected potential habitability and the emergence of life include evolution of the Martian

hydrological cycle; evolution of atmospheric and geochemical cycles; identification of possible

energy sources as a function of changing hydrological and geochemical cycles; and evaluation of

surface oxidative and radiation hazards.

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Goal II of the MEPAG goals document is to understand the climate of Mars, with the

objectives of characterizing the Martian atmosphere and present climate, characterizing Mars’

recent climate history, and characterizing the ancient Martian climate. Investigations into Mars’

present atmosphere and climate include the determination of daily, seasonal and solar cycles in

the present climate; determination of production/loss, reaction rates, and global distributions of

key photochemical species; understanding of volatile and dust exchange between surface and

atmospheric reservoirs and sinks; and identification of microclimates. Investigations into Mars’

recent climate history include understanding how stable isotopes, noble gases, and trace gases

have evolved over obliquity cycles to their present state; establishment of a chronology of

atmospheric compositional variability; and relation of low latitude terrain softening and

periglacial features to past climate. Investigations into Mars’ ancient climate include

determination of the escape rates for key species in the Martian atmosphere; discovery of

physical and chemical records of past climates; and establishment of how the stable isotopic,

noble gas, and trace gas composition of the Martian atmosphere has evolved over time from.

Goal III of the MEPAG goals document is to determine the evolution of the Martian

surface and interior, with the objectives of determining the nature and evolution of the Martian

crust, characterizing the structure, composition, and evolution of Mars’ interior; and

understanding the origin, evolution, and composition Mars’ natural satellites, Phobos and

Deimos. Investigations into the nature and evolution of the Martian crust include determination

of formation and modification processes; evaluation of volcanic, fluvial/lacustrine, hydrothermal,

and polar erosional and sedimentation processes; determination of absolute ages of major

Martian crustal geologic processes; identification and exploration of hydrothermal environments;

evaluation of igneous processes and their evolution; determination of tectonic history;

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determination of the present state of the cryosphere and potential deep aquifers; determination of

the nature and origin of crustal magnetization; and determination of the effects of impacts on

crustal evolution. Investigations into the structure, composition, dynamics, and evolution of

Mars’ interior include characterization of the structure and dynamics of the interior;

determination of the history of the magnetic field; and constraint of the chemical and thermal

evolution of the planet. Investigations in to the origin, evolution, and composition of Phobos and

Deimos include determination of their origin; determination of their bulk composition; and

understanding of their internal structure.

Goal IV of the MEPAG goals document as updated in 2012 (MEPAG, 2012) in to

prepare for human exploration, with the objectives of obtaining sufficient knowledge of the Martian

environment to design and implement a human mission with acceptable cost, risk and

performance. Investigations into the Martian environment relevant to mission design and

implementation include understanding of atmospheric states affecting aerocapture, atmospheric

entry, and launch from the surface; determination whether Martian environments to are free of

biohazards; characterization of particulates transportable to hardware and infrastructure;

identification of Martian environmental “Special Regions;” determination of the orbital

particulate environment; characterization of the ionizing radiation environment at the Martian

surface; determination of possible toxic effects of Martian dust; characterization of the Martian

regolith for system design; assessment of landing site-related hazards; assessment of atmospheric

electricity conditions; understanding of trace gas abundances relevant to ISRU processing; and

characterization of potential key resources to support In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU).

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Mission Science Objectives

Constraints imposed by time, cost, mass and mission configuration provide strong drivers

in selecting potential science objectives. The detailed surface measurements necessary for the

majority of MEPAG goals would require landers no less complex than the rovers Spirit and

Opportunity, with time, mass, and cost requirements beyond those feasible within the mission

parameters. An exploration of the magnetic field of Mars by a spacecraft-mounted magnetometer

was considered briefly, but rejected due to the assessment that such a study would be insufficient

to advance current state of knowledge of the Martian magnetic environment. Investigations into

the climate and operational environment of Mars by inexpensive weather balloon/radiosonde

assemblies were also considered for this mission. However, complexities and expenses

associated with designing a delivery system, data return protocols, and planetary protection

measures also led to the rejection of these investigations as science objectives for this mission.

Given the mission constraints, selected science objectives must maximize science return without

increasing the complexity – and thus expense – of the mission (Table 1).

Primary Objectives: Life Science

With the exception of the Apollo missions to the moon, the present mission will be the

first manned mission completely outside the protection of the Earth’s magnetosphere. Therefore,

the mission itself will serve as the first investigation into the effects of long term exposure to

interplanetary space, with an emphasis on human medical response to the interplanetary radiation

and microgravity environment. Although considerable data has been accumulated from MIR and

the ISS regarding the medical effects of prolonged exposure the space environment, for the

purposes of this mission, experiments undertaken by the Skylab missions will be replicated to

provide a meaningful control by which to evaluate the effects of prolonged exposure the

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interplanetary space against the effects of exposure to the space environment in LEO. These

experiments include effects of microgravity and the radiation environment upon the body’s

mineral balance, endocrine-metabolic functions, body mass, bone density cardiovascular

deconditioning, immunity responses, hematology, vestibular function, sleep patterns, task

performance and metabolic activity (Newkirk et. al., 1977). Skylab medical experiments,

objectives, and results are summarized in Appendix 1.

With the exception of vectorcardiogram and metabolic activity experiments, most

investigations can be completed with supplies included in the medical equipment included in

mass calculations for supplementary crew provisions. A paperless portable EKG will be included

with an estimated weight of 3 kg to complete vectorcardiogram monitoring. Metabolic activity

experiments will require three pieces of exercise equipment: a cycle ergometer, a treadmill, and a

resistance exercise device (RED). As a regular exercise regimen is considered a vital part of

maintaining a general level of physical and psychological wellness, all three pieces of equipment

have been included in mass calculations for supplementary crew provisions. The total mass of

required equipment not otherwise accounted for as part of supplementary crew provisions

necessary to complete medical experiments is 3 kg. Given limited equipment requirements,

medical experiments focusing on long-term exposure to interplanetary space should provide a

higher data return per kg than any other science objectives, contributing to objectives implicit in

MEPAG Goal IV.

Secondary Objectives: Public Science & Outreach

With the selection of science objectives highly constrained by limiting factors of

complexity and expense, secondary science objectives will include a thorough public science and

outreach program. Outreach will occur at primary, secondary, and post-secondary educational

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levels through the development of activities and investigations for use in the classroom, through

direct contact with mission staff and educators, and with the public at large through a

comprehensive media strategy set forth as part of the mission business model. The public science

campaign will be supported by regular communication with the mission crew through selected

communications suite, as well as by the addition of an Imaging Science Suite (ISS). Based upon

the Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem (Table 2), the ISS will feature two CCD cameras: a

Wide Angle Camera (WAC) and a Narrow Angle Camera (NAC), each with two filter wheels

designed to take images at specific wavelengths of light (Porco et. al., 2004). In addition to

imaging, the cameras will as possess the capability to obtain navigational images and provide

basic photometry for investigations of the putative Phobos and Deimos dust tori. The estimated

mass of the ISS is 58 kg, with a power requirement of 56 W.

Tertiary Objectives: Phobos & Deimos Dust Torus

The existence of dust tori associated with the orbits of the Martian moons Phobos and

Deimos was proposed as early as 1971 (Nazzario & Hyde, 1997), with current models predicting

dust rings based on estimates for the sources, sinks, and lifetimes of the dust particles (Zakharov

et. al., 2014); similar dust rings have been associated with some small inner moons of gas giants

(Showalter et. al., 2006). These dust rings may be sustained by energetic collisions between the

moons and ring particles 20-50 μm in size (Hamilton, 1996), with simulations suggesting the

additional ejection of ~300 particles with masses of between 10−9 and 10−7 g from Phobos by

impacts of meteoroids over the course of 5 years (Ishimoto & Mukai, 1994). These particles

would form a thin dust ring from Phobos dominated by 20-200μm particles, while particles from

Deimos would form an extended dust torus (Sasaki, 1999) more dependent upon particle grain

sizes than that of Phobos (Nazzario & Hyde, 1997). Plasma and magnetic-field effects in the

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vicinity of the orbits of Phobos and Deimos further suggest that rings of gas and dust reside

along the Mars moon orbits, which may strongly disturb the dynamics of the Mars’ tailward

flowing magnetospheric plasma (Dubinin et. al., 1991), although Øieroset et. al. (2010)

concluded that the amount of gas and dust escaping the Martian moons is not significant enough

to induce detectable magnetic field perturbations in the solar wind, leaving no clear evidence for

outgassing or dust escape from the Martian moons. On May 28, 2001 the hypothetical ring plane

appeared edge-on to Earth near opposition, providing the best Earth-based opportunity to detect

these rings (Showalter et. al., 2006); however these putative dust belts remained undiscovered

(Krivov et. al., 2006).

The detection and characterization of putative Phobos and Deimos dust tori will comprise

the tertiary science objective of the present mission, furthering MEPAG Goal III to investigate

the origin, evolution, and composition of Phobos and Deimos. To detect these dust rings,

Zakharov et. al. (2014) suggest that measurements are needed using a complementary set of

sensitive instruments including dust detectors and optical cameras. The visible radiance scattered

by the rings should be well within the detectability of modern photometers, although the cameras

of the Viking missions could not be observed the dust region, supporting assumptions regarding

the optical properties of the dust grains (Orofino et. al., 1998). As part of the unsuccessful Mars-

96 mission, a one-channel photometer, or “torometer” was coupled to the spacecraft’s Planetary

Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) to observe scattered solar radiation in the 0.350-1.00 μm range along

the orbit of Phobos (Błecka & Jurewicz, 1996). The Nozomi (PLANET-B) Mars mission,

launched by the Japanese space agency ISAS in 1998, included an imaging CCD camera

(Ishimoto et. al., 1997) and the Mars Dust Counter (MDC), an impact-ionization dust detector

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with three detection channels (electron, iron, and neutral) to measure circummartian dust

particles and detect the dust torus or ring from Phobos and Deimos (Sasaki et. al., 2002).

To fulfill the tertiary science objective of detecting and characterizing the dust rings/tori

of Phobos and Deimos, the mission will mount a suite of instruments parallel to those on the

Stardust mission (NASA, 2006). The Torus and Interstellar Dust Analyzer (TIDA) will be a

modeled upon the Cometary and Interstellar Dust Analyzer from the Stardust mission (itself

derived from an instrument that flew on the ESA’s Giotto spacecraft and the Soviet Union’s

Vega spacecraft), comprised of a particle inlet, a target, an ion extractor, a mass spectrometer

and an ion detector used to identify the chemical composition of dust particles (Kissel et al.,

2003). The Dust Flux Monitor (DFM) is also a direct analog to the instrument of the same name

carried by the Stardust spacecraft, consisting of two film sensors and two vibration sensors to

measure the size and frequency of dust particles in the circummartian environment. The Aerogel

Dust Collectors are also derived from the sample return mission on the Stardust spacecraft,

comprised of two two-sided aerogel collector assemblies used to collect toroidal dust samples on

one side and interstellar dust samples on the other (NASA, 2006). Unlike the Stardust mission,

however, sample collectors will be housed in the unpressurized sensor bay of the Dragon

capsule, which will open to allow for dust sample collection and closes prior to reentry, thus

ensuring their safe return for further study (SpaceX, n.d.).

Toroidal dust analysis instrumentation will be supplemented by the ISS comprised of the

WAC with 18 filters and the NAC with 24 filters provides imaging between the wavelengths of

200 nm – 1,100 nm (0.20 µm – 1.1 µm) (Porco et. al., 2004). This wavelength range corresponds

to the 0.350-1.00 μm range of “torometer” included on unsuccessful Mars-96 mission (Błecka &

Jurewicz, 1996), and should be sufficient to complete basic photometry to observe scattered solar

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radiation along the orbits of Phobos and Deimos, although the option for a dedicated photometer

is retained within the spacecraft mass and power constraints. Due to uncertainties regarding the

effects of putative Martian tori on the Martian magnetosphere and plasma environment (Dubinin

et. al., 1991; Øieroset et. al., 2010), a magnetometer was not included in the science package.

Selected science systems are summarized in Table 2.

ENGINEERING, DESIGN AND MISSION TECHNOLOGY

The engineering portion of Team Barsoom’s proposal is reaching back into the past and

using the mission mentality that was used in the early space program. We are proposing a very

conservative design that uses off the shelf hardware and software with high technology readiness

levels (TRL). The team’s engineering portion is mimicking the National Aeronautical and

Space Administration (NASA) Apollo missions of the 1960s. This mission at its core is

mimicking the Apollo 8 type lunar mission where the hardware is being “tested” for future

missions. This mission can be seen as a bigger, and more expiated Moon race. Instead of a

decade deadline, hardware and software development is given four years hard deadline to meet.

Although this deadline is constricting, most of the engineering requirements can be met in the

four year period. Engineering tasks are complex, very constraint, but doable in the four year

timeframe. The engineering team is using the engineering parameters given in Dennis Tito’s

“Feasibility Analysis for a Manned Mars Free Return in 2018” for the space craft and trajectory.

These tasks include: developing a launch system, help in the development of the ECLSS system,

trajectory modeling, heat and radiation shield development and the development of a heliocentric

communications-relay satellite.

The engineering team is also working with the Science team and supporting the science

team’s engineering requirements. Although, the engineering team will not be the primary

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designer of the ECLSS package, we will be supporting a great deal of the hardware involved

with the ECLSS.

Listed below is the proposed mission timeline from launch to splash down that will need to

be followed to ensure a successful mission. The engineering team is focusing on a 501 day

mission.

1. Launch: Mission Day: 1- Launch Date will be January 5, 2018 2. Deployment and Assembly of main design capsule in LEO 3. Trans-Martian Injection (TMI) Burn to Mars: 4. Interplanetary flight to Mars 5. Mars arrival/Flyby: Mission Day 6. Interplanetary flight back to Earth: 7. Swing back into Earth’s vicinity 8. Eject Service Module and Habitat 9. Aerobraking with Dragon capsule 10. Re-entry:

In 2018, Mars will be at conjunction. Conjunction is when Earth and Mars are on opposite

sides of the Sun during their orbit. Mars’ orbital period is roughly twice Earth’s orbital period

around the Sun. This alignment occurs twice every 15 years (Tito & et. al, 2013). The

proposed launch date will be January 5, 2018. A 501-day mission will ensure that the crew

reaches Mars in roughly August 2018 and have a roughly 15 month total mission. The chosen

trajectory path will have the crew leaving Earth and on a trajectory where it will “catch up” with

Mars. This type of launch will ensure the shortest trip, cheapest in cost and least amount of risk

involved for the crew. The following images are from Tito et.al, “Feasibility Analysis for a

Manned Mars Free Return in 2018”. These images illustrate what the engineering team

proposed trajectory. The first image is the trajectory that the engineering team is proposing for

our mission.

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The next image shows how our space craft will come around the planet. The crew will make

its fly-by at during a Martian night.

The next table, also from Tito & et.al describes the mission timeline. The engineering team

is planning to use these mission dates for our mission.

For the purposes of our mission will we also be using the Tito & et. al velocity via a free-

return solution. See table below.

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Because this mission is a flyby mission, a gravity assist around Mars will be used to slingshot the

spacecraft back to Earth. Gravity assist uses the planets’ gravitational field and orbital velocity

to “sling shot” a spacecraft around the planet and change the velocity of the space craft (Sellers,

2005). These assists have been used in various probe missions such as Voyager, to the outer

planets, and Magellan to the inner planets.

The engineering team has chosen to use off the shelf technology that can be obtained from

the commercial sector. The launch vehicles, the initial space capsule and the Life Support

System (LSS) habitat will use components from the commercial sector. The company that our

team chose to build our engineering components from is Space Exploration or Space X.

However, our docking system will use NASA Docking System (NDS). The engineering

team’s heavy reliance on the commercial sector stems out of the time constraint of this project.

Many government manned systems (i.e. Orion/SLS) will not be ready for the “real” launched in

2018 or the test launch in 2017. This docking system is the next generation type docking system

and will be the standard that NASA will push for its commercial partners to use (Azriel, 2012)

This system will be installed on the ISS for use in the late 2010’s (Azriel, 2012).

The engineering team chose to use Space X’s Dragon capsule. This capsule will be used in

launch and re-entry to house the crew of two. Dragon was chosen due its stellar track record in

currently resupplying the International Space Station (ISS) and that NASA has tapped this

capsule to start ferrying astronauts to the ISS starting in the late 2010s.

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The engineering team chose Space X’s Falcon Heavy as its launch vehicle. It was chosen

because it will be done and ready to launch by 2018. It also has the heaviest lift capabilities, far

exceeding the Atlas V and Delta IV. Because of these lift capabilities, there is less need for more

launches and Dragon is compatible.

There will be a need for multiple launches. At the present time there will be three launches.

Falcon Heavy Alpha will be the Dragon capsule and the Service Module. Falcon Heavy Beta

will be the ECLSS system. This system will be discussed in deeper detail in the Science section.

Falcon Heavy Gamma will contain a communication satellite which will be placed in

heliocentric orbit. This will be launched earlier than 2018.

The ship will be constructed in Low Earth Orbit. This type of configuration is similar to what

was done during the Apollo era. It also has its origins in Werner von Braun’s visions for a Mars

fleet. The engineering team is recommending that this assembly take place in a parking orbit at

roughly 200km. This places it above the International Space Station and the Hubble Space

Telescope

Any type of manned mission needs to incorporate some form of radiation protection. This

includes missions operating in interplanetary space. For a manned Mars mission there are three

types of radiation to protect the crew from: Solar particle events (SPEs) which include coronal

mass ejections (CME), solar wind and galactic cosmic radiation (GCR). GCRs are ionized

particles. This type of radiation originates from outside the solar system. It is 91 % protons, 8 %

α-particles and 1% heavy nuclei (Borggrafe, Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009). SPEs are sudden

ejections of particles from the sun’s heliosphere. Radiation protection is also tie into where the

mission lies in the solar cycle. 2018 lies towards the end of the solar max peak of solar cycle 24.

This cycle, whose peak is in 2012-2013, has been a weak solar cycle.

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All three of the different types of radiation listed above can expose crew members to deadly

levels of radiation. And all three types of radiation have their own peaks. For example, GCR

intensity depends on the 11 year solar minimum/maximum cycle. The highest levels of GCR

intensity occur during solar maximum. (Borggrafe, Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009). SPE events are

primarily caused by CMEs. These events are especially dangerous because they can deliver high

doses of radiation in a matter of hours (Borggrafe, Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009). These events

also cannot be predicted with sufficient enough time to warn a potential crew, or there is no early

warning system (Borggrafe, Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009). If the radiation levels are high enough,

it can effectively end the mission and the lives of the crew.

There are various forms of radiation protection that can be built into the design system.

These protections can take the forms of passive and active. Active protection involves

chemicals, namely the use of pharmaceuticals. Passive protection involves a variety of

techniques. The engineering team will focus on the passive protection. There are many ways to

protect a spacecraft from different types of radiation. These techniques are vary from using a

“water bubble” shield to using different types of material in the spacecraft development.

However, shielding could also come in the form of materials. Typical materials that could be

used in shielding include: lead, tungsten or concrete (Borggrafe, Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009).

However, these materials are heavy and would add mass during launch. Borggrafe, Quatmann

and Nolke, suggest the following, “… the best shielding materials must possess the highest ratio

of electrons to nucleons…” (2009, p. 1298). They are alluding to a hydrogen system. They

continue, “… Hydrogen, with exactly one electron and one-proton nucleus, has the highest ration

of any known element. Therefore, hydrogenic materials are essential for passive radiation

shielding…” (2009, p. 1298). Because water contains hydrogen, the engineering team is going

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to recommend the design of a system that strategically places water systems around the habitat. It

will also develop a storm shelter within the spacecraft design. A basic structure that is made of

aluminum (Al) with internal water tanks could fulfill the radiation requirements (Borggrafe,

Quatmann, & Nolke, 2009).

Going to Mars will not be easy. A concept as simple as the fuel requirements will require

meticulous calculations and will be vastly different than placing something in LEO. Additional

fuel will be needed increase the speed of the rocket, but that additional fuel also increase the

spacecraft mass and the launch cost.

The engineering team decided to use solar power as the main source of power for its power

requirements. There will need to be some upgrades to Dragon. Dragon’s solar panels will need

to be enlargen to accommodate the r -2 drop off in solar power as it leaves the vicinity of Earth.

Panels will also need to place on the habitat module.

A navigational system will need to be developed to take the crew out of LEO and into an

interplanetary track. The last time this was developed for human space flight was during the

Apollo moon race. The engineering team’s plan to use a navigation system that has been used

before for a Martian probe. The most current probe that is being sent to Mars is the Mars

Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN). Although Dragon has a navigational system, it

is only design for operations in LEO. MAVEN’s system has been proven to work and is

currently being implemented.

Communications between Mars and Earth will be on a delay. The engineering team to help

circumvent this problem is proposing the launch of a communication relay satellite in

heliocentric orbit with continuous visibility between Earth and Mars. This satellite will be

launched and placed into orbit prior to 2018. Regardless of whether the manned mission in 2018

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to Mars is a success, the placement of a communication relay satellite in between the two planets

will be beneficial for future manned and unmanned missions. If there are other manned

missions in the future that occur during solar conjunction, a relay satellite would help limit

communication blackouts between the Mars and Earth (Castellini & et. al, 2010). Off the shelf

technology can be used in this portion in the mission. A NASA’s Tracking and Data Relay

Satellite (TDRS) could be modified to meet the team needs and launched fairly quickly. The next

TDRS launch is for an undetermined date in 2016 (Mai, 2014). If another satellite cannot be fully

developed and built by 2018, the TDRS satellite slated for 2016 could be repurposed, modified

to fit the needed specifications for surviving in deep space and launched to meet the 2018

deadline. This satellite can also be used in tandem with the other TDRS satellites in NASA’s

Deep Space Network (DSN). Along with space-based assets, DSN ground based assets can be

used to relay messages back to mission control. Unlike other portions of the engineering

section, this is not a mission critical asset. The mission would still be able to succeed and thrive

without a communication satellite. However, it would enhance many of the secondary mission

requirements, including public outreach and include a primary mission partner, NASA.

On upon returning to Earth, the crew will shed the crew habitat and the service module. The

reentry vehicle will be the Dragon capsule that the crew launched in. Two very important

elements will be ensure that the crew comes in an appropriate speed, Dragon has slowed down

enough after coming in from interplanetary space, and that the heat shield can withstand re-entry.

We are proposing that the craft aerobrake as it comes in from interplanetary space.

Aerobrakeing, uses drag and lift to change a spacecraft’s velocity and its trajectory (Sellers,

2005). For the Earth, aero-braking would use the planet’s atmosphere to lower the orbit of the

capture space craft.

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Although the science and engineering teams are separate entities, the engineering team will

be supporting the science team on certain tasks. These tasks include the crew habitat and the

scientific payloads. Many of the tasks, especially with the crew habitat, needed inputs from both

teams, although it is a primary science requirement. The two teams working together decided

that a Skylab type habitat for the crew would be the safest. The teams are developing a crew

habitat using the Apollo Applications Project (APP) as a guide. Currently, for any type of

science operations, the engineering will provide troubleshooting support.

Many of the systems will need to be tested before sending astronauts out into interplanetary

space. These systems include the docking mechanisms, the Dragon capsule, and the full system

design. Although, many of these systems can be tested in LEO, such as the docking mechanism,

a full system test and a duration test needs to be done outside of LEO. The engineering team is

proposing, time permitting, an Apollo 8 type mission to the Moon to test the hardware. This test

would also be a long duration type mission. This mission would orbit the Moon for a length of

time possibly between two and six months. The main concept behind this mission is to test

Dragon ability to function in deep space. It is also to test the entire design: the Dragon capsule,

the Service Module and the habitat.

Lots of work is going to have to be done in the radiation protection portion of the mission. If

adequate protection cannot be obtained and manufactured by 2018 then the mission should be

pushed out another two to four years. Just by pushing the mission off into the early 2020s, the

space weather environment will not be in a window of solar volatility. CMEs, especially the

ones that are strong enough to be interplanetary, are nasty and will kill the crew. Interplanetary

coronal mass ejections (ICME) are the most unpredictable of space weather and tend to occur

towards the end of a solar max peak (Nevanlinna, 2006). 2018 will be towards the end of a solar

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max peak. The engineering team has strong reservations against launching in 2018, if a suitable

radiation protection plan is not in place. If it is not in place, it is the recommendation of the team

not to launch. (Nevanlinna, 2006)

Power requirements are also another concern. Although this exercise went with using the

traditional power cells, nuclear power may also be a viable option. In the past few years, smaller

probes have used a small nuclear reactor without problem as part of their fuel requirements. If,

politically, this issue can made less of an issue, the recommendation from engineering will be to

look into using a small nuclear reactor to meet some of the power requirements.

The technology readiness levels (TRL) must be high for all the technology that is used in the

mission. There must also be an acceptable level of risk, if the technology used is not at a very

high TRL level. The risk level must be low due to the presence of a human crew.

The engineering team feels that although this mission concept is ingenious and would be a

follow up of the Apollo days, the time constraints and the overall technology readiness is very

constrained to make this mission a success in a four year block of time. Much of the technology

that is currently being developed and is on track to being ready by 2018, must stay on a strict

development schedule. If a disaster of the magnitude of Apollo 1 were to occur, development

would be delayed and ultimately the launch window in 2018 will be missed. Because this

proposal is entirely relying on United States assets, there will need to be massive support from

the United States civilian space agency (NASA) and supporting industries in the form of

manpower, intellectual power and financing to support the technology/engineering development.

If the engineering support from NASA and supporting aerospace industries cannot be obtained,

the engineering may not be robust enough to sustain a manned Mars mission

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POLICY AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

There are many policy perspectives to take into consideration with the Inspiration Mars

Mission. It is important to recognize the critical roles in working with our partners at NASA as

well as the FAA. Additionally, it is imperative that we pay special attention to the concept of

planetary protection during this undertaking. We must take great care and avoid any potential of

the contamination of Mars.

The Inspiration Mars Mission is vitally important for the future of space travel and a

significant step for the further development of commercial/private space industries. It is an

opportunity to develop technology and applications that will be on the cutting edge of science

and space exploration. The success of the program should also help inspire the next generation

of young scientists to focus on STEM education.

NASA must have a role in the mission. It is an opportunity for government and private

industry to work together on a space mission and this successful cooperation may prove to be the

key to achieving positive progress in future space endeavors. NASA has the professionals who

have the background, education, experience and expertise that will help guide us through the

planning and execution phases. Also, the foundation has formed a partnership with NASA via a

reimbursable Space Act Agreement between Paragon and the Ames Research Center to conduct

thermal protection system and technology testing and evaluation. However the project seems

stalled and now may require financial help through public funding, which may be difficult. We

should lobby congress for polices requiring NASA to get involved and for funding.

The U.S. Space Transportation Policy is an important document to highlight. It,

“establishes national policy, guidelines, and implementation action for United States space

transportation programs and activities” (Transportation, 2005). This document emphasizes and

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helps describe the importance of the government’s obligation to encourage and facilitate

commercial space transportation. Among other things the policy says they shall involve the U.S.

private sector in the design and development of space transportation capabilities, provide stable

and predictable access to the federal space launch bases and ranges, and encourage private sector

and state and local government investment and participation (Transportation, 2005).

There are legal considerations to take into account and must not be dismissed. One

document to focus on is the Outer Space Treaty. Article IV specifically addresses

nongovernmental entities. It states nations should “require authorization” and “continuing

supervision.” This Treaty further emphasizes the public-private partnership. Article IX

addresses contamination issues, “…conduct exploration of them (celestial bodies) so as to avoid

their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth.”

The FAA’s Office of Space Transportation regulates private/commercial space activities.

The FAA defines a commercial launch as: “licensed by the FAA, primary payload’s launch

contract was open to international competition, or the launch was privately financed without

government support” (FAA). The FAA requires commercial space launches to obtain launch and

re-entry licenses through and with approval from this US Governmental organization. We will

utilize the outline and go through required launch and licensing permitting processes while also

taking into consideration the Nation Environmental Policy Act. The FAA reviews application

for compliance with this act and determine if the launch pollution could cause harm to a historic

site or the natural environment. The FAA takes about 6 months for this process to be completed.

Planetary protection is another area to be considered. Unfortunately with the current

technology, decontamination of a manned spacecraft is not something that is possible. We will

store and sterilize waste.

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BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC APPROACH

The business and economics of our proposal could be simply stated as “how we’re going

to pay for this” but that would be a glib interpretation to say the least. The Fiscal Year (FY)

2014 appropriation to NASA was approved in July 2013 for $16.6 Billion, over $1.1 Billion less

than the $17.715 Billion requested in the President’s Budget Request. (Leone, 2013) Further,

that budget placed nationally funded ambitions for Mars in the hands of planetary science

sensors and rovers such as the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN). Manned

ambitions to and around Mars have been relegated to out-year mission planning for the 2020-

2030 range, well beyond the goals of the Inspiration and Capstone programs (NASA, 2013).

Further, the FY14 request earmarked $234 Million for Mars Exploration and an average

Mars budget of $359.6 Million over the next five FYs; about 2% of the annual budget on

average. (President’s Budget Request, 2013) At present, manned ambitions around Mars do not

represent a significant enough mission outlay in national and NASA planning to rely on

government resources; even when using notional estimates in the $20 Billion range. To fully

fund such a project would account for roughly 20% of the NASA budget for a 10 year period, a

likely untenable rate. (Elhmann, 2005) Given the short timeframe stipulated by the project

requirements it is clear that cost estimating, fund sourcing and business relationships will be a

critical node in Team Barsoom mission success.

Cost estimation is by definition a living process, one we must continuously adjust and

adapt. The mission architecture, team goals, and time constraints, drive the project towards

integrating known or near term systems. In order to evolve as programmatic decisions are made

we will begin with a rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimate then use a combination of

parametric and analogy estimation methods. In the absence of a manned orbit of a natural

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celestial body in recent history some of the best ROMs come from shelved proposals, academic

articles and funding projections. It is reasonable to assume that previous works regarding a

manned Mars landing represent a higher level of cost and complexity than a “simple” orbit and

return mission. They are however relevant provided some requisite discounting in a ROM

estimation. A wide ranging $20 billion to $300 billion range provides a truly “rough” estimate

(Ehlmann, 2005) but most certainly rules out recent projections from Dennis Tito of around $1

billion (Grossman, 2013). In lieu of an engineering analysis of alternatives (AoA) we will use

conservative “in-between” value of five to ten billion dollars.

As technical decision making for our project evolves we will utilize more exacting

methodologies, beginning with parametric estimation and moving towards more analogous

solutions. A parametric, top-down approach should mitigate variation and unknowns in early

system selection. Barsoom parametric

cost estimating will center on use of the

next generation NASA/Air Force Cost

Model (NAFCOM) set to be released in

Spring 2014. This model is chosen for

their focus on launch vehicles, system-

of-systems construct and focus on total

mission lifecycle. (Trivailo, 2012) As

the program proceeds into architectural

and pre/post-Phase A milestones we will

migrate towards a more analogy based estimation model. Further use of the NAFCOM model

may be possible early on; though a migration to NASA government off the shelf (GOTS) or

Cost Estimating Techniques by Project Phase (Trivailo, 2013)

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industry derived commercial off the shelf (COTS) models will be needed to support estimation.

(Trivailo, 2012)

With a cost management plan in place much of our attention can revert to discussions of

where funding for this mission will come from. The tepid response of NASA and the US

government to requests of the likes of Tito represent a fair assessment that relying on public

funding for this mission beyond current earmarks is a losing premise. With NASA reserving its

manned-Mars ambitions into the 2020s and ‘30s it is unlikely a major shift in culture will present

government funding early in any Inspiration model mission. Resourcing therefore, will need to

find at least its origins in business/industry relationships and commercial/private finding. There

is some precedence for this scenario particularly in the B612 Foundation’s Sentinel program. The

foundation countered dissatisfaction with government action on Near Earth Asteroid threats by

seeking private funding for the $450 million space telescope, raising enough to fund the design

in early 2012 (Dillow, 2012).

This may not represent the quickest way to fund our mission, but if the space race and

shuttle culture taught us anything it’s that inspiration is marketable. Inspiration represents a key

variable in this funding strategy. Review of three recent works regarding attitudes on space

indicate that public support remains fairly strong (~70% range) across most discernable

demographics. In relation, those same studies showed a consistently low tolerance for NASA

budget as a percentage of the Federal budget (Appendix 2). (Whitman Cobb, 2011/Steinberg,

2011/Joyce, 2009) The conclusion being, that while the mission is supportable from a public

standpoint, government sourcing may generate negative response to its funding priority. In

essence, private funding may seem a burden, but ultimately generate the positive response

needed to inspire monetary and emotional investment. Given the potential for a viable mission

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objective to orbit mars by 2018 Team Barsoom proposes a three pronged approach to resourcing

(over and above any government input) consisting of: partnering, commercialization and

investment.

Partnering represents a very viable avenue to capitalize on systems from the commercial

development of the space sector. The largest potential partner herein likely lies in SpaceX whose

Falcon-class lift vehicles and Dragon capsules currently represent the largest focus of our

engineering team. Additional partnerships could be realized through United Launch Alliance

seeking to capitalize on a dwindling government launch frequency to maintain business. Further,

noted competition between the two entities could produce meaningful competition to increase lift

capabilities and human rating of launch vehicles. (Brothers, 2013) Pairing the Barsoom

Inspiration goals with that of either or both industry partners could serve to cut costs and time to

service for needed technologies.

Commercialization represents the second key node in our resourcing strategy. It may be

wise to view the inspiration mission as a product to be marketed not only for citizen level

emotional and monetary investment, but for companies to align themselves to. Red Bull’s

sponsorship of the Felix Bumgartner “space jump” presents a very realistic model to encourage

commercial investment. (Woodard, 2012) Through conventional marketing and social media

campaigns there’s the opportunity to create modern mission-product synergies. Bringing the

mission to everyday America the way Tang and GPS now reside in our culture.

Further, a critical node in commercialization and awareness campaigns for this mission

should revolve around a media and educational presence. Allocating resources to provide

education around space, technology and our mission is critical to capturing the attention of a

generation. It is by no mistake that our vehicle and module presently remain unnamed. As part

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of our educational outlay, naming rights will be chosen through a competition in schools across

America similar to previous shuttle naming exercises. (Melina, 2011) A key media partnership

through a reality-science based program also stands to bring the Mars mission to households

worldwide. Inside access to the training/preparation, on orbit mission and post mission re-

integration. A more thorough analysis of the mission for licensing opportunities will be a key

output of the next stage in our mission planning.

Finally, our investment strategy will augment conventional sources with a massive public

sourcing campaign. The growth of social media and conscious has brought about the concept of

crowd-sourcing/funding and stands to be a major source of financial support. (Advani, 2013)

This is however, predicated on the ability of our program to demonstrate publically supportable

mission rationales. Selling prestige and exploration themes will only carry us so far. Producing

tangible potential for economic growth and relevant technologies will be essential to securing the

support of the people (Appendix 3). (Sadeh, 2001)

CONCLUSION

In perspective, the Inspiration Mars project presents a problem set to define a generation

of space aspirations. Considering the proliferation of space in modern society, the potential

exists to ignite a renaissance in manned space exploration exceeding that of the first space race.

But inspiration and renaissance come with a hefty price tag, one with serious tax in the form of

cost and risk management.

It is Team Barsoom’s conclusion that the greatest challenge to managing these variables

comes in the form of schedule. A hybrid solution of existing government and commercial

technologies as well as emerging systems is feasible but rests on a delicate balance. In order to

adequately select and train a crew as well as model, construct and test the platform the

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Inspiration mission must begin almost immediately. Even then, schedule risk in man-rating and

deep space-rating emerging technologies stands to derail a 2018 mission at any moment.

Finally, crew safety is paramount, and the Barsoom proposal takes into account reliability

and redundancy in safety and life support systems. Efforts in integration testing and proof of

concept are critical to supporting this primary objective. While the spirit of the Apollo era may

be alive and well in this program, the line of acceptable risk in the name of exploration has

changed. The goal to inspire is not built off the concept of making martyrs of our astronauts by

accepting unreasonable risk in the name of schedule. The Barsoom proposal represents a

conservative, relatively known commodity approach to the Inspiration mission, coupled with

advocacy and outreach it stands to support both a manned fly-by and the needs of a world

reaching for the stars in 2018.

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APPENDICIES

APPENDIX 1: Skylab Medical Experiments (adapted from Newkirk et. al., 1977)

M 071 Mineral Balance

Objective: Define and quantitatively assess body gains and losses of biochemical constituents,

particularly water, calcium, and nitrogen.

Results: Significant losses of nitrogen and phosphorus occurred, associated with observed

reduction in muscle tissue. Both mineral and muscle losses occurred despite vigorous exercise

regimes in flight. Conclusion was that, unless protective measures can be developed, capable

musculoskeletal function is likely to be impaired in space flights of one and one-half to three

years duration, for example, to Mars.

M 073 Bio-Assay of Body Fluids

Objective: Assess the effect of space flight on endocrine-metabolic functions including fluid and

electrolyte control mechanisms.

Results: Significant biochemical changes were observed which varied in magnitude and direction

but which disappeared shortly after return to Earth. In areas concerned with the metabolism of

bone mineral, protein, and carbohydrates unstable states appeared to persist, and it was unclear in

which form the ultimate sequelae of these changes would manifest themselves after flights of

much longer duration.

M 074 Specimen Mass Measurement & M 172 Body Mass Measurement

Objective: Demonstrate the feasibility of mass measurement without gravity.

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Results: A new instrument for inflight space operations and research was demonstrated; previous

unproven mechanisms of weight losses under weightlessness were demonstrated; and it was

proven that the human body, properly fed, could sustain long duration n signs without significant

obligatory mass loss.

M 078 Bone Mineral Measurement

Objective: Determine the occurrence of bone mineral changes due to weightlessness.

Results: It was concluded that mineral losses occurred from the bones of the lower extremities

during missions of up to 84 days. In general, they followed the loss patterns observed in a

heterogeneous group of bed-rested subjects.

M 092 Lower Body Negative Pressure

Objective: Evaluate space flight cardiovascular deconditioning and establish the time course of

any changes.

Results: Vectorcardiograms taken on all crewmen during the Skylab flights showed several

consistent changes apparently related to space flight. Principal among the changes were temporal

intervals, vector magnitudes and their orientations, and certain derived parameters, presumably

resulting from altered autonomic neutral inputs upon the myocardial conduction system or major

fluid shifts known to have occurred in flight. All observed measurements were well within

accepted limits of normal and were considered to represent adaptive phenomena rather than

pathological conditions.

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M 093 Vectorcardiogram

Objective: Measure electrocardiographic potentials during weightlessness and the immediate

postflight period to obtain precise measurements of the changes that occur.

Results: No adverse electrocardiographic changes, with the exception of arrhythmias, were

observed in the Skylab crews that could be attributed to long exposure to a weightless

environment or to the other stresses of extended space flight. T here was no evidence of

myocardial ischemia or changes in the electrocardiogram that would suggest vasoregulatory

abnormalities. The vectorcardiographic techniques utilized in the experiment added both

accuracy and precision to the data acquisition and facilitated both scientific investigation and

monitoring for crew safety.

M 111 Cytogenetic Studies of Blood

Objective: Determine pre- and postflight chromosome aberration frequencies in the peripheral

blood leukocytes of the Skylab crew members and provide in-vivo radiation dosimetry.

Results: Data did not seem to indicate that the external sources of radiation to which the crews

had been exposed in orbit resulted in any aberration increase.

M 112 Man's Immunity In-vitro Aspects

Objective: Assay changes in humoral and cellular immunity as reflected by the cone' "rations of

plasma and blood cell proteins, blastoid transformations, and synthesis ribonucleic (RNA) and

desoxy-ribonucleic acids (DNA) by the lymphocytes.

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Results: Changes noted, in general in the preliminary evaluation, were minor and were not

expected to be of any clinical significance.

M 113 Blood Volume and Red Cell Life Span

Objective: To determine the effect of orbital missions on the plasma volume and the red blood

cell populations, particularly changes in red cell mass, red cell destruction rate, red cell life span,

and red cell production rate.

Results: The Skylab data, taken in its totality with previous flight data, confirm that a decrease in

red cell mass is a constant occurrence in space flight. After the initial loss, there is at least a 30-

day delay before the red cell mass begins to reconstitute itself.

M 114 Red Blood Cell Metabolism

Objective: Determine if any metabolic or membrane changes occur in the human red blood cell

as a result of exposure to the space flight environment.

Results: It was concluded that there were no evidences of lipid peroxidation, that the biochemical

effect known to be associated with irreversible red cell damage and the changes observed in

glycolytic intermediates and enzymes cannot be directly implicated as indicating red cell damage

from exposure to the space flight environment.

M 115 Special Hematologic Effects

Objective: Examine critical physiochemical blood parameters relative to the maintenance of a

stable equilibrium between certain blood elements and evaluate the effects of space flight on

these parameters.

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Results: Until questions about the specific cause and impact of the red-cell shape change on cell

survival in-vivo have been resolved, individuals with diagnosed hematologic abnormalities

should not be considered as prime candidates for missions, especially long-duration missions.

M 131 Human Vestibular Function

Objective: Evaluate the requirement for an artificial gravitational force for space flight and

compare vestibular response in space with preflight baseline data.

Results: Prevention of motion sickness in any stressful environment involves selection,

adaptation, and the use of drugs. There is a lack of laboratory tests to predict accurately

susceptibility to motion sickness in weightlessness. Susceptibility to motion sickness in the

weightless phase of parabolic flight is promising but has not been validated.

M 133 Sleep Monitoring

Objective: Evaluate quantity and quality of sleep during prolonged space flight.

Results: The experiments indicated that man was able to obtain at least adequate sleep over

prolonged periods of time in space and during regularly scheduled eight-hour sleep periods. The

most notable changes in the sleep patterns occurred in the postflight period, perhaps suggesting

that readaptation to one-g is somewhat more disruptive to sleep than the adaptation to zero-g.

M 151 Time and Motion Study

Objective: Evaluate the relative consistency between ground-based and inflight task performance

as conducted by astronauts and as measured by time and motion determinations.

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Results: Inflight task performance was relatively equivalent among the three Skylab crews.

Behavioral performance continued to improve from beginning to end of all Skylab missions.

Performance adaptation was very rapid. There was no evidence of performance deterioration that

could be attributed to the effects of long-duration exposure to the Skylab environment.

M 171 Metabolic Activity

Objective: Evaluate man's metabolic effectiveness in space.

Results: From experiment results, it was hypothesized that inflight exercise had a beneficial

effect not only in the maintenance of a normal inflight response to exercise and well-being but

also in reducing the period of time required for readaptation post flight. However, this hypothesis

would have to be evaluated by proper experimentation.

General Summation of Skylab Biomedical Experience

• Biomedical results show that man can adapt and function effectively in weightless environment for extended periods.

• Daily inflight personal-exercise regimens coupled with appropriate dietary intake and adequate sleep, work, and recreation periods are essential for maintaining crew health and well-being.

• No untoward physiological changes were noted that would preclude longer duration manned space flights; however, further research is required to understand the mechanisms responsible for many observed changes.

• Remedial or preventive measures may be required for mission durations in excess of 9 to 12 months, e.g., bone demineralization countermeasures.

• Ideally, further observations of man in Earth orbit for an uninterrupted period of months should precede a Mars-type mission.

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APPENDIX 2: Support for Space Missions and NASA Funding (From Whitman Cobb, 2011)

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APPENDIX 2: Support for Space Missions and NASA Funding (Continued) (From Steinberg, 2011)

(From Joyce, 2009)

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APP

EN

DIX

3

Mat

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f Mis

sion

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iona

le V

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FIGURES

Figure 1. Manned Venus Flyby Cut Away (Feldman et. al., 1967).

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Figure 2. Manned Venus Flyby Development Phases (Feldman et. al., 1967).

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TABLES Table 1. Mission Science Objectives

Priority Objective Instrumentation Challenges

1 Life Science

Medical equipment, cycle ergometer, treadmill, resistance exercise device, portable EKG

*None (SOA)

2 Public Science & Outreach

Imaging Science Suite (WAC & NAC) *None (SOA)

3 Phobos and Deimos Dust Torus

Torus and Interstellar Dust Analyzer, Dust Flux Monitor, Aerogel Dust Collector, Imaging Science Suite

*None (SOA)

Table 2. Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem

Characteristics Wide Angel Camera (WAC) Narrow Angle CameraCamera 20 cm f/3.5 refractor 2 m f/10.5 reflectorWavelengths 380-1100 nm 200-1100 nmFilters 18 24Field of View 3.5° x 3.5° 0.35° x 0.35°Dimensions 55x35x33 cm 95x40x33 cmMassPower RequirementPeak Data Rate

58 kg56 W

366 kilobits/sec

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Table 3. Science Master Equipment List

Mass Powerkg W

Medical Supplies * -Cycle Ergometer * -Treadmill * 100Resistance Exercise Device * -Portable EKG 3 -Imaging Science Suite 58 56Torus and Interstellar Dust AnalyzerDust Flux MonitorAerogel Dust CollectorsTotal 361 486

Science Equipment

300 330

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