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Rzeszow University of Technology
Poland
Project of a manned, Mars flyby mission in 2018
Team name: MARS IV
Authors:
eng. Lukasz Beres
eng. Maciej Piotrowski
eng. Filip Nycz
eng. Grzegorz Szpyra
Translator’s help:
mgr Tomasz Gajdek
RZESZOW 2014
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Table of contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 3
Schedule ..................................................................................................................... 4
Trajectory ................................................................................................................... 8
Power and Radiators ................................................................................................. 11
Controlling of the spacecraft ..................................................................................... 16
Navigation during the mission ................................................................................... 18
Environmental Control and Life Support System ........................................................ 19
Communication System ............................................................................................ 29
Daily Schedule .......................................................................................................... 30
Research to conduct in space during a mission .......................................................... 31
Inhibition of Atmospheric Landers ............................................................................ 33
Mass Analysis ........................................................................................................... 38
Rocket choice ........................................................................................................... 39
Cost estimation ......................................................................................................... 41
Summary .................................................................................................................. 43
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 44
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Introduction
Sending people on the flyby Mars mission will be one of the greatest events in the
history of mankind. During the mission it will be proven that humans are a specie capable of
colonizing space. There will also be a possibility to conduct many experiments and to test the
most advanced machines so far. The experiments will further improve current technology,
expand knowledge and bring about new experiences. This will allow in the future to further
increase the safety of manned missions in space and in the near future to colonize Mars.
The paper presents a general diagram of how a cheap and safe mission should look.
The mission schedule is presented and the trajectory that will be used is briefly described. The
following matters have been analyzed and described: all the systems that will be needed to
accomplish this task, average day of men on the mission, a number of tests that can be
performed during the mission. The idea of how to bring the samples of the surface of Mars
and its moon Phobos, which will be extremely useful in the study of the red planet. A mass
analysis necessary to collect such samples is presented at the end.
All ideas contained in this project are supported by the literature and are possible to
achieve by 2018. To minimize costs of the project mainly focused on technologies that
already are or will be available in the coming months.
The main objectives of the project:
1. When possible technology that has already been used should be used.
2. Use existing equipment as much as possible.
3. The simplicity of each system, which results in reliability.
4. Each system must be duplicated in the event of failure.
5. In case of an emergency the design provides astronauts with at least two possible ways
to react.
6. The mission schedule is arranged so that at key moments there is a possibility to
change it in the event of a major accident.
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Schedule
Below there is a table that describes the most important tasks to be performed before
the start of the mission.
Tab. 1. Preparations, which have to be done before planned mission
Arrangements to mission
Date 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Action Description
Choosing crew
Accepting submissions of candidates
for the mission (man and woman). It
would be nice if at least one of them
was already in space.
Building the
ship and very
intensive
testing
Finding sponsors, raising money,
building the ship. Each element of the
mission must be tested. Develop
schedules and scenarios in the event of
failure.
First launch the
Falcon Heavy
The company Space X plans the first
launch Falcon IX Heavy in 2014 or
2015.
Crew training
Very intense training, service ship
repair devices, etc., survival training,
psychological training. Reserve crew
training.
Study navigation by the stars. The
study of atmospheric braking
performance in the event that had to
perform manual braking.
The following table shows the schedule of the mission. The table lists the key elements of the
mission and describes them richly.
During the mission, it must be possible to check every system - automatically and manually at
any phase of flight.
Tab. 2. Mars’s mission schedule
Mission
Lp. Action Description
1.
Start from the Earth
rockets with Deep Space
Habitat (DSH)
The Falcon IX Heavy rocket will be used to carry DSH.
Aerodynamic shields will be deployed after leaving the
atmosphere.
It will carry DSH off to the optimal LEO trajectory. This
will be the orbit of the ecliptic inclination.
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2. Start of a crew
The Falcon IX Heavy rocket will be used.
The rocket will carry Orion lander and Mars Sample
Recovery System (MSRS).
At the time when no longer needed LAS (Launch Abort
System) will be ejected from the rocket.
After leaving the atmosphere aerodynamic shields will be
ejected.
The Orion lander and MSRS will be placed in the same orbit
as DSH.
3. The docking of the DSH
and the Orion lander
DSH and Orion find themselves in the same orbit. This will
bring them closer and connect.
4. Testing of all systems
When raised into orbit, some systems may be damaged. At
this time, you will be able to test all the systems that are in
the ship and rectify any faults.
5. Putting the ship on a
trans-Mars trajectory
In the perihelion engines will be fired, which will enable
inclusion of the vessel on the trans-Mars trajectory. Then
any trajectory amendments will be made.
6.
Disconnecting landers,
collecting samples from
Mars and Phobos
Disconnecting the Mars Sample Recovery System (MSRS),
which will be placed on the elliptical orbit of Mars.
The next phase of MSRS:
- Leave the return ship in orbit,
- Dropping the landers to Mars and Phobos,
- Taking samples,
- Landers taking off from the surface of Mars and Phobos,
- A combination of vehicles,
- Ship take off with samples from of the orbit of Mars
(returning at the closest trajectory, which will allow the
return; orbit should be chosen so that it is the least energy-
intensive).
If something in the ship goes wrong, samples can return to
Earth in a different mission (in subsequent years), another
mission can intercept the cargo. It can be made with a
docking system that could take over valuable cargo
7. Mars proximity
trajectory
Implementation of EVA spacewalk Taking pictures of the
background of Mars that will be historical photographs.
8. Trans Mars Trajectory
Phase Beginning of going back in the direction of the Earth.
9. Getting closer to the
Earth Preparing to return to Earth phase.
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10. Disconnecting DSH
from the Orion lander.
Disconnecting the Orion lander from Deep Space Habitat
(DSH). DSH will perform atmospheric braking and stay on
LEO, to be catch up by ISS (using Lagrange point to change
inclination) and used in in-coming missions.
11.
Inhibition of Orion
lander’s atmospheric
braking
Placing the lander on the trajectory that allows the execution
of atmospheric braking. Implementation of atmospheric
braking (skip entry).
12. Braking by lander's
parachutes Implementation of parachutes braking (several phases).
13. Humans Landing on
Earth Astronauts landing on Earth and are taken by rescue teams.
Events presented above in Tab. 2 will follow each other in order shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Calendar
Below in Figure 2 and 3 simple diagrams are shown how the elements of the ship will
look, when placed on LEO. In the drawings there are visible connectors that allow to make a
combination of these two elements in one ship. Both elements have rocket engines that allows
spacecraft launching a trans-Mars trajectory. Drawings are made in the computer game
Kerbal Space Program.
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Fig. 2. The illustrated view of the lander Orion combined with MSRS, on the right the connector
that will enable docking to the DSH (this will carried by first rocket to LEO)
Fig. 3. The illustrated view of DSH in Earth orbit prior to the merger of the lander Orion (this
will be carried by a second rocket)
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Trajectory
It was decided to use existing trajectory according to [1] Moonish R. Patel, James M.
Longuski, Jon A. Sims, Mars Free Return Trajectories, presented in JOURNAL OF
SPACECRAFT AND ROCKETS, Vol. 35, No. 3, May–June 1998 (Fig.4). This same trajectory
was chosen by Inspiration Mars Foundation in Feasibility Analysis for a Manned Mars Free-
Return Mission in 2018.
Fig. 4. Mars free return [1]
The main characteristics of 501-day “free-return” trajectory:
501 days duration only (low weight of supply for astronauts)
Safe free – return trajectory (allow to a safe return in case of systems failure)
No entry into Mars atmosphere (simplicity, lower risk, lower mass of spaceship)
Needs only small correction maneuvers during transit (less fuel needed)
Rare trajectory (occurs only twice per fifteen years)
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Tab. 3. Depart, arrive and hyperbolic excess velocity [2]
Leg Depart Arrive
1 Earth Jan 5, 2018 V∞ 6,226 [km/s] Mars Aug 20, 2018 V∞ 5,425 [km/s]
2 Mars Aug 20, 2018 V∞ 5,425 [km/s] Earth May 21, 2019 V∞ 8,914 [km/s]
Figure below shows positions of planets in Solar System during mission.
Fig. 5. Positions of the Earth and Mars on Launch Day (1), Flyby (2) and Reentry (3)
Figure 6 shows sketch of trajectory that including characteristic points described below.
Calendar of events is described in chapter Schedule.
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Fig. 6. Sketch of a trajectory
1. Launch Space Habitat and supplies
2. Launch Orion with Astronauts and MSRS
3. Connection of Two Parts (complete spaceship on LEO)
4. Trans Mars injection burn at perihelion to maximize range of spaceship
5. Trans Mars Trajectory achievement
6. Mars Encounter Entrance. Mars Sample Recovery System (MSRS) release.
7. Mars Encounter Exit
8. Earth Return Sequence
Mission assumed to put a MSRS on orbit of the Mars (MSRS is described in Research
chapter). Elliptical orbit (Fig. 7) of MSRS is perfect to conduct experiments on Phobos too.
Fig. 5. Sketch of a trajectory of a probe Fig. 7. Sketch of a trajectory of a probe
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Power and Radiators
Power from photovoltaic panels
To supply all the systems on board the need for M = 18 kW of power. This includes
the power to Deep Space Habitat and Orion lander. DSH and Orion will have a shared and
independent power system.
The primary source of power is solar energy obtained with the help of photovoltaic
cells produced by Sharp company - photovoltaic (IMM, 302x). They are characterized by high
efficiency conversion of up to η = 0.444. They have been used in space satellites.
Calculations for surface panels of the spacecraft were performed at the time when the
space craft is a near Mars. So that when, all of the cells fail, it will be possible to ensure full
power solely from solar radiation in the vicinity of Mars. Near the Earth where the solar
constant is much higher than nearby Mars, the panels are not fully distributed. Exposure of
panels to solar radiation and not obtaining energy from them can lead to damage - therefore
panels must be obscured if they are not in use.
The solar constant for Mars and Earth.
Tab. 4. Solar radiation for Earth and Mars (on orbits) [3]
Planet Distance Solar radiation
Perihelion Aphelion Maximum Minimum
Earth 0,983 1,017 1,413 1,321
Mars 1,382 1,666 715,0 492,0
The solar constant used for calculation:
Surface of panels needed to power the ship near Mars:
A - surface of panels
Surface of panels needed to power the ship is:
This area will be spread over four photovoltaic panels:
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R - radius of the photovoltaic panel
The panels will have an automatic control system. Equipped with independent sensor
positions of the sun, and electric motors. It task will be to maintain the position of the panels
so that they always face the sun.
Due to the fact that the photovoltaic panels are not in any way protected against
meteorites, the surface of the panels to be selected should be slightly larger than shows the
calculation. So that in the event of damage to a number of elements it will be possible to
continue to provide adequate power.
The safest batteries that can be used for the storage of electricity from photovoltaic panels are
nickel-hydrogen batteries (ISS uses them, the Hubble Space Telescope and many space
probes). They are very safe. Unfortunately, their mass is very large.
Calculation of the weight of the battery [4]:
Busy voltage 120 VDC
Peak load 18 kW
Maximum load duration 1,2 h
Maximum DOD 75%
Battery Nickel – hydrogen
Battery energy density 65 (W*h)/kg
Average cell voltage 1,3 V
The number of cells:
From the total charge capacity and battery energy capacity are
And
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The battery mass is
Lithium batteries
Battery energy density 650 (W*h)/kg
Average cell voltage 3,4 V
The number of cells:
From the total charge capacity and battery energy capacity are
And
The battery mass is
Much better in terms of weight are lithium-ion batteries, which are very light so they will be
used for the mission. The batteries will be placed in the warehouse where it is cool and dry.
Securing power from fuel cells
To provide maximum safety of mission the back-up supply will be used in case of
failure of photovoltaic panels. The power obtained from the system in the event of an
emergency if the solar panels were severely damaged must have the ability to sustain, power-
core systems. Fuel cells must ensure the system power is enough to protect life in Orion, as
well as communication systems and RCS.
Fuel cells will be placed in the Deep Space Habitat. The combination of the Orion and
Deep Space Habitat allow the transfer to power fuel cells between vehicles. Even if it was a
meteorite puncture, depressurizing DSH without the possibility of patching the holes are links
to ensure the provision of power to the Orion and maintain the operation of life support
system, communication system and the RSC.
The most secure cells are Alkaline Fuel Cells (called Alkaline Fuels Cells, AFC). The
electrolyte in the cell is potassium hydroxide solution. Gemini and Apollo had it and each
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space shuttle has a link. [5] The fuel they use is hydrogen and oxygen. As a result, it is
possible to obtain additional water, which can be used in life-support system in the event of a
major accident. Hydrogen storage tanks have to be covered with a layer of high-porosity
ceramic to volatilization does not occur due to a long hydrogen storage.
Radiators
The spacecraft will be heated by solar radiation and the working equipment on board.
Therefore, it appears that the spacecraft was in thermal equilibrium should pay him about 13
[kW].
Area of the radiators in the mission of the Orion Multi - Purpose Crew Vehicle (OM - PVC):
- Surface radiators - 31 - Thermal power dissipation – 6,3
Calculation of the required heat sink surface
Due to the lack of material data it is difficult to calculate the theoretical surface of the
heat sinks. Therefore, the surface was calculated from the ratio of the heat sinks.
Tab. 5. Data requested in further calculations of radiators
Mission Surface of radiators Dissipated thermal power OM – PCV 31 6,3
Our mission 13
64 - the surface of radiators
To reduce the surface of the radiators, you can:
- Maintain the position of the radiators so that they are in the shade of the spacecraft,
- Use the DSH and the lander Orion multi-layer heat shield and a new type of insulation
MLI,
- Cover the outer layer of the vessel with material which causes large sunlight
reflection,
- Inspection cover polished titanium layer. It allows to easier belching of radiation and
easier transfer of heat from the interior of the heat sink.
A ship in space is significantly heated by solar radiation. This leads to thermal stresses
of the ship's structure. During the missions of Apollo the vessel was rotated at a speed of
1
in order to avoid heating of the skip. The Apollo missions used the power from of the
fuel cells. In this mission, turning the ship to be evenly heated will be difficult to implement
due to the fact that it will be of photovoltaic panels, the position of which would have to be
constantly changed. This can be a big problem.
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Our new ideas to reduce the surface area of the heat sinks and photovoltaic panels
We can not calculate which solution would be the best. I do not have sufficient data on
modern materials. Therefore, we present two solution: reducing the absorption of heat and the
use of heat as a heat source for the heat engine.
1. Photovoltaic panels can be placed to cover the vessel. As a result the amount of heat
absorbed by the ship will be reduced.
2. Use the Sterling engine that will use a temperature difference side by a heated sun's
rays and the very cold which do not reach them. The side you want to heat can be
covered with titanium oxide from the side of which is heated , resulting in a very good
absorption of radiation. The other side of the vehicle can be covered with a polished
titanium to reduce heat absorption. In addition, system controls the position of the
vessel so that part of the ship covered with titanium oxide is turned toward the sun. In
order to accumulate thermal energy at one point of the heat pump can be used . In a
place where heat will be collected heat and cooled on the other hand, we can place the
Sterling engine. In recent years, Poland has patented Sterling engine modification. It is
called WASE 2. The modification consists the fact that there are no rods, which
greatly simplifies construction. The motor can be connected to an electric generator.
With this solution, the problem of cooling will be reduced and there will be an
additional source of electricity.
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Controlling of the spacecraft
Primary control system in darkness of space will be Reaction Control System (RCS) –
system which uses small thrusters to provide rotation control and sometimes translation. In
microgravity conditions, with no air resistance, RCS is the best way to provide forces and
torque to rotate spacecraft. Every vehicle, travelling outside Earth’s atmosphere, needs that
system operational to complete its mission.
For the purpose of Inspiration Mars project, where simplicity and lowering costs are
critical, borrowing concepts from another projects is necessary. Control a spacecraft can be
realized by simply adopting Apollo Lunar Module and Service Module RCS, and make it
slightly more powerful. In that missions, spacecrafts had thrusters grouped, and combined
with another one on the opposite site of the vehicle. Such system allowed to make corrections
in spacecraft attitude without affecting accuracy of their trajectories.
Fig. 8. Group of RCS thrusters on Apollo Lunar Module [6]
The system was qualified for manned flight during the unmanned Apollo 5 mission on
January 22 and 23, 1968, and has operated successfully during all LM flights. As we can read
in the Apollo Experience Report [7]: „The experience gained from Gemini missions and the
command and service module reaction control systems in the areas of system fabrication,
checkout, and testing also was applied to the lunar module reaction control system. The
system reliability requirements were achieved through system and component redundancy.
Two independent operational lunar module reaction control systems were provided. (…) The
performance of the lunar module reaction control system on Apollo missions was satisfactory.
Several minor problems occurred, but solutions were found for all problems encountered.”
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Fig. 9. Reaction Control System schematic [8]
Main layout of that system can be the same as in previous spacecraft, but development
of steering, control and sensors, may lead to increase efficiency and accuracy of deep space
maneuvering. Although computers and microprocessors are very reliable and can react too
changes a lot faster than human, system must have an option of manual control.
Despite very high level of reliability and accuracy, back-up system must be provided, but
secondary system, treated as a back-up, can be identical as primary, described by another
quote from that document: “With the exception of the failure of a chamber pressure
transducer bracket, the cluster design withstood all the mission-level random and sinusoidal
vibration loads to which it was subjected. Overstress vibration levels of up to 200 percent of
specification requirements also were imposed on the cluster without causing any significant
structural failures.”
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Navigation during the mission
Deep space navigation will enable Inspiration Mars to precisely target distant its
spacecraft. Navigation must take place in real time for control and operation of the spacecraft,
but also has to include later highly accurate reconstruction of the trajectory for subsequent
corrections. Using Deep Space Network during a cruise part will allow spacecraft to calculate
it’s position and orientation, using precisely timed radio signals sent back and forth to Earth.
It requires a team of scientists and engineers using sophisticated tools to calculate trajectory
first, then advanced high-tech radios, large antennas, computers, and precise timing
equipment is needed to ensure, that astronauts are on correct trajectory.
Massive parabolic-dish antennas, located around the world, have ability to follow all
spacecraft, if their distance from Earth is greater than 30 000km, always at least one antenna
can establish contact. The whole system is called Deep Space Network (DSN), and it is the
best way to communicate outside our planet. On the Mars Inspiration spacecraft there will be
at least four antennas, two of them – weaker omnidirectional, one have to work combined
with stronger, two beam saucers. Such way of cooperation is necessary for stable contact,
because of Earth and spaceship movement.
Fig. 10. Range of the DSN Antennas [9]
Before Inspiration Mars reaches proper distance, mission must be serviced by another way of
communication, like Near Earth Network. During short period of time, just before reaching
Mars, small corrections can be made using signals from martian orbiters – MAVEN and
MRO. Although mission’s primary way of navigation is DSN, new experimental laser
communication can be used for maneuvering and changing position, with by-the-way mission
objective - examining its reliability over very big distances, precision and speed of the
connection.
Every system, even the most reliable, can make a negative surprise and notice a
malfunction. In the worst scenario, when all of the systems fail to work, astronauts with their
onboard computers can still navigate in space using modernized Inertial Guidance Computer,
which uses gyroscopes and accelerometers to measure changes in vehicle speed, position and
orientation.
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Environmental Control and Life Support System
Environmental Control and Life Support System in short ECLSS is one of the
most important components of every human spaceflight mission. It should provide all
necessary items and conditions for maintaining life or health.
In order to perform that task the ECLSS executes several different functions [10]:
Provides oxygen for metabolic consumption
Provides potable water for consumption, food preparation and hygiene uses
Removes carbon dioxide from the air in the cabin
Filters particulates and microorganisms from the cabin air
Removes volatile organic trace gases from the cabin air
Monitors and controls cabin air partial pressures of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
methane, hydrogen and water vapor
Maintains total cabin pressure
Maintains cabin temperature and humidity levels
Distributes cabin air between connected module
Shielding against harmful external influences: radiation and micro-meteorites
Components of the life support system should be designed and constructed using safety
engineering techniques, because it is life-critical issue. Besides, the whole system must
become self-sustaining for missions where resupply is not practical. The most important
systems and installations should be also duplicated.
In the process of designing ECLSS major efforts would be put into several areas: providing
clean water and air, waste management, anti-fire system, Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA)
support, crew’s accommodation, environmental protection.
1. Providing clean water and air
The idea of systems providing water and air is presented at figure 1:
Fig. 11. Water and air circulation [10]
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Two main components of the ECLSS, which are OGS (Oxygen Generation System)
and WRS (acronym of Water Recovery System) [10] will be used to meet life support
requirements.
a) Oxygen Generation System
It is well known fact that it is not practical to carry all of the essential oxygen for the
purpose of pressure control, metabolic consumption during the mission, extra vehicular
activity etc. That is way OGS has to be based on state-of-art solutions. Oxygen should be
generated in water electrolysis process rather than by using CO2 technologies, which are
regenerable by desorbing to space vacuum or are single-use. However it will require
recovering water in more efficient way than usual. Also proper power supply module will be
necessary to electrolyze the water in quite efficient way. OGS based on electrolyze process
will also produce hydrogen, which can be used in Carbon Dioxide Reduction Assembly
(CDRA) [10]. The idea of CDRA is very simple. Once deployed, the reduction assembly will
cause hydrogen to react with carbon dioxide removed from the cabin atmosphere to produce
water and methane. This water will be available for processing and reuse, thereby further
reducing the amount of water needed to be taken from earth.
b) Water Recovery System
The main purpose of WRS [10] is to provide clean water by reclaiming wastewater,
including water from crewmember urine; cabin humidity condensate; and Extra Vehicular
Activity (EVA) wastes. The recovered water must meet stringent purity standards before it
can be used to support crew, EVA, and others activities. The Water Recovery System consists
of a Urine Processor Assembly (UPA) and a Water Processor Assembly (WPA). Unlike the
ISS Urine Processing Assembly that uses Vapor Conpression Distillation, the ECLSS design
uses a modified Urine Processing Assembly (UPA) with Cascade Distillation System (CDS)
as the primary urine processor. The product of the UPA w/CDS is then filtered, oxidized, and
added to the waste water tank for final processing by the WPA. While the calcium in urine
limits distillation processes between 70 – 85% recovery, this system recycles all of the water
[11]. The Water Processor removes free gas and solid materials such as hair and lint, before
the water goes through a series of multifiltration beds for further purification. Any remaining
organic contaminants and microorganisms are removed by a high-temperature catalytic
reactor assembly. The purity of product water is checked by electrical conductivity sensors
(the conductivity of water is increased by the presence of typical contaminants). Unacceptable
water is reprocessed, and clean water is sent to a storage tank, ready for use by the crew.
2. Thrash and waste management
According to definitions [12], trash consists principally of used or defective hardware,
expired consumables, or payload generated items no longer required for use during the
mission and are not significant contributors to the decay of the habitable environment. By
contrast waste consists principally of chemicals, radioactive materials, batteries, sharps, and
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biologically/biomedically active products and consumables of no further use to the crew and
not required to be returned. In order to maintain a hygienic environment, waste and associated
by-products should not be left on-board longer than necessary. Waste shall not be stowed in
the principle crew living and working area. It will be preferable solution to equipped crew
with 3D printer. This device can be apply to transform used plastic containers or bags into
different items such as tools or machine parts. In order to recycle as much water as possible
the Waste Containment System should be installed in crew habitat. WCS collects and
disposes of wet and dry trash and fecal waste, as well as controls the odor of urine. This
system also reclaims the water (from the urine, fecal waste, and wet trash) which is later used
by WRS. Analysis show that the brine from trash and solid waste further converted can be
responsible for about 50% percent of daily water recovery [11].
Beneath is presented the NASA’s concept of design Waste Hygiene Compartment, which can
be used successfully in planned mission.
Fig. 12: Waste Hygiene Compartment [13]
3. Fire Detection and Response System (FDRS)
NASA’s fire expert David Urban has told once that fire is among the most catastrophic
scenarios that can possible happen aboard spacecraft. “You can’t go outside, you’re in a very
small volume, and your escape options are limited. Your survival options are limited,” he
said. “Space can tolerate a much smaller fire than you can tolerate in your home. The pressure
can’t escape easily, and the heat stays there, and the toxic products are there as well.”
The main task of FDRS is to detect, annunciate and if it necessary extinguish the fire aboard
designed spaceship. FDRS is divided into three groups: detection, suppression and recovery
The fire detection system should provide fault detection and thermal sensing circuitry to
detect any current spikes within hardware and if one occurs, that system has to shut down
power to the hardware automatically. Also It should allow to localize any source of smoke
onboard. The second line of defense is fire suppression system. It would be responsible for
cutting of ventilation to the area affected by fire and routing area to post-fire clean up devices,
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which will be part of recovery system. In addition to this, a portable fire extinguisher could be
placed one per floor.
4. Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA)
Astronauts should be provided with two spacesuits, which will allow them to perform
necessary operations outside habitat. If untethered spacewalks will be required, space suits
should be equipped with modern version of the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) [14] or
Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER – Fig. 13) [15]. Besides in tasks, which do not
require human’s assistance or are too risky robonaut like NASA’s R2 (Fig. 3) [16] would be
perfect solution. Generally speaking, R2 is a humanoid robotic torso. This device is also
capable to assist with crew EVA's and it do not need specialized tools, because it can use the
same ones as the astronauts.
Fig. 13 Astronaut working with a SAFER system [15] and R2 humanoid robot [16]
5. Crew’s accommodation
One of the most important part of spaceship, which will take people to mars orbit is
habitat. The concept of that crew’s module can be designed in two different ways. First
approach may assume that habitat should have cylindrical shape like tuna tin can, so it will be
short and wide. This idea is presented at Fig. 14.
That kind of design allows to put more equipment per floor and separation between interior
and exterior of habitat can be larger so protection against radiation would be better. However
wider structure can be troublesome when it comes to send it into space. For only 2 crew
members it is better to think of different approach. Narrow cylindrical design, based on
already built and tested structure would be the best idea. Fortunately, NASA has already
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proposed conceptual design called Deep Space Habitat (DSH) [13] to support a crew
exploration beyond LEO.
In that project the habitat construction is partially based on ISS Destinity Module,
which was sent into orbit in 2001, so many crucial technologies has been tested in harsh space
environment. DSH is originally planned to be used in 2 variants. One of them is basic 60 day
mission variant presented hereunder at Fig. 15.
Fig. 14: Conceptual DSH Layout [17]
It consist of a Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (1), ISS Destiny-derived lab module (2), an
airlock/tunnel (3), and Orion – Multipurpose Crew Vehicle (4). The 500 Day mission variant
is pretty similar except of Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) which will provide
additional supply storage for the extended mission duration. For designed Mars’s mission
concept for 2 astronauts, first variant without MPLM would be sufficient, because less people
onboard means less provision and more space inside habitat to keep it.
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Fig. 15. DSH configuration for designed Mars mission [13]
Special efforts should be put to achieve optimal arrangement of habitat interior in order to
provide safe, comfortable living and working spaces. In that case it is strongly recommended
at conceptual stage to base on anecdotal evidence from astronauts collected during different
evaluations and ISS post-mission debriefs [17], which actually may be find very useful source
of information. The crew usually prefer a clear separation of work and leisure areas.
Accordingly, science stations, EVA operations (suits and airlock), maintenance etc. should be
separated from galley or sleeping areas. If it is possible, it is also advice to make distinct
demarcation between noisy – dirty areas (like exercise and waste containment system - WCS)
and quiet – clean ones (crew quarters). The habitat construction and equipment should
provide astronauts with personal control over temperature, air flow, lighting, data and power
access. Also proper science and flight operation workstation will be required to fulfill mission
aims. For example, it is strongly recommended to install standard 20” ISS window in habitat’s
galley. It will allows astronauts to make high quality photos of Mars’s surface and
atmosphere, which can be later use to study geology or meteorology of that planet in a way
never seen before. Most of the features presented above, has been implemented in NASA’s
DSH concept what confirms that it is well-thought-out project worth to be put into practice in
designed mission to Mars’s orbit. Below are shown additional imagery of DSH:
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Fig. 16. a) Dimension of habitat from DSH concept [13]
Fig. 16. b) Interior of habitat from DSH concept [13]
It has been already told that crew will consist of 2 people so, approximately half of
habitable volume intended for crew quarters (DSH was originally designed for 4 astronauts
onboard – Fig. 16. b) can be used as storage space.
DSH has also one powerful advantage. The avionics for the DSH has been based on the
MPCV crew vehicle avionics what is really practical solution. MPCV vehicle is largely a
habitat vehicle with all the electronics required to operate ECLSS systems and provides a
robust communications system with good ground link and local communications capabilities.
That approach significantly increase safety level. If any emergency situation occurs and
habitat will be damaged, crew can use MPCV as a shelter, which will provide all necessary
systems required to support life. When situation will stabilize astronauts should take steps to
repair damaged modules.
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6. Environmental protection
Every spacecraft is exposed for threats such as micrometeoroids impact or radiation.
Fortunately, there are already developed technologies, which allow reducing danger.
a) Protection against micrometeoroids
Engineers have protected spacecraft from micrometeoroids and space trash in a
number of ways. At ISS There are 3 primary shielding configurations [18]:
Whipple shield-is a two layer shield consisting of an outer bumper, usually aluminum,
spaced some distance from the module pressure shell wall; the bumper plate is
intended to break up, melt or vaporize a particle on impact.
Stuffed Whipple shield-consists of an outer bumper, an underlying blanket of Nextel
ceramic cloth and Kevlar fabric to further disrupt and disperse the impactor, spaced a
distance from the module pressure shell.
Multi-layer shields, consisting of multiple layers of either fabric and/or metallic panels
protecting the critical item
In DSH External Micrometeoroid Debris Protection Shield (MDPS) is based on system used
in Multipurpose Logistic Module (MPLM). The real photo of MDPS is presented below:
Fig. 17 Debris shield design [18]
Beside, during spacewalks spacesuits will provide impact protection through various
fabric-layer combinations and strategically placed rigid materials.
b) Radiation protection
In space astronauts are exposed to stronger radiation than on Earth due to a lack of the
positive influence of Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere. It is vital issue to know what
level will reach radiation on the trip from Earth to Mars. Luckily, this problem has been
solved thanks to Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) shielded inside NASA's Mars Science
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Laboratory, which was sent to Mars in 2011. This device has measured radiation dose during
180-days transit to Mars. It is worth to compare the data collected by RAD with radiation
dose associated with for instance a six-month stay on the International Space Station, several
Earth-based sources of radiation or 500-day stay on Mars.
This comparison is presented at Fig 18.
Fig 18. Level of natural radiation detected by the RAD compared to radiation in different
human environments [19, 20]
According to the Fig 18. 180-days transit to Mars would result in a radiation exposure
of about 1 sievert. That level of radiation could be acceptable and do not pose critical threat to
Mars’s mission. The more important problem is connected with the spikes in radiation levels
presented at second chart in Fig 8. There are effects of large solar energetic particle events
(Solar flare events) caused by solar activity. Though rare, can give a fatal radiation dose in
minutes [21]. It is thought that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower
the risks connected with solar flare to an acceptable level [22]. Fortunately, DSH concept has
also described the way to shield crew against harmful radiation influence.
The idea of DSH radiation protection system would base on several 0.55cm thick
polyethylene tanks filled with water, which will create 9.9cm thick water wall sheltering the
crew and vital supplies:
Fig 9. Water wall as a way to shelter against radiation during solar flare events [13]
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It is also worth to combine waste management system (WMS) with protection against
radiation. It can be achieved by gathering for instance dehydrated, decontaminated solid fecal
waste between inner and outer shell of habitat.
In summarize, ECLSS is a quiet complex state-of-art piece of technology construct from
elements, which interact with each other in many ways, what is shown hereunder.
Fig. 17: Interaction of ECLSS’s parts [23]
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Communication System
The most inexpensive way to keep contact between spaceship and Earth for this
mission is to use existing systems. Close to earth it could be used TDRSS (Tracking and Data
Relay Satellites System) or NEN (Near Earth Network). During Trans Mars and Earth
Trajectory it is necessary to use DSN (Deep Space Network). Close to the mars and especially
when earth will be hidden behind Mars it is need to use MRO (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter)
or MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution). Both MRO and MAVEN could
provide connection for probe too.
This mission it is a good opportunity to use Laser Communications. It has been tested
by LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer) this year successfully. Laser
Communication Devices are lighter than conventional and their energy consumption is lower.
This is new technology relatively and it could not be used as a basic communication system
but it could support DSN.
Tab. 6. The transmission data rate
System Kilobits per second (estimated)
TDRSS 72
DSN 10 to 6000
LASER 250 000
Currently, there are the three networks that Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN)
uses to support missions in space: the Deep Space Network (DSN), the Near Earth Network (NEN)
and the Space Network (SN). Each of these networks operates distinctly and separately from the other.
New project assumed that the three networks will be moving towards an integrated network. The
SCaN Integrated Network (SCaNIN) will provide standard services and interfaces to all missions by
2018. It should reduce costs.
To tracking a spacecraft the transponder is needed. New generation like Small Deep Space
Transponder (SDST) designed by JPL it is a perfect solution for this mission. It is compatible with
DSN and it weighs only 3 kilograms without aerials. It unifies a number of communication functions -
receiver, command detector, telemetry modulator, exciters, beacon tone generator, and control
functions.
The aerials system should be doubled to provide maximum reliability. It should contain two
kinds of aerials – omnidirectional antennas and directional antennas. Analyzing difference of signals
between antennas (using positive feedback) the system could find direction that the signal is the most
powerful. This indicates the direction of signal source (e.g. Earth).
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Daily Schedule
The costs of a mission are high so astronauts have to accomplished a lot of work such
as conducting experiments, exercising, performing maintenance work. During over 501 days
in small space the astronauts cannot have time to be bored. Too much off – duty time could
have negative influence on mental condition.
It was proposed to keep a diary by crew. The diary should include feelings, worries
and suggestions for improvement. It could help in further missions.
Tab. 7. Daily schedule
Designation Activities
1. Post sleep period Eat, shower, prepare to work or sleep longer
2. Morning conference
The astronauts discuss with each other and
with ground controllers about tasks (reading
received messages)
3. Exercise Physical exercises
4. Morning work Perform morning tasks, conducting
experiments, perform maintenance work
5. Lunch Prepare meals, eat, clean up and a short break
6. Afternoon work Continue morning work, discuss about
progress of work
7. Exercise Physical exercises
8. Pre sleep period / off – duty
time
Eat dinner, personal off – duty time, prepare to
sleep
It is recommended to change the schedule during mission to stave off fall into a routine.
Also it is strongly recommended to provide an entertainment such as movies, music and chat
with family or friends.
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Research to conduct in space during a mission
When travelling along interplanetary trajectory, astronauts will have unique
opportunity to conduct experiments in conditions not affected by an Earth’s atmosphere.
Between Earth and Mars there is no magnetic field, and external layer of the spaceship will be
exposed to the Solar Wind. That phenomenon, although very dangerous for every form of life,
can be very interesting for scientists around the World. Capturing and returning samples of
the Solar Wind can bring answers to many questions connected to that topic. Onboard
protection for astronauts must have their own sensor of radiation, especially during increased
solar activity. Measurement of that radiation, in wide spectrum of frequency can be integral
part of next interplanetary mission development. Interesting data may be collected by few
separate sensors, one located behind stronger protective cover, another situated behind usual
layer of external material, on the solar panels, etc.. With examination of different radiation
forms, a small radiotelescope can be helpful, so astronauts will take one onboard. Lack of
magnetic field, which can affect many events, is in that case an advantage.
Second kind of experiment, connected with microgravity and absence of protective
magnetic cover has definitely huge impact at life in deep space. Unfortunately, astronauts
must act as guinea pigs in that kind of experiment, but they can bring, and take care of
laboratory animals, like rats or hamsters. Measurement of data like pace of metabolism,
influence of magnetic and gravity field on human brain or blood circulation can help us get
ready to the future potential deep space missions. Very interesting, although controversial can
be experiment with rat insemination, evolution and parturition in microgravity. Apart from
macroscopic forms of life, astronauts can also observe and examine microscopic life. Bacteria
organisms was often main topic of research on the ISS, but above Van Allen belts, conditions
are different, and interesting to check. People, as a life form was not exposed for this hostile
environment for a long time, it will be first long-lasting deep space laboratory with onboard
life and protection system. Not only animals can be observed, people can try to grow
experimental food for animals, in order to examine influence of radiation on edibility of
plants.
Another experiment, worth performing is analysis of space dust and micro meteors,
which will hit external surface of the vehicle. Chemical composition of space object can be
determined with acceptable accuracy onboard, or returned to the surface of the Earth.
When approaching Mars, our deep space laboratory can measure intensity of Martian gravity
and magnetic field. Pretty obvious is taking pictures of Mars surface and in-flight
environment, including Earth, getting smaller and smaller.
Vehicles needed to acquire samples from Mars’s and Phobos’s surface
Mars Sample Recovery System (MSRS) is a interplanetary device created to recover
samples from the surface of Red Planet, and one of Martian satellites – Phobos. Spacecraft
will start its mission as a part of the Deep Space Habitat Spacecraft – Inspiration Mars project.
Main objective of MSRS is landing on Mars and Phobos and collecting small samples of
rocks or soil. In order to ensure that whole spacecraft will be as light as possible, it is required
for the mission to carry no additional equipment.
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MSRS Vehicle is designed to split in five main parts:
- Earth Re-Entry Capsule – (ERC) – designed to safely transfer samples of rocks or soil
through re-entry phase. Equipped only with room for approximately 5kg of interplanetary
cargo and tiny radiolocation device, for transmitting signal after landing. Transmitter’s task is
providing back-up service in case of landing in different place than expected.
- Earth Return Module – (ERM) – the central part in the whole system and spine of MSRS.
Attached directly to the Deep Space Habitat Assembly, ERM will reach Mars, while being on
free-return trajectory. After detach, retro rockets are expected to fire, in order to slow the
vehicle down to reach Mars orbit. As an additional method of slowing the spacecraft down
system will use atmospheric braking. ERM, with propellant necessary to come back to Earth,
is going to stay, orbiting Red Planet, while two landers detach and attempt to land on their
target areas. Vehicle must have at least tripled systems for navigation, contact between
unmanned spacecrafts and roundez-vous maneuvering.
- Phobos Sample Return Vehicle (PSRV) - simple small rocket with sample collecting
device. Because the characteristics of Phobos soil are uncertain, the lander must include two
types of soil-extraction tool, one of them can be a pipe shape tool, with some kind of drill for
soft lunar-like regolith, but as a backup a Polish-built drill CHOMIK (Phobos-Ground
mission) must be used, in case the soil turn out to be too rocky for the main scooping device.
- Mars Sample Return Vehicle (MSRV) – vehicle consists of two main elements: descent
stage is responsible for safe landing on the surface of Mars and ascent stage, which has to
transport tubes with soil or rocks, from the ground to ERM, waiting on the orbit. For the
purpose of mass lowering, both stages must be as simple, as possible. Ascent stage assembly
will take from the ground only probes, containing samples. Equipment, used for drilling and
digging is expected to stay on the ground, capturing images until battery would be effective.
Descent stage of MSRV may include needle-shape tool, that can be rammed into the ground -
using mass of whole vehicle - for examining, or extracting samples from below the topsoil,
top of that tool can be equipped with measurement instruments, for defining physical and
chemical properties of the ground.
- External tank – a container for propellant, necessary for ERM to launch trans Earth
sequence and get to coming-home trajectory.
Value of samples, delivered to the surface of the Earth, is non-measurable, many
laboratories across the world will do anything to do experiments on the real samples of
another planet.
Approximated mass of elements:
- ERC < 10kg
- ERV – 300kg (with fuel for trans-earth injection and maneuvering)
- MSRV – 300kg (dry mass)
- PSRV – 150kg (dry mass)
- Propellant for vehicles – 1000kg (summary)
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Inhibition of Atmospheric Landers
Inhibition of precipitation will be used to:
- Slow the lander Orion with people returning to Earth,
- Slow the DSH,
- To put the MSRS for upholstery Mars,
- The return of the ERC with samples from Mars and Phobos to Earth.
Benefits of using atmospheric braking:
- A very large reduction in weight, which should take on a mission (engine weight and
the weight of fuel),
- Reduce the risk that would occurred in the event that only engine braking will be
available (the possibility of a damage).
To inhibit the lander Orion, MSRS, the ERC will be used skip entry. Skip Entry -
"This type of trajectory offers Considerable in the control of high - speed entry" [4]. This
method of braking is used when it is not possible to directly enter the atmosphere and makes it
possible to avoid the problem of thermal control. Phase skip entry shown in Figure x phase
Balistic Coast (Skip) it is possible to radiative cooling of the disc lander before the next
plunge into the atmosphere.
Fig. 18. Phase skip entry [26]
The lander is a solid axisymmetric. To land humans on Earth will be used lander Orion,
designed to current NASA projects.
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Fig. 19.Orion Lander [27]
Speed that will have a lander Orion when entering the Earth's atmosphere is 8,914 [km/s].
For the Orion at a speed of 8,914 [km/s], the density of heat flow will rise to little more than 2
[MW/m^2].
How to perform Orion lander atmospheric braking:
1. Entry into Earth orbit must be in an appropriate air corridor, ie 100-130 [km]. Too
high will cause reflection, experience unacceptable for low load (thermal, mechanical
- a very large load). Lander must have a device that enables to measure the height of
the earth's surface and the density of the atmosphere in which it is immersed
(thickness of the atmosphere changed for many of the solar constant parameters, e.g.,
weather, etc.).
2. Analysis of meteorological (weather on Earth) must be sent to the lander carefully
before landing. Landing in a storm is very dangerous.
3. By changing the angle of entry into the atmosphere computer can change the
aerodynamic characteristics of the lander. Figure (x) shows how to change the
characteristics of the lander, depending on the angle of entry. This makes it possible to
perform skip entry. If it falls, so that the direction of the Orion is parallel to its axis of
symmetry landers coefficient lift is cz = 0, the slope so that it entered the 35° angle
(the angle between the streams, and the axis of the lander) we have the maximum rate
and is on cz = 0.55.
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Fig. 20. Aerodynamics characteristics of Orion CEV [28]
Fig. 20 shows aerodynamic characteristics of Orion CEV [x]:
- cz - lift coefficient
- cd - coefficient of drag force
- d - the perfection of the lander
- a - angle of entry into the atmosphere
4. As a result of dissipation of kinetic energy during braking lander atmospheric shield is
heated to very high temperatures resulting in the shield layer is formed around the
plasma. This leads to the interruption of communication, in this phase of flight, control
system performs automatic navigation, guidance, and stabilization.
5. The whole process is controlled landing stabilized and controlled by the computer. As
a result of the lander impact on the atmosphere will act tilting moments. Maintaining
the correct position of the lander will be possible thanks to the control center of
gravity. Any change of position will be implemented using RCS (Reaction Control
System). The lander will be able to switch to manual control when a system had failed.
Will be placed on the window scale, which will identify the landing site LPD (Landing
Point Designator). To do this, compare the data from your computer to scale to the
window.
The crew during training on Earth must learn to manual control atmospheric braking in the
event of any failure.
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Requirements to the Orion :
1. The lander made of titanium, beryllium and nickel alloys.
2. Seats must be matched to the astronauts dressed in suits (good matching to a man sued
endure much greater load).
3. Phase of flight lander planned so that the direction of the overload was always directed
to cosmonaut were always pushed into the seat. Human strength load is about 15 g -
forced into an armchair, 5-8 g of the other directions.
4. The lander made so that in the event of a lightning strike current is not passed to the
crew.
5. Variable center of gravity to ensure overlap with the center of pressure (the center of
mass and the center of pressure) caused by pressure changes at a variable angle of
attack lander. This change will be automatically adjusted by changing the location of
the seats on which they sat astronauts.
6. The use of airbags inside the lander during landing on the water. At the moment of
impact of water 15 g of overload using the cushion, and 50 g in the case when it is
used.
7. The lander will have the right color for easy transfer of heat (matt black).
Orion landing phase after braking atmospheric:
1. Rejection of the front cover.
2. Parachutes inhibiting, stabilizing the ship and reduce its speed (2 bowls) - at a height
of 45 [km].
3. Rejection of braking parachutes - at 10 [km].
4. The release of the three main parachutes pulling out - at 10 [km].
5. Pulling three main parachutes - at a height of 9 [km].
6. Parachutes primary unfold in several stages.
7. Main parachutes fully open - at the height of 8.5 [m].
8. Rejection of the guards, running other equipment needed to land (e.g. external airbags
to keep the lander on the water).
9. Disconnection main parachutes after landing.
10. Measure the height will be implemented with the help of GPS and pressure
measurement.
Capture astronauts by ground crews. The crew will use a boat and a helicopter.
1. The lander will be equipped with a global positioning system GPS control points can
land. In the event of failure of the system, the lander will be equipped with a
transponder that can be traced by radar.
2. The release of the lander dye-containing substance that will help noticing the lander by
a team of astronauts intercept.
3. Alignment of the pressure inside the lander ambient pressure.
4. Acquisition by a team of astronauts moving.
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Various examples of data in the Apollo missions:
- Max acceleration in the Apollo missions - 12 [g].
- Mission Apollo 4 (AS-501) the speed of atmospheric braking start - 11.2 [km / s].
- Apollo 17 landing accuracy - 1 miles.
Placing the MSRS for upholstery Mars will be implemented in part using motors and
atmospheric braking. Please note that the atmosphere of Mars is much rarer. This results in a
significant prolongation of the deceleration time. MSRS will be placed in elliptical orbit to
significantly save energy, what was that needed to be placed on a circular orbit. The data on
the atmosphere to carry out the braking will be sent from the analyzes that will be conducted
by the probe MRO - 2005 and MAVEN - 2013.
Inhibition of the ERC return samples from Mars and Phobos to Earth, will run very
much like a lunar lander Orion. At the same time there will be far fewer safety requirements.
For this ERC will weigh much less than the lander Orion, which will reduce braking time and
reduce the binding requirements of parachutes.
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Mass Analysis
Mass of components based on [13] Deep Space Habitat Configurations by David
Smitherman (Tab. 8) but calculations of masses were adopted for two-person crew.
Tab. 8. Table of Estimated Mass for 501-days mission for 2 astronauts
Component
Predicted
Mass
[kg]
Structures 9002
Power 698
Avionics 1177
Thermal 2780
Environment Protection 4175
ECLSS 4379
Crew Systems 552
Astronauts 160
EVA 272
MSRS 1760
MPCV 11600
Dry Mass 36555
Stowage Provisions 1383
Water 1298
Food, package 1321
Atmosphere Regen 474
Non-propellant fluids 200
Mass Reserve (10%) 2989
Total 44220
Notes:
- It was assumed to provide 10% Mass Reserve
- Atmosphere Regen includes Oxygen and Nitrogen
- EVA includes two Extravehicular Mobility Units and Airlock Services
- Food mass was calculated with 35% average moisture content because it is strongly
recommended to provide variety of food for astronauts (Astronauts can not eat only
dehydrated meals). It is a good way to keep crew in good mental condition
- MPCV provides crew ascent, entry, and on-orbit support including aborts
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Rocket choice
It was assumed that transfer payload in to optimal LEO orbit will be realized by two
Falcon IX Heavy Rockets (Fig. 21). First of them will carry DSH with all necessary supplies
for project designed. The second one will start later in adequate time with crew and MPCV.
All required fuel should be provided by the same rocket launches. However, if there will be
need for extra fuel it should launched by third time (it is not recommended).
Tab. 9. The Division of Mass Transportation
Launch Number Equipment Predicted Mass [kg] Notes
1 DSH + supplies 24955 Remaining payload
capacity should be
used to provide fuel 2 MPCV + MSRS + Astronauts 19265
We have analyzed the use of almost all the missiles capable of payloads into space.
Currently there are no large rocket like the Saturn V rocket Ares V project was canceled.
Renewal projects Saturn V or Ares V rocket and execution of 2018 swallowed up by huge
amounts of money. Start one of the currently used missiles is impossible.
The need for a minimum of two. Currently, the most reasonable solution is to use a rocket.
We can thus calculate whether the two rockets are enough to put DSH and lander
Orion MSRS LEO on orbit and fuel inventories putting on trans-Mars trajectory, or perhaps
run a small amount of fuel.
If there were problems with the output of the LEO on trans-Mars trajectory (due to the
very small amount of fuel) is another solution. If the rocket Space Launch System (SLS) will
be tested according to the plans in 2017 and its price was that competitive, you could use it to
lift DSH. This rocket is expected to be 70 tons to LEO. [29] Orion lander was elevated to the
previously assumed a Falcon IX HEAVY rocket.
Falcon IX Heavy parameters [30]:
- 53,000 [kg] – LOE
- 21,200 [kg] – GTO
- 13,200 [kg] – to Mars
- Height – 68,4 [m]
- Diameter – 3,66 [m]
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Fig. 21. Falcon IX Heavy Rocket [31]
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Cost estimation
Designed mission should combine few key features. It has to be simple, safe and as
cheap as possible. These conditions as whole are quite contradictive. However at current
technological level it is possible to meet those requirements and send people to Mars orbit.
The mission concept, which was presented in details in previous chapters, is really
simply. In short, two astronauts will be send to Mars orbit in vehicles based on NASA’s DSH,
which will be first delivered to optimally chosen LEO by 2 (or unlikely 3) Falcon IX Heavy
Rocket (FH) and later on send to Mars’s orbit using free return trajectory. Besides manned
units, MSRS module will be attached to spacecraft, which will be used to collect samples
from surface of Mars and Phobos.
Beneath are presented advantages of proposed mission:
Proposed lift rocket is assumed to be capable to transfer about 53t [24] to LEO. It is
the newest rocket on market and it will be launched in heavy configuration in 2014.
The most important devices used in rockets from Falcon family has been tested and
are generally based on state-of-art solutions derived from already known and reliable
technologies.
One FH rocket costs about 80-125mln USD, and cargo costs are about 1502 – 2350
USD/kg to LEO. [25] Assuming that data is correct; to transfer 40 metric tons to LEO
it is required about 200mln USD. That makes this rocket one of the cheapest one in
history.
DSH concept will be developed by NASA and used in various mission. Its
components like habitat derived from ISS modules, so will be easy to construct and
are in many ways already tested. Besides when one type of design is predicted to be
used in different mission, production costs will be gradually lowered.
ECLSS is mainly based on technology used at ISS, so its structure will be modular,
reliable and potentially cheaper from completely new solutions.
MSRS devices allow obtaining priceless samples from the surface of Fobos and Mars.
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The following table shows simple calculation of estimated costs.
Tab. 10. Simple calculation of costs
What Cost Notes
2 x Falcon 9 Haevy, carry
DSH, Orion lander + MSRS
and fuel to orbit
400 000 000 USD Space X company
LAS Cost of material + man-hours Within NASA
DSH Cost of material + man-hours Within NASA
Orion lander Cost of material + man-hours Within NASA
MSRS 100 000 000 USD
NASA and Space Research
Centre Polish Academy of
Sciences (CHOMIK)
Photovoltaic cells No data Sharp company
Navigation Cost of material + man-hours Within NASA
Communication system Man-hours Within NASA
Control of the mission Man-hours Within NASA
Total estimated cost About 500 mln USD + cost
of material + man-hours
Man-hours are very
expensive so the total
estimated cost could be
about 1 mld USD
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Summary
1. Taking into account a number of analyzes have been carried out, sending people in
2018 is 100% feasible. Currently, there is available technology that allows you to
perform this task. All the solutions that have been described are already proven,
developed over many years and fine.
2. The most problematic thing is the choice of the rocket. Facon IX Heavy is the most
promising rocket, which will enable us to realize this mission.
3. Many of ideas were considered to put the spaceship on a trajectory leading to Mars:
- Direct start with two rockets and connection of the DSH and the Orion on the
trajectory leading to Mars. This embodiment is impossible to perform due to
limitations of mass. In addition, there will be no chance to testing the ship's systems as
it is possible when the vessels will be placed on the LEO. Staying on the LEO in case
of failure of any system makes it easy to interrupt the mission. Life of crew is
important and should make every effort to ensure that everything was checked.
- Dispatch DSH little earlier before the window opens trans-Mars trajectory and
docking it to the ISS. It would be able to carry out checks on the operation of all
systems. When approached by the window start date to DSH disconnected from the
ISS and sent to him on a trajectory leading to the Moon in point L1 virtually free to
change the inclinations of the ecliptic (correction maneuver). Then DSH back simply
into Earth orbit. In orbit ecliptic would connect to the lander Orion. Then, fired by the
engines in the perihelion and put the ship on trans Mars trajectory. In comparison with
the orbit of the ecliptic, the flight of ISS requires an increase in speed by 3% [32].
Despite the fact that this is possible, however, further complicates the use of the ISS
mission and increases the risk of failure. It is better to put DSH on ecliptic orbit at
once.
4. People will have to spend a long time in space. This can be dangerous, however, the
mission of similar duration were held as exemplified by the ships, Polkow W.W. -
437.7 days, which he was in space during the mission Soyuz TM-18.
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Bibliography
[1] Moonish R. Patel, James M. Longuski, Jon A. Sims, Mars Free Return Trajectories, Vol.
35, No. 3, May–June 1998
[2] Dennis Tito, Taber MacCallum, John Carrico, Mike Loucks, Feasibility Analysis for a
Manned Mars Free-Return Mission in 2018, Future In-Space Operations (FISO) telecon
colloquium, 2013
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight
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[13] http://spirit.as.utexas.edu/~fiso/telecon/Smitherman_3-14-12/Smitherman_3-14-12.pdf
[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manned_Maneuvering_Unit
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wykona-prawdopodobnie.jpg
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[31] http://www.freedomsphoenix.com/Uploads/338/Graph/falcon_9_heavy.jpg
[32] http://www.jakubw.pl/faq/astro/atyka_topic_4.html # _4_19