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Climatology of Maritime Continent by : Bayong Tjasyono HK. Department of Meteorology Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology Institut Teknologi Bandung Submitted to the Climate Field School and Validation of ASEAN Regional Climate Model, Puslitbang BMKG, 11 13 August 2009, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia

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Page 1: Climatology of Maritime Continent - Direktori File UPIfile.upi.edu/Direktori/SPS/PRODI.PENDIDIKAN_IPA/BAYONG_TJASYON… · Climatology of Maritime Continent ... the classification

Climatology of Maritime Continent

by : Bayong Tjasyono HK.

Department of Meteorology

Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology

Institut Teknologi Bandung

Submitted to the Climate Field School and Validation of ASEAN

Regional Climate Model, Puslitbang BMKG, 11 – 13 August 2009,

Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia

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o Element and Control of Climate

• Elements of weather and climate : airtemperature and humidity, rainfall, wind,sunshine duration, etc.

• Control of Climate : geographical latitude(annual migration of the sun), land andwater distribution, semi permanent cell ofhigh and low air pressure, air mass,mountain barrier, sea current, and stormsuch as tropical storm.

ClimateControl

ElementOf

Climate

ClimateType

Figure 1. Relationship between climate element and climate control

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o Climatology

• Come from the combination of two wordsGreek i.e., klima means slope of the earthindicating to the conception of place, andlogos means science. Thus, climatology canbe difined as science to find description andinformation of the nature of climate, whythe climate in some place of the Earth isdifference ? and how is the relation betweenclimate and human activities. Climatologycan also defined as science to study climatetypes and factors of its cause in the earth.

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o Season

• Is a period of the extreem climate element,for instance : in summer the extreemclimate element is high air temperature; inrainy season, the extreem climate elementis the aboundant rainfall (great number ofrainfall).

• In the world there are 4 season i.e., winter,spring, summer, and autumn. Theseterminologies are not usual applied inIndonesia due to the air temperature almostconstant through the year, on the contrarythe rainfall amount has great monthlyvariation.

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• Climate bounds growing vegetation, so that itbounds the harvest (hasil panen), for exampleto harvest rice (memanen padi) on paddy field(sawah).

• Climate factors affecting the harvest are; watercondition (rainfall amount), duration of growthperiod, air temperature, sunshine duration andwind. In the case of microclimate, thevegetation location is very important.

• For producting the better harvest, vegetationhas generally an optimum climate conditions,and also to pay attention to other factors suchas soil condition, market–place and marketing,transportation facilities and disease condition,etc.

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• Most of Asian region is located in northernhemisphere (NH), while Indonesiageographycally is located in the environs ofequator in latitude between 100 N and 100 S.

• Indonesia lies between two continents (Asiaand Australia and two oceans (Pacific andIndian Ocean).

• Indonesia consist of about 17,508 big and smallislands, it has coast line about 80,790 km.

• Indonesia is a part of the earth system as anatural unity between atmosphere,hydrosphere, litosphere, biosphere andcryosphere in Jaya Wijaya, Papua (west part ofIndonesia), their interactions form the weather/ climate over Indonesia.

• Indonesia is passed by the ITF (IndonesianThroughflow) and the IMC (Indonesian MonsoonCurrent).

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• Indonesia is passed by the fixed equator 00,and it is also passed by the ICZ deplacingtoward northern and southern hemispherefollowing solar annual migration.

• As an equatorial region (between 100 N and100 S), Indonesia has surplus energy in allseasons. On 21 March and 23 Septemberoccur equinoxes i.e., the position of the sunover the equator.

• As a monsoon region, Indonesia is affectedby monsoon circulation in consequence of itlies in between two oceans (Pacific andIndian ocean) and two continents (Asia andAustralia continent).

• As a maritime and mountainous region,Indonesia has local winds such as sea–landbreezes, valley–montain winds, and wind likeFöhn. Orographic lifting is efficient whenmonsoonal winds are forced to rise andconverges with sea breeze and valley wind.

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• The difference of physical characteristicsbetween ocean and continent, between sea andland, between valley and montain yieldmonsoon circulation and local winds (sea–landbreezes, and valley–montain winds) affectingseasonal and diurnal weather/climate variation.

• Other natural phenomena such as El Niño / LaNiña, Dipole Mode, Madden – Julian Oscillationand so on affect the non seasonal climatevariation.

• Indonesia has an insolation and latent heat(70% waters) in the considerable number. Ithas energy surplus in all season.

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Figure 2. Geographical and meteorological position ofIndonesia.() solar annual migration

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Figure 3. The flow pattern in the Indonesian passages (adaptedfrom Ffield and Gordon[1992]). The North EquatorialCurrent (NEC) and the resulting Mindanao Current (MC)approach the passages from the north, whereas theSouth Equatorial Current (SEC) approaches the passagesfrom the south. The North Equatorial Countercurrent(NECC) carries water to the east.

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Figure 4. Schematic view ofthe seasonalsalinity variationprocesses in theIndonesian Seasduring (a) borealwinter and (b)boreal summer.

a

b

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Figure 5. Mean position of ICZ in January and July.

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HContinent

Fp

LContinent

Fp

Ocean

Winter Summer

Figure 6. Scheme of monsoon circulation in thehemisphere summer and winter. Fp :pressure gradient force, L : low airpressure, and H : high air pressure.

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Figure 7. Mean wind patterns in January (left) and July (right).

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Table 1. Division of season based on the monsoon in Indonesia.

Southern Hemisphere Indonesia Northern Hemisphere Indonesia

Season Period Season Period

Northwest monsoon

First transition

Southeast monsoon

Second transition

Dec – Jan – Feb

Mar – Apr – May

June – July – Aug

Sept – Oct – Nov

Northeast monsoon

First transition

Southwest monsoon

Second transition

Dec – Jan – Feb

Mar – Apr – May

June – July – Aug

Sept – Oct – Nov

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Convective Rain :

Indonesia is the most active

convective region

Convective cloud Cu and Cb

are dominant in Indonesia.

Cause shower, thunder and

lightning, simetime tornado

Convective cloude is formed

by bouyancy force :

F = gB , B = T/T’ - 1

Where :

g : gravity

B : bouyancy term.

T : temperature of air

parcel

T’ : temperature of

environment air

Figure 8.

a

b

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Hail Stones.

Convectional precipitation, because it isformed by rapid updraft, often to great heightsin the atmosphere, is usually intense,occasionally it may be in the solid form of hail.

Figure 9. Hailstone in Wamena, Papua (Eastern Indonesia), 3 December 2007, Photo MetroTV.

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Figure 10. Distribution of 3 – hourly rainfall from 00.00 to 24.00 Local Time in Jakarta.

• In maritime region, the convection is alsoactive at night.

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• Running hot and cold

Figure 11a. SST change. During the past 50 years their slow cycle hascreated of El Niño conditions 31 percent, La Niñaconditions 23 percent and normal conditions 46 percent ofthe time. Sources : Kevin Trenberth, NCAR. Data fromNOAA

Figure 11b. Information in the graph above is based on data fromarea west of Peru. 2. Rectangle defines area depictedin cross section in figure 11a.

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• El NiñoAs easterly trade winds decrease,warm water in the western Pacificflows eastward. This layer,typically 500 ft. deep, flows overcooler, nutrient rich water andblocks its normal upwelling alongN – S America. Sea life there cansuffer from lack of food.

• NormalTrade winds maintain a balancebetween warm western Pacificwater and cool water in theeastern Pacific Nutrient rich water,lies 130 ft. below the surface.

• La NiñaPushed westward by strong tradewinds, warm surface water flowstoward Asia. Colder deep – seawater upwells to the surface alongthe Americas. Nutrients becomemore plentiful, evaporationdecreases, reducing storm cloudformation and rain in the region.

Figure 12a. El Niño events

Figure 12b. Normal condition

Figure 12c. La Niña events

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Dipole Mode (DM)• Rainfall in the western Sumatera is influenced by

DM (Saji et.al., 2001) in the equatorial IndianOcean.

• DM negative / positive, the rainfall in West andSouth Sumatera increase / decrease.

• DM is determined by the fluctuation of SST aboveand below the normal between east coast of Africaand west coast of Sumatera.

• Dipole Mode Index (DMI) is determined by thedifference of SST anomalies in the western (50 0E–70 0E, 10 0S – 10 0N) and eastern Indian Ocean(90 0E – 110 0E, 10 0S - 00 (eq)), see figure 13.

• DM (+), rainfall in West and South Sumatera isbelow normal, especially in JJA and SON.

• DM (–), rainfall in West and South Sumatera isabove normal especially in JJA and SouthSumatera in SON.

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Figure 13. Positive and negative Dipole Mode.

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Cumulative rainfall amount at a level of 350 mm from the 50th pentad (September 3rd) is related to the rice planting

Figure 14a. Cumulative rainfall from the 50th pentad (September 3rd) to 73rd pentad (December 31st) in

Bandung area.

Figure 14b. Cumulative rainfall from the 50th pentad (September 3rd) to 73rd

pentad (December 31st) in Jakarta area.

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• Orographic Effect on the Rainfall in theSoutheast monsoon.

• Figure 15, shows three cross–sections from Javasea to Indian ocean in West Java, Central Java,and East Java.

• During Southeast monsoon period occurföhnlike winds affecting rainfall amount in thenorth coast of Java.

Figure 15. North–South cross–section over Java.

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Figure 16. Cross – section from Juntinyuat in thenorth coast of Java to Pangandaran inthe sout coast of Indonesian waters.

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Figure 17. Cross – section from Limpung to Kokap.

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Figure 18. Cross–section from Kedawung to candipura.

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o Climate classification in Indonesia

• In general, the classification is based on theclimate elements of air temperature andrainfall, such as Koppen and Thornthwaitemethod.

• Due to the variation of air temperature isvery small through year, while rainfall ingreat variation; the classification of climatein Indonesia is based only on rainfall, suchas the classification according to Schmidt –Ferguson and Oldeman.

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o Schmidt and Ferguson method, 1951.• Base on quotient the average number of dry

months and wet months.• When rainfall amount per a month is less than 60

mm, called dry month, when it is greatter than100 mm, called wet month.

• The quotient : Q = d/w, d and w are average dryand wet month respectively.

• Climate types (from climate A to H) are classifiedby the Q values as follows :A : 0 < Q < 0.143B : 0.143 < Q < 0.333C : 0.333 < Q < 0.600D : 0.600 < Q < 1.000E : 1.000 < Q < 1.670F : 1.670 < Q < 3.000G : 3.000 < Q < 7.600H : 7.000 < Q

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Figure 19. Climate types in marine areas of Jawa basedon the Schmidt – Ferguson classification

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o Oldeman method, 1975

• Like Schmidt–Ferguson method, the classification ofclimate based on the rainfall amount. Oldeman methodemphasizes on the agriculture, then this classification iscalled agro–climatic classification.

• In this method, wet month is defined as a month withrainfall amount > 200 mm and dry month when rainfallamount less than 100 mm.

• Based on above criteria, Oldemann divided into 5principle agroclimate :A : when there are more than 9 wet months

consecutivelyB : when there are 7 – 9 wet months consecutivelyC : when there are 5 – 6 wet months consecutivelyD : when there are 3 – 4 wet months consecutivelyE : when there are less than 3 wet months

consecutively

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Figure 20. Zones of agroclimate in Bandung areas,according to Oldeman method.

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o The Climate System

• Climate is variable on time scales ofmonths, seasons to centuries and overlonger time intervals.

• Climate variability and Change can havesignificant societal impact.

• Climate influences agricultural yields, wateravailability and quality, transportationsystems, ecosystems, and human health.

• Climate variability and change are a productof external factors such as the sun, complexinteraction within the Earths system, andanthropogenic effects.

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• The physical components of the climatesystem include the atmosphere, the oceans,sea ice, the land and its features (includingthe vegetation, albedo, biomass andecosystems), snow cover, land ice (includingthe semi – permanent ice sheets ofAntartica and Green land and glaciers), andcomponents of the hydrological scale(including clouds, rivers, lakes, surface andsubsurface water).

• These components interact in a wide rangeof space and time scales. They also interactwith the sun, the earth’s rotation and thegeometry of its orbit, and basic compositionof the atmosphere and ocean.

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Figure 21. Schematic view of the components of theglobal climate system (bold), their processesand interactions (thin arrows), and someaspects that may change (bold arrows).(From Baede et al., 2001)

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• Climate tends to change by human activitiessuch as urbanisation, deforestation,industrialisation and by nature activities suchas continental drift, volcano eruption, changeof earth’s orbit, sunspot, and SST oscillation(El Nino / La Nina in Pacific ocean andnegative/ positive Dipole mode in IndianOcean).

• Weather in the morning is generally cold air,clear sky and in the day is hot air, cloudy sky.This weather change is more accurately calledfluctuation namely the change which tendsrepeatedly. Climate change can be knownafter long time period, some climatologist usea term climatic trend.

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ReferencesBASC (Board on Atmospheric Science and Climate), 1998. The Atmospheric

Sciences, National Academic Press, Washington, D. C., USA.Bayong Tjasyono HK., 1982. Orographic effect on the rainfall over Java in the

Southeast Monsoon Period of 1979, GARP, WMO, Geneva.Bayong Tjasyono HK., Gernowo R., Aser R., 2009. Flood Natural Disaster

Equatorial Monsoon Region, the Second InternationalSymposium on Equatorial Monsoon System, BMKG, Denpasar –Bali, Indonesia, 16 – 17 July, 2009.

Houghton J., 2002. The Physics of Atmospheres, Cambridge University Press.Mc Gregor G. R., and Nieuwolt S., 1998. Tropical Climatology, John Wiley &

Sons.Miyama T., T. Awaji, K. Akitomo, and N. Imasato, 1996. A Lagrangian approach

to the seasonal variation of Salinity in the mixed layer of theIndonesian Seas, Jounal of Geophysical Research, 101, 12265 –12285.

Wajsowicz R. C., 1996. Flow of a western boundary current through multiplestraits : An electrical circuit analogy for the Indonesianthroughflow and archipelago, Journal of Geophysical Research,101, 12295 – 12300.

Saji, N. H., B. N. Goswani, P. N. Vinayachandron, and T. Yamagata, 1999. ADipole Mode in the Tropical Indian Ocean, Nature, 401, 360 –363.

Schmidt, F. H., and J. H. A. Ferguson, 1951. Rainfall Types based on Wet andDry Period Ratios for Indonesian with Western New Guinea,Djawatan Meteorologi dan Geofisik, Djakarta.