classroom strategies that facilitate transfer of learning ... · newstrom, 1992). follow-up...

Innovative Higher Education. Vol. 22, No. 1, Fall 1997

Classroom Strategies That FacilitateTransfer of Learning to the Workplace

Brenda S. Gardner and Sharon J. Korth

ABSTRACT: Organizations have frequently expressed the need for employees who canlearn and work effectively in a team environment. This article discusses a process bywhich an educational program has responded to this challenge. The program usedexperiential learning, transfer of learning, and team learning theories as theframework for designing a holistic, integrative, and experiential process by whichstudents could transfer their classroom learning to workplace activities. Implicationsfor higher education are discussed.

Teams are common in today's workplace. A 1996 Training magazinesurvey indicated that 73% of organizations report using teams forsome work processes (1996 Industry Report). Organizations are re-lying more and more on teams to improve quality, to develop productsand services, and to enhance work processes (Andrews, 1995). Theyare looking for employees who can work and learn as a team in orderto remain competitive and innovative (Tjosvold, 1991). Organizationswant people with "people skills," who can be effective team membersand team leaders (Jenkins, 1992; Southerst, 1993). However, theyfeel that academic programs have not been providing employees withthese skills and abilities (Foggin, 1992) and need to fundamentallychange their way of preparing students for the workplace (Muller,Porter, & Rehder, 1991).

How can higher education respond to this need? In this article wedescribe the program process of a Master's degree in Human Re-source Development (HRD) for preparing students to transfer theircourse-related learning to a team environment in the workplace. The

Brenda S. Gardner and Sharon J. Korth are Assistant Professors of Human ResourceDevelopment at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. Gardner is also Directorof the Master of Education program in Human Resource Development. She receivedher M.P.A. from the University of Southern California-Washington Public AffairsCenter and Ph.D. from the University of Missouri-Columbia. Her interests includegroup and team behavior and applying organizational behavior concepts to theclassroom. Dr. Korth received her M.Ed, from Miami University-Ohio and her Ed.D.from the University of Cincinnati. Her research and teaching interests includeinstructional design and needs assessment and evaluation processes in organizations.

45 © 1997 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

strategies used in the design and implementation of this programhave applicability to programs in other disciplines as well.

Program Description

In order to enhance the transfer of learning from a formal class-room to the workplace, our challenge was to design techniques toensure that classroom learning related to group and team develop-ment will transfer to a workplace utilizing teams to accomplish itsgoals. The program director and faculty saw a strong need to inte-grate theories of group dynamics and development with the practiceof working in, leading, or facilitating teams in the workplace. In de-signing this approach, it was imperative that both formative andsummative evaluation measures be integrated into the curriculumso that faculty could make changes and enhancements during theprogram and assess the overall effectiveness of these collective strate-gies for transferring learning to the workplace. Evaluation processesinclude informal and formal methods, individual and group feedback,and faculty assessments which are described in more depth in theapplication of theories and the discussion sections of this article.

This Master's degree in Human Resource Development focuses onthe fields of training, organization, and career development. Withina Department of Education in a small, private Catholic, Jesuit uni-versity in an urban setting, the program was designed five years agofor working adults. Some of the students already have master's de-grees and work in all levels of government, education, business,health care, and social services. The majority are in their thirtieswith at least 10-15 years of professional experience in their special-ized field. Although many of these students work in organizations inwhich teams are utilized, they may not have had the opportunity tolearn about and practice effective team membership and leadershipskills. Much of the current research on successful implementation ofteams in the workplace discusses the critical importance of traininggroup members and leaders in group dynamics and development(Hackman, 1990; Varney, 1989).

Within the context of an intensive weekend format, two three-credit courses on adult learning and organization behavior are de-livered over two academic semesters to groups of approximately 35students each. These students enter as a group once a year and staytogether throughout the two years of the program; all courses are

INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION46

required, and students from other programs do not share any classeswith the group. The two courses orient the students to the wholeprogram and are team taught by two faculty members on Fridaynights and some Saturdays and Sundays over a nine-month period.One major goal for these courses is to assist students in under-standing group dynamics, group development, and techniques for im-proving group effectiveness as members or facilitators of a team.Another goal is for students to understand how individual and cul-tural differences in values, needs, interests, styles, and competenciesaffect others and the learning process. The intensive time periodsfor these courses allow for issues and skills to be explored in depth,with time for development, practice, feedback, reflection, and rein-forcement.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for these courses includes experientiallearning, transfer of learning, and team learning. The integration ofthese perspectives provides a foundation for the design of courseworkin an educational program that leads to the transfer of learning tothe workplace.

Experiential Learning Theory

Kolb's experiential learning theory (1984) describes learning as aholistic adaptive process that "provides conceptual bridges across lifesituations such as school and work" (p. 33). The learning cycle in-volves four stages: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation(RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation(AE). In order to complete the cycle, learners must engage in expe-riences, reflect on them from various perspectives, form concepts thatintegrate their observations with theories, and use these theories toguide their future action. Learning is an ongoing integration of the-ory and practice.

The experiential learning model can also be used to identify learn-ing preferences in individuals. Having this information can helplearners better understand their learning strengths as well as po-tential obstacles to future development. Individuals can also use thisinformation in group learning situations to better understand simi-

Classroom Strategies 47

larities and differences among members as well as collectivestrengths and weaknesses.

Furthermore, individuals can use Kolb's experiential learning cycleto enhance the transfer of learning from one situation to another.The cycle itself implies that experience is the springboard for newlearning. The last phase of Kolb's cycle, active experimentation, in-volves developing a plan for the application of this learning in novelsituations.

Transfer of Learning

Models have been developed that offer a framework for enhancingon-the-job application of skills and knowledge acquired during atraining program (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Milheim, 1994). Thesemodels suggest activities that should occur before, during, and afterthe training event. Although there are limitations in creating a sup-portive work environment when participants come from different or-ganizations, which is the case in academic programs, many of thetransfer strategies can still apply.

Strategies to be implemented prior to training include: systemati-cally designing the instruction, building in time for practice oppor-tunities during the training, developing trainee readiness, anddesigning a peer coaching component for the program and its follow-up activities (Broad & Newstrom, 1992).

One recommended strategy to be implemented during the trainingis to have the participants develop an action plan which includes thesteps to be carried out at the worksite to apply the new conceptsand skills (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Milheim, 1994; Parry, 1990).Broad and Newstrom also suggest providing opportunities for the de-velopment of support groups as another approach. Additional strate-gies include using general instructional techniques that areconsistent with the principles of adult learning, such as role playing(Kruger & May, 1986; Tallman & Holt, 1987). Tallman and Holt pro-pose that specific time be allotted for discussion of application strate-gies as well as time for reflection, synthesis, and/or integration ofnew material. Kemerer (1991) adds that training should include adiscussion about how the learning experience links to the trainee'swork setting. Further, the instructor's use of many different examplescan help increase transfer by presenting various contexts in whichtrainees can expect to utilize the skills and knowledge learned intraining (Garavaglia, 1993). Garavaglia also proposes that providing


learners with information about the general principles and theoriesbehind the skills they are learning enhances transfer as it givestrainees a broader, deeper knowledge.

Post-training strategies that can apply whether the individualscome from the same or different organizations include the provisionof job aids to be used at the worksite (Broad & Newstrom, 1992;Parry, 1990). Additionally, trainees can facilitate their own transferof learning by applying their new skills as soon as possible (Kemerer,1991) and maintaining contact with training "buddies" (Broad &Newstrom, 1992). Follow-up communication and follow-up sessionscan also help by providing an opportunity for support networks,through which trained personnel can receive additional instruction,practice, and feedback concerning their recently acquired skills. Like-wise, difficulties that have been encountered can surface, and train-ees can share ideas and help each other solve problems that havebeen experienced (Tallman & Holt, 1987).

Thomas (1990) uses the term "application work" to describe activi-ties which enhance the transfer of learning from group dynamics in-struction to the workplace. He suggests that application work is mosteffective when integrated throughout the course rather than left untilthe end, as is common practice. Instructors can create the foundationfor the application work by raising awareness of commonality withother organizational settings, while using examples from the groupdynamics course as well as work situations. Relating back to Kolb'slearning cycle, Thomas explains how abstract conceptualization andactive experimentation are critical phases for application work. Heproposes that instructors can enhance the application work by help-ing students conceptualize at two levels; students should first askwhat was learned about self in this context and then ask what waslearned that is generalizable to other contexts.

Another avenue for facilitating transfer is to make the most of bothon-line and off-line learning experiences (Gillette, 1990). Accordingto Thomas (1990), "on-line learning occurs in the context of the ex-periential learning group, while off-line learning occurs during ac-tivities that are part of the instruction, but not in the experientialgroup, and also when the individual is outside the boundaries of thecourse" (p. 166). Thus, instructors can provide for explicit applicationwork in whole-group classroom activities, but must make sure thatthese activities are also carefully related to the students' group learn-ing or workplace situations.


Team learning approaches are not new in educational settings, butthey are growing in popularity as enhancements to courses utilizingcombinations of techniques such as lectures, case studies, and dis-cussion. Although much of the research on cooperative learninggroups has been conducted on precollegiate levels, more attention iscurrently being paid to increasing college student learning through

50 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION

Team Learning

According to Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, and Smith (1994),teams can follow a learning cycle that parallels Kolb's model. Theteam learning model involves coordinated action (Concrete Experi-ence), public reflection (Reflective Observation), developing sharedmeaning (Abstract Conceptualization), and conducting joint planning(Active Experimentation) as illustrated in Figure 1. Once individualsbecome familiar with Kolb's cycle on an individual level, they canapply it in groups. Providing students with opportunities to under-stand and practice team learning in an educational setting will fa-cilitate their application of the model in a work setting.

Figure 1Comparison of Experiential Learning Cycle

and Team Learning Wheel

exercises and assignments that emphasize interdependence, sharedleadership and responsibility, and focus on process as well as task.Bierema reports her experiences in conducting team-oriented aca-demic courses which model total quality practices in organizations(1996). Hughes Caplow and Kardash (1995) discuss their alternativecollaborative learning methods in graduate education. Using theseteam learning groups can heighten student learning and also providestudents with a model to apply to on-the-job situations involvingteams. The use of learning groups in conjunction with the experien-tial learning model enhances the learning process, reinforces the linkbetween theory and practice, and facilitates the transfer of learningto the workplace.

Application of Theories

The faculty decided to use experiential learning theory as the mostappropriate and theoretically sound framework to design thesecourses and facilitate the students' transferring learning to the work-place. In order to provide learners with a Concrete Experience (CE),we form them into groups of up to 7 persons each, based upon di-versity of work responsibilities, experience level, gender and ethnic-ity. Members do not have pre-assigned roles such as leader orfacilitator, although such behaviors naturally emerge as the groupsprogress; students are encouraged to try new roles and behaviors.These learning groups, similar to work teams, have projects to ac-complish within specific deadlines. The majority of their time is spentoutside of the classroom, but there is a major emphasis in the course-work on group membership and leadership skills. The group mem-bers stay together for these projects for one academic year and donot have options to transfer to another group. Groups are encouragedfrom the beginning of their formation to apply conflict managementtechniques and team building concepts they have learned in class toissues arising in their groups. If, however, the small group feels thatit needs additional help, the entire small group can approach one ofthe faculty members for assistance in addressing the issues. Thegroups have a major 30-minute group presentation and two grouppapers due in the second semester. They are expected to involveevery member in the planning, production, presentation, and writingphase of the project although faculty only formally evaluate whetherall members play a role in the actual presentation. The groups are


given wide latitude in choosing their topic and the structure and for-mat of their presentation. Students receive group grades for theseassignments. Extensive oral and written feedback is provided to thegroups by faculty and fellow students as well as a facilitated self-evaluation by group members.

In addition to the Concrete Experience of working in a group ongroup projects, in-class activities are designed to provide situationsin which the learning groups participate in problem-solving, planning,decision-making, and team development exercises. These activities arethe basis for applying the remaining phases of the experiential learn-ing cycle. At this point in the cycle, the process of Reflective Obser-vation (RO) is encouraged through the requirement of other individualand group assignments. Each student must maintain an individuallearning journal that follows Kolb's experiential learning cyclethroughout their group experience. The instructors review this journalthree times in the year to ensure that students are actively engagedin the process of reflection on their group and work experiences.

Another assignment which focuses on reflection and integrating stu-dent learning with practice is an individually prepared analysis. Thisessay, due at the end of the academic year, requires students to reflecton their year-long group experience and discuss the resultant learn-ing. The analysis is not intended to be a theoretical discussion aboutindividual and group behavior, but a reflection on personal behaviorin the group and the impact that interactions had on the group andon the individual student. Students refer to their concrete experiencesof working on the group projects and papers as well as to the self-assessment exercises and instruments they had used in class.

One of the group assignments due at the end of the academic yearis a group analysis which details the group's progress throughoutthe year and examines their group's behavior and functioning. Re-flecting back on the year also provides the groups with the opportu-nity to discuss changes they might have made and how the groupparalleled or differed from group development theories. The analysisreceives a group grade and is also a good closure for the group aftertheir intense two-semester experience.

Reflective Observation activities, therefore, are emphasized fortheir ability to help students learn from experience, but they alsoserve as a major component in reinforcing individual and grouplearning as a "way of life" that can serve them throughout their per-sonal and professional lives.


The process of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) at this point in theexperiential learning cycle is where the issue of transfer of learningbegins to be directly addressed in the students' journals, individualanalysis, and group analysis. The students compare their personalreflections on individual and group behavior with formal adult learn-ing and organizational behavior theories discussed in class. Thegroup analysis provides a good opportunity to address how teams inorganizations can work together toward common goals and the issuesthat can arise in these situations as well as how individual behaviorcan help or hinder their progress.

The last phase of the learning cycle, Active Experimentation (AE),allows students the chance to connect their conceptual frameworkabout how groups and individuals work to actual situations in theworkplace. Students may make plans to examine more closely theirbehavior in groups at the office, experiment with different roles, oralter their facilitation style in project groups. Whatever the students'plans, as outlined in their individual analyses, group analyses, orlearning journals, the major emphasis is once again on applying newlearning to new situations—not in a haphazard fashion, but in a sys-tematic, reflective, and theoretically sound way. As Carl Rogers ob-served in 1967, self-discovered learning that leads to changes inbehaviors is the only significant learning—this is the key to studentsmaking the leap from theory to practice.

Figure 2 illustrates the process by which individuals in classroomgroups learn from their experiences and are able to apply their learn-ing back to their group or to teams in the workplace. Each smallgroup in-class activity or out-of-class meeting, for example, becomesa Concrete Experience from which to learn. Individual group mem-bers may analyze that experience in their learning journals, goingthrough the cycle from Reflective Observation to Abstract Conceptu-alization. The learning from this process, the plan for the Active Ex-perimentation, can be applied back to their classroom group or toteams in which they are involved in the workplace. Later on in thesemester, the combination of learning journal entries and other groupactivities is processed by the group in the group analysis paper aswell as by individuals in the individual analysis assignment. Al-though taken separately these activities are not new to the highereducation community, this holistic and integrative approach to facili-tating transfer of learning to the workplace has a multiple and re-inforcing effect in learning from experience.


54 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION

Figure 2Applying Learning in Multiple Situations

Besides the use of Kolb's cycle as the framework for learning fromexperience, we employed specific strategies developed from transferof learning theory before, during, and after the courses to aid in trans-ferring learning to the workplace. While designing the courses, we re-searched current workplace issues and incorporated related information,such as the implications of self-managed work teams and the changingdemographics of the workforce. We utilized a systematic design processso that the objectives, activities, and evaluation were integrated. Thegroup project was created with numerous parallels to work groups inorganizations, and the design of the courses included ample time for prac-tice and feedback on team and learning-related skills.

During the courses, we used active learning techniques and variedclass activities and assignments to accommodate different learningstyles. We provided background information about the principles and

theories behind the skills we were teaching in order to develop adeeper and more connected knowledge base. We also made use of both"on-line" and "off-line" learning experiences (Gillette, 1990) throughexperiential in-class activities involving the project groups, such as aproblem-solving task; in-class activities not involving the projectgroup, such as taking learning style inventories; and out-of-class ac-tivities, such as recording non-class events in a learning journal andrelating them to the group experience. The "application work" as de-scribed by Thomas (1990) was integrated throughout the coursesrather than left until the end. We, as faculty, discussed our personalexperiences related to learning and group development and continu-ously encouraged students to share their past experiences and provideexamples of their work situations. These discussions provided multiplecontexts in which students could envision the application of the ma-terial. Class activities were discussed, and students were asked toconsider what they learned about themselves, as well as where andhow they might be able to apply what they had just learned. Through-out the courses, we provided opportunities and invited students todevelop informal support groups around areas of interest.

During the second year of the program, after the small groups hadcompleted their work and they were enrolled in other HRD courses,we reminded students to use their books and handouts as referencesand job aids in their work situations. We also recommended thatthey apply their skills as soon as possible and fostered this by pro-viding options to partner with other students on projects or assign-ments that would provide a work-related experience. Regardless ofthe goal or content of each of these projects or assignments, eachstudent prepared a reflective essay at the conclusion of these assign-ments in order to again reinforce the value of learning from individ-ual and group experiences. We constantly urged students to sharetheir application experiences with other students informally as wellas formally through opening "announcements" at each class meeting.In this program, the second year provided a natural potential supportgroup, but faculty had to create an environment that would fosteropen sharing of successes and challenges.

Discussion

The integration of theories on experiential learning, transfer, andteam learning provided the framework to help students transfer their


classroom experiences to the workplace. These courses included on-line and off-line learning related to group dynamics, group develop-ment, and techniques for improving group effectiveness as membersor facilitators of a team as well as understanding how individual andcultural differences in values, needs, interests, styles, and competen-cies affect others and the learning process. These courses providedstudents with personal insights about their own learning styles andbehavior in groups which they can then apply to their organizations,where teams are the fundamental learning unit (Senge, 1990).

Overall, both formal and informal student feedback on the reflec-tion-oriented assignments (learning journal, individual analysis, andgroup analysis) has been positive. Although some students groanabout having to keep a learning journal, most report afterwards thatthe process was valuable because it "forced" them to consider con-sciously their own and others' behaviors and their relationship toacademic theories and the workplace. A few students have actuallycontinued keeping the learning journal into the second year of theprogram after the assignment is completed. We found, consistentwith Shulman, McCormack, Luechauer, and Shulman (1993), that fe-male students seem to have an easier time beginning to write intheir journals than males and that all students tend to initially focusmore on the concrete experience than on the reflective observationphase. Students have commented to us about the value of the indi-vidual and group analysis papers as well, reporting that they helpedprovide closure for the year-long group project and a chance to for-mally process the learning so as to be better able to apply it to othersituations. Furthermore, many students took advantage of the optionto partner with other students on assignments in the second year ofthe program and wrote individual analyses of their learning and ap-plications to the workplace as an addendum to those assignments.This reinforces the experiential learning cycle and shows studentshow this process can be applied in a different context.

Feedback on the group project has been generally positive as well.Some comments from student evaluation forms include:

/ believe the team projects taught us experientially what mayhave taken us years to recognize outside the program.The group projects really helped me understand the value ofteams. While it was highly cumbersome, the strength of thecourse was working in a group. There was pain but also a lotof gain.


Beyond this feedback, we tend to rely on self-reports by the stu-dents on the application of their learning. In our situation, becausewe continue to work with the students in other courses for anotheryear after the small group experience has ended and because we havea continuing relationship with alumni, we have an extended oppor-tunity to hear about the students' progress or difficulties in trans-ferring their learning to the workplace. Several students havecommented that one difference in their work team is that the super-visor serves as the "leader" which creates a different dynamic thanthey experienced in their "leaderless" academic groups. Numerousstudents have related to us that they have used self- or team-assess-ment instruments, group activities, or facilitation techniques fromclass with work groups in their organizations. When students sharestories regarding their transfer of skills to the workplace, this rein-forces the prior learning for their classmates and provides additionalavenues for potential future applications for all.

Is the investment by the faculty and university worth the benefitsthat students and faculty report? It requires continued dedication onthe part of faculty to coordinate their teaching activities so that as-signments are integrated and develop in a systematic fashion, build-ing upon one another as the year progresses. Team teaching is alabor-intensive process which is often not supported by universitypolicies or resources. The flexibility and knowledge of the faculty ininnovative, non-traditional and experiential teaching methods maybe a developmental need requiring a long-term commitment by theuniversity and faculty. But if theories on experiential, transfer, andteam learning as well as observations by faculty and feedback fromstudents and their organizations are accurate, this educational ap-proach has enhanced students' abilities to make the link from class-

/ was able to learn and grow in personal experience. Thisexperience will better able me, through self-knowledge, to bemore effective in team/group experiences.Content and practical skills to be directly applied in worksituations. [most important thing you've learned]All of the group projects. Practical exercises that can betransferred to work experiences. [course strengths]

Measuring the actual transfer of learning to the workplace from anyacademic program is challenging. Some comments on the end ofcourse evaluation forms include:


room theory to workplace practice—a goal shared by educators andorganizational leaders alike.

Implications

Research on strategies to enhance transfer of learning from a for-mal educational environment to the workplace will continue to be aworthy task, especially as the world of work is changing so rapidlyin today's global economy. Research on what skills are necessary tocreate and sustain a learning organization will continue to be ex-plored as well as the resultant effects for academic programs pre-paring the workers for such an environment. With teams becomingmore and more common in the workplace, it is important that stu-dents from all disciplines are able to apply their skills to the work-place and continue their learning process individually and as a teammember.

Although normally courses are taught in shorter timeframes thanthe year-long format this article described, the process of using theexperiential learning cycle as the foundation from which studentscan learn how to learn and how to transfer their learning to theworkplace can certainly be applied in other academic programs. Pro-grams that offer an extensive core curriculum could utilize thesetechniques in orientation or capstone courses, as well as in intern-ships or cooperative work assignments. Courses in which the contentis directly related to learning about teamwork, interpersonal skills,problem-solving, or conflict management would be ideal places to ex-periment with this format and process. Accelerated weekends forcourses, a common and growing format for undergraduate and gradu-ate education, could also be potential forums since many of the non-traditional students who are attracted to such formats would havework experience on which to reflect and plan.

Faculty, too, engage in applying the experiential learning cycle tothe concrete experience of designing coursework which emphasizestransfer of learning (CE). We reflect on the experience and comparereflections with student feedback at various times and in numerousforms so we can continuously improve the program (RO). We gener-alize our reflections to theories on group development, curriculumdesign, and adult learning (AC) and make proactive changes in as-signments, content, and instructional methods (AE). "If students seeus going to the trouble to make the leap from theory to application


in this regard, they might be influenced to do the same" (Wisdom,1989, p. 76). Obviously, faculty of programs espousing use of the ex-periential learning cycle for their students must also examine theirown practices and beliefs in order to provide a positive example forlearning from experience.

Conclusions

Transferring learning to the workplace from a formal educationalprogram is a challenge that must be addressed in light of a rapidlychanging work environment. This article examined activities withincourses designed to ensure that learning can be transferred to aworkplace that is either using groups currently to accomplish manyof their goals or is contemplating such an approach. Using experi-ential learning, transfer of learning, and team learning as the theo-retical framework, we provided students with the opportunity toprocess their year-long small group experience so that they could as-sertively address team development activities in their workplace. Re-sponding to organizations' needs for employees who can work andlearn in teams is a mandate and challenge for all educators.

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