Chapter 3RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Results of the Study

• When everything has been computed and processed, the data must be presented in a way that it could easily be understood and interpreted so that at a glance, the readers may grasp the meaning of the study even without reading the entire manuscript.

Presentation of Data

• Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation

• Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be established.

• There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and graphical.

Textual Presentation of Data

• Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data.

• The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to supplement tabular presentation.

• The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented.

• The reader may even skip some statements.

• Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science teachers in the hypothetical study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A:

Of the 59 science teachers, 1 or 35.59 percent have earned Bachelor of Arts degree with education units, four or 6.78 percent have earned a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering degrees with education units, 31 or 5.54 percent a Bachelor of Science in Education degree, and three or 5.08 percent a Master of Arts degree.

According to government regulations, all the teachers are qualified to teach in the high school.

Tabular Presentation of Data

• Statistical table defined. A statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses are given each column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable form or forms.

• Purpose of a table. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation, the making of inferences and implications of the relationships of statistical data.

• Table construction for data presentation is part of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category.

Advantage of tabular over textual presentation of data:

• Statistical tables are concise, and because data are systematically grouped and arranged, explanatory matter is minimal.

• Data are more easily read, understood and compared into rows and columns. The reader can understand and interpret a great bulk of data rapidly because he can see significant relationships of data once.

• Tables give the whole information even without combining numerals with textual matter. This is so because tables are so constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood even without reading their textual presentation.

The Major Functional Parts of a Statistical Table:

Stub Head Master Caption

Column Caption

Column Caption

Column Caption

Column Caption

Row LabelRow LabelRow LabelRow Label

EntryEntryEntryEntry

EntryEntryEntryEntry

EntryEntryEntryEntry

EntryEntryEntryEntry

Total

Table NumberTitle

(Head note)

Foot note:

Source note:

• The illustration of a table given is only a simple one. There are tables that are very complicated.

• For instance the column captions may further be subdivided into sub-column captions which in turn may be subdivided.

• This happens when the subject matter of the table is classified, then the first classifictation are further subclassified, and so on.

• Table number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic, for reference purposes. This is because only the table numbers are cited. The number is written above the title of the table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis report. If there is only one table the number is necessary.

• Title. The title should tell about the following:• The subject matter that said table deals with• Where such subject matter is situated, or to what entity or

persons it belongs, or from whom the data about such subject matter were gathered

• When data about such subject matter were gathered or the time period when such data were existent

• Sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.

– Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title, and occasionally only the subject matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as well as the locale and the respondents are well discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study. Only the beginning letters of the important words in the title are capitalized. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid.

• Head note or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is usually enclosed in parentheses. It explains some things in the table that are not clear.– Suppose a table entitled “Monetary Values or

Properties of the High Schools in Province A” is to be constructed and the entries in the table are in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to be entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6.

– The head note that should be written below the title should be “Millions of Pesos.”

• Stub. The stud contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells what the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the data contained in that row.

• Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column captions and the column sub-captions. The master caption described the column captions and the column captions in turn describe the sub-column captions.

• Main body, field, or text. The main body, field or text of the table contains all the quantitative and/or proportional information presented in the table in rows and columns. Each numerical datum is entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row and the column of the datum.

• Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which are not readily understandable or are missing. Proper symbols are used to indicate the items that are clarified or explained.

• Source note. The source note which is generally written below the footnote indicates the origin or source of the data presented in the table. – The purpose of placing the source note are:

• To give credit or recognition to the author of the table or the source or source of the data

• To allow the user to secure additional data from the same source

• To provide the user a basis for determining the accuracy and reliability of the information provided by the table

• To protect the maker of the table against any charge of inaccuracy and unreliability.

Graphical Presentation of Data

• A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable itself, or quantitative changes of a variable in comparison with those of another variable or variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.

• The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative, geographical, or chronological attributes.

• The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

• Advantage of the graphing method:– It attracts more effectively than do tables, and,

therefore, is less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look at charts.

– The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in business and thesis reports more meaningful.

– It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a line experts a more powerful effect in the reader’s mind than tabulated data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place.

• Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph. Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs are now considered by most businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to good business reports.

• Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation of numerical data.

• Limitation of graphs:– Graphs do not show as much information at a

time as do tables.– Graphs do not show data as accurately as the

tables do.– Charts require more skill, more time, and more

expense to prepare than tables.– Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as

tabulated data.– Graphs can be made only after the data have been

tabulated.

• Types of graphs or charts:– Bar graph– Line graph– Pie chart– Pictograms– Statistical maps– Ratio charts

Bar (Vertical) GraphEnrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal

1985-1986 to 1998-1999

Figure 1

Source: School Director’s Office

Bar (Horizontal) GraphEnrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal

1985-1986 to 1998-1999

Figure 1

Source: School Director’s Office

Line GraphEnrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal

1985-1986 to 1998-1999

Source: School Director’s Office

Figure 1

Pie Chart

Source: CIHM Dean’s Office

Figure 2

Guidelines in Writing Results of the Study

1. The presentation should be made one by one with the sub-problems. The arrangement must be based on the order of the sub-problems. If the first sub-problem is on profile variables, a table or graph should be the first data to be presented

2. There should be textual and tabular presentation of data.

3. Make a label or title of the table or figure. Label for tables are written above the table presentation, for figures, labels are written below the figure presentation.

4. Don’t break the data in separate pages. The readers may not easily understand the overall findings of the study when data is broken and distributed in different pages.

5. Textual presentation comes before the title. Right after the initial discussions, the table or graph follows.

6. There should be a tabular presentation of sub-problems for significant relationships or differences of variables considered for clarity and understanding.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data (Discussions)

• Analysis is the process of analyzing statements while interpretation is an act or instance of interpreting an explanation.

• As applied in research, this is done to give meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised in the study.

Three types of Research Analysis

1. Univariate. Means one variable analysis.

2. Bivariate. Two variable analysis.

3. Multivariate. When analysis is made up of three or more variables.

Univariate Problem

• Example:– What is the extent of productivity of SUC faculty

members in Region 1 in terms of research instruction, extension and production?

– The extent of productivity on research, instruction, extension and productivity is a one-way problem, thus it requires univariate analysis.

Bivariate Problem• Example:

– To what extent are the following productivity variables related?

a. Research and instructionb. Research and extensionc. Research and productiond. Production and instructione. Production and extension

– The analysis is done one by one with all the variables included in the problem. Thus regardless of how many parts are to be analyzed, they are classified as bivariate data.

Multivariate Problem

• Example:– Is there a significant difference between the

extent of productivity of HEI faculty members along instruction, research, and production.

– Illustration:HEI Areas of Productivity

Private Universities and Colleges

Comparative Analysis

(Multivariate Analysis)

•Instruction•Research•Extension•Production

State Universities and Colleges

CHED-supervised

– In the example, the productivity of faculty members of the three category of higher educational institutions are to be compared along the four areas of productivity – instruction, research, extension and production.

– Since there are three input variables (independent) to be compared, it is classified as a multivariate problem, which requires multivariate analysis.

– This problem is treated by a statistical tool- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

Interpretation of Data

• There are three levels in the interpretation of data.– Level one is table reading. The contents of the table are to

be presented numerically and descriptively.– Level two is on the implications or meanings of data. What

the result means is the focus.– Level three is on the cross-referencing or corroboration.

The results are to be compared with the existing knowledge or finished studies. Usually presented theories and concepts in theses or dissertations are reviewed and reflected in review of literature and studies are to be considered.

• Another guide in interpreting data is to study the table carefully.

• Watch your grammar and avoid using high-sounding words.

• The language of research is specific and requires basic terms only.

• Avoid expressions that are unnecessary and too long.• Be careful of spelling, punctuation, etc.• Always use the third person when writing.