Chapter 12

Changing Concepts of the Body: An Overview of Sport and Play in Nineteenth-Century America

Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A Changing America

19th century: a time of rapid changePerspectives of changes: demographic, technological, modernization, and philosophical Demographic change: America a big “melting pot”

variety of peoples and cultures

A Changing America: Technology

Technological revolutionTelegraph lines, railroads, steamboatsCaused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyleIncreased the level of literacyMass production

Changing Philosophy: Emphasis on Material World

Changes were a product of changing philosophy (metaphysics)

awareness of the material aspects of life (focus on the here and now)

Manifested by the use of technology to make life betterMovement from country to city (urbanization)Use of rationality to learn to live betterUse of philosophy to understand world

Technological Revolution

1820s: cities grew faster than the countrysideTelegraph lines and railroadsSteamboatsCaused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyleIncreased level of literacy allowed technology to improve

communication, scientific information

Technology and the Rise of Sport

Mass production produced cheap athletic equipmentSewing machine produced more uniformsDevelopment of rubber produced balls Electricity produced more leisure timeCameras, telephone, typewriter increased coverage of sporting eventsAutomobile allowed increased travel

Technology and the Rise of Sport

An example of a Muybridge “moving picture”

Transcendentalism

The mind and body are oneAction is more important that contemplationImportance of physicality and the desire to live in the natural world

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Origin of Species All living things developed from a few simple formsOur physical selves are a consequence of our environment Our ability to think is a product of our biology and not a special gift

Darwin’s work legitimized the use of senses and the power of reason to understand the material world

Charles Darwin

Pragmatists

Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914)We come to know ideas through our sensesUse the methods of science to discover the nature of the universe

Williams James (1842-1910)Truth is relative to the individual

No division between mind and body—training both are important

Rise of Sport in America

Culture became urban and industrialAmerican adults became fond of participating in recreational activities Cultural revolution caused sport to change along with everything else

Justification for SportEmerged through religion

Attitudes about religion and sport changed

Development of “muscular Christianity”Competitiveness became desirable

Sport viewed as “man builder”

Health issues associated with living in the cityAttitudes toward participation in sport changed

Muscular ChristianityAttitude about physicality developed in England (early 1800s)Effected the popularity of sport in AmericaBelieved physical strength was godly

Overcoming weakness was Christian and moral

Sport activities viewed as effort to be good ChristianAssociated godliness with manliness

Sport developed “manly” qualities

Development of Sports

Some sports we enjoy in the 20th century were developed in the 19th centuryCertain sports created institutions which shaped organization of subsequent sports

Horse and harness racing, baseball, rowing, boxing, and track and field

Harness Racing

Horse Racing

First race to capture the hearts of Americans was in 1823: The great North-South horse race

Eclipse, representing the NorthHenry, representing the South

Eclipse defeated Henry in front of 60,000 spectators

Horse Racing: Eclipse

Ball games: Cricket, Baseball, and Football

Captured the hearts of Americans in early to mid-1800sNot easily accepted because Americans enjoyed individual sports Cricket

Unpopular in AmericaEnglish game was more formalized, competitive, organizedAssociated with gamblingNot exactly “manly”

Baseball

Dominated cricket by 1855 Evolved from games of “rounders,” “town ball”Played as early as 1734 at HarvardAlexander Cartwright developed formal rules

Baseball

Growth and competition caused a need for consistent rules

1858: First formal rules established1871: National Association of Professional Players formedMen began to play baseball for money

Baseball

Football

Derived from soccer and rugbyCharacterized by violent nature of the sportLondon Football Association

Established rules and format1873: Intercollegiate Association for Football was formed

Walter Camp the “father” of American football

Amateurism—and RowingPopular definition: An amateur is one who competes for the love of the sport and receives no moneyActual movement in the U.S. developed in the 1860s and 1870s, when upper-class athletes refused to compete against middle-class and lower-class counterparts (class warfare)

Example: Wealthy young men who rowed for social diversion did not want to compete against (and lose to) lower-class watermen who rowed for a living1872 regatta excluded those who had ever rowed for money or depended on rowing for their livelihood

Race between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell

Amateurism

Amateurism different by locationBritain: Athletes separated by social classAmerican: Athletes separated by economics

Concept is no longer accepted as a valid distinction between athletes, but concept has dominated many American sports

Amateurism—and Track and Field

Gatherings known as the Caledonian Games included athletic competition

Events included running races, high jump and long jump, dancing, and precursors to modern hammer throw and shot putPopular but not amateur

Amateurism—and Track and Field

New York Athletic Club formed in 1868Emphasis on athletics in conjunction with the concept of amateurismMany similar clubs were formed

Amateur Athletic Union was formed in 1888 to eliminate disputes between clubs regarding amateurism and to sponsor national championships

By 1890s, AAU had control of all U.S. amateur competition