cessf l u ut - universal tutorials · 2019-02-24 · theme 3: nationalism in india. (compulsory)...

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Guided effort leads to a bright futureUTUT

IX-XII

CBSE ICSE

State

Entrance

X - CBSE - HISTORYVOLUME 1

Table of Contents

Volume 1 of 3 Universal Tutorials – X CBSE – History

Table of Contents – History CHAPTER 1: RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE ................................................ 1

Introduction: .............................................................................................................................................. 2 1) The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation: .............................................................................. 4 2) The Making of Nationalism in Europe: .................................................................................................. 5

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class: ................................................................................ 5 A New Conservatism after 1815: ................................................................................................. 7

3) The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848): .................................................................................................. 9 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling: ...................................................................... 10 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt: ...................................................................................... 11 The Revolution of the Liberals: (NCERT) .................................................................................. 12

4) The Making of Germany and Italy: ...................................................................................................... 13 Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation? ............................................................ 13 Italy Unified: ................................................................................................................................ 14

5) Visualising the Nation: ........................................................................................................................ 16 6) Nationalism and Imperialism: .............................................................................................................. 17

Events in Chronological Order: .................................................................................................. 18 Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................... 18

Summary: ................................................................................................................................... 20 Previous Year Board Questions ............................................................................................ 20 NCERT Questions: ................................................................................................................ 21 Solved Questions: .................................................................................................................. 22 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ....................................................................... 27 Work Sheet: ........................................................................................................................... 28

CHAPTER 2: THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDO–CHINA ......................... 30

Introduction: ............................................................................................................................................ 31 1) Emerging from the Shadow of China: ................................................................................................. 31

Colonial Domination and Resistance: ........................................................................................ 32 Why the French thought Colonies Necessary: ........................................................................... 32 Should Colonies be Developed: ................................................................................................. 33

2) The Dilemma of Colonial Education: .................................................................................................. 33 Talking Modern: .......................................................................................................................... 33 Looking Modern: ......................................................................................................................... 34 Resistance in Schools: ............................................................................................................... 35

3) Hygiene, Disease and Every Day Resistance: ................................................................................... 36 Plague Strikes Hanoi: ................................................................................................................. 36

4) Religions and Anti–Colonialism: ......................................................................................................... 37 Effects of religious movements: ................................................................................................. 38

5) The Vision of Modernisation: .............................................................................................................. 38 Other ways of Becoming Modern – Japan and China: .............................................................. 39

6) The Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism: ................................................................ 40

Universal Tutorials – X CBSE – History Volume 1 of 3

The New Republic of Vietnam: ................................................................................................... 41 The Entry of the US into the War: .............................................................................................. 42 The Ho Chi Minh Trail: ............................................................................................................... 43

7) The Nation and Its Heroes: ................................................................................................................. 44 Women as Rebels: ..................................................................................................................... 44 Heroes of Past Times: ................................................................................................................ 45 Women as Warriors: .................................................................................................................. 45 Women in Times of Peace: ........................................................................................................ 46

8) The End of the War: ............................................................................................................................ 46 Events in Chronological order: ................................................................................................... 46

Important terms and Names to remember:............................................................................ 47 Summary: ................................................................................................................................... 49

Previous Year’s Board Questions: ......................................................................................... 49 NCERT Questions: ................................................................................................................ 51 Solved Questions: .................................................................................................................. 52 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ....................................................................... 56 Work Sheet ............................................................................................................................ 57

CHAPTER 3: NATIONALISM IN INDIA .................................................................. 59

Introduction: ............................................................................................................................................ 59 1) The First World War, Khilafat and Non–Cooperation: ........................................................................ 60

The Idea of Satyagraha: ............................................................................................................. 60 The Rowlatt Act: ......................................................................................................................... 61 Non-Cooperation: ....................................................................................................................... 62

2) Differing Strands within the Movement: .............................................................................................. 63 The Movement in the Towns: ..................................................................................................... 63 Rebellion in the Countryside: ..................................................................................................... 64 Swaraj in the Plantations: ........................................................................................................... 65

3) Towards Civil Disobedience: .............................................................................................................. 66 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement: ............................................................ 67 How Participants Saw the Movement: ....................................................................................... 68 The Limits of Civil Disobedience: ............................................................................................... 70

4) The Sense of Collective Belonging: .................................................................................................... 72 Events in Chronological Order: .................................................................................................. 74

Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................... 74 Summary: ................................................................................................................................... 75

Previous Years Board Question: ........................................................................................... 76 NCERT Questions: ................................................................................................................ 78 Solved Questions: .................................................................................................................. 78 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ....................................................................... 83 Work Sheet ............................................................................................................................ 84

MAP WORK: ........................................................................................................... 87

Table of Contents


CHAPTER 4: THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD ............................................ 91

CHAPTER MAP: ......................................................................................................................................... 91 1) The Pre–Modern World: ..................................................................................................................... 92

Silk Routes Link the World: ........................................................................................................ 92 Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato:.......................................................................................... 92 Conquest, Disease and Trade: .................................................................................................. 93

2) The Nineteenth Century (1815–1914): ............................................................................................... 94 A World Economy Takes Shape: ............................................................................................... 94 Role of Technology: ................................................................................................................... 95 Late Nineteenth–Century Colonialism: ...................................................................................... 96 Rinderpest or The Cattle Plague: ............................................................................................... 97 Indentured Labour Migration from India: .................................................................................... 97 Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad: .................................................................................................... 99 Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System: .................................................................... 99

3) The Inter-War Economy: ................................................................................................................... 100 Wartime Transformations: ........................................................................................................ 100 Post–War Recovery: ................................................................................................................ 101 Rise of Mass Production and Consumption: ............................................................................ 101 The Great Depression: ............................................................................................................. 102 India and the Great Depression: .............................................................................................. 103

4) Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post–War Era ............................................................................ 104 Post–War Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions: ...................................................... 105 The Early Post-War Years: ...................................................................................................... 105 Decolonisation and Independence: .......................................................................................... 106 End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’: ................................................... 106

Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................. 107 Summary: ................................................................................................................................. 108

Previous Years Board Questions: ....................................................................................... 109 NCERT Questions: .............................................................................................................. 110 Solved Questions: ................................................................................................................ 112 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ..................................................................... 113 Work Sheet: ......................................................................................................................... 113

CHAPTER 5: THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION ............................................. 117

CHAPTER MAP: ....................................................................................................................................... 117 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................................... 117 1) Before the Industrial Revolution: ....................................................................................................... 118

The Coming Up of the Factory: ................................................................................................ 119 The Pace of Industrial Change: ................................................................................................ 120

2) Hand Labour and Steam Power: ...................................................................................................... 120 Life of the Workers: .................................................................................................................. 121

3) Industrialisation in the Colonies: ....................................................................................................... 122


The Age of Indian Textiles: ...................................................................................................... 122 What Happened to Weavers? .................................................................................................. 123 Manchester Comes to India: .................................................................................................... 124

4) Factories Come Up: .......................................................................................................................... 125 Early Entrepreneurs: ................................................................................................................ 125 Where Did the Workers Come From: ....................................................................................... 126

5) The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth: .............................................................................................. 127 Small-scale Industries Predominate:........................................................................................ 127

6) Market for Goods: ............................................................................................................................. 128 Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................. 129

Summary: ................................................................................................................................. 130 Previous Years Board Questions: ....................................................................................... 130 NCERT Questions: .............................................................................................................. 132 Solved Questions: ................................................................................................................ 133 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ..................................................................... 134 Work Sheet: ......................................................................................................................... 134

CH. 6: WORK, LIFE AND LEISURE CITIES IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD ................................................................................................................................. 138

CHAPTER MAP: ....................................................................................................................................... 138 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................................... 138 1) Characteristics of the City: ................................................................................................................ 139

Industrialisation and the Rise of the Modern City in England: ................................................. 139 Marginal Groups: ...................................................................................................................... 140 Housing: ................................................................................................................................... 141 Cleaning London: ..................................................................................................................... 141

Transport in the City: ............................................................................................................................. 142 2) Social Changes in the City: ............................................................................................................... 142

Men, Women and Family in the City: ....................................................................................... 143 Leisure and Consumption: ....................................................................................................... 143

3) Politics in the City: ............................................................................................................................. 144 4) The City in Colonial India: ................................................................................................................. 145

Bombay: The Prime City of India: ............................................................................................ 145 Work in the City: ....................................................................................................................... 146 Housing and Neighbourhoods: ................................................................................................. 146 Land Reclamation in Bombay: ................................................................................................. 148 Bombay as the City of Dreams the World of Cinema & Culture: ............................................. 148

5) Cities and The Challenge of The Environment: ................................................................................ 149 Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................. 150

Summary: ................................................................................................................................. 151 Previous Year’s Board Questions: ....................................................................................... 151 NCERT Questions: .............................................................................................................. 153 Solved Questions: ................................................................................................................ 154 Reveiw Questions: Class Work / Home Work ..................................................................... 155

Table of Contents


Work Sheet: ......................................................................................................................... 156

CHAPTER 7: PRINT CULTURE AND THE MODERN WORLD ........................... 160

CHAPTER MAP: ....................................................................................................................................... 160 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................................... 160 1) The First Printed Books: ................................................................................................................... 161

Print in Japan: .......................................................................................................................... 161 2) Print Comes to Europe: .................................................................................................................... 162

Gutenberg and the Printing Press: ........................................................................................... 162 3) The Print Revolution and Its Impact: ................................................................................................. 163

A New Reading Public: ............................................................................................................ 163 Religious Debates and the Fear of Print: ................................................................................. 164 Print and Dissent: ..................................................................................................................... 164

4) The Reading Mania:.......................................................................................................................... 165 ‘Tremble, Therefore, Tyrants of The World!’: ........................................................................... 166 Print Culture and the French Revolution: ................................................................................. 166

5) The Nineteenth Century: ................................................................................................................... 167 Children, Women and Workers: ............................................................................................... 167 Further Innovations: ................................................................................................................. 168

6) India and the World of Print: ............................................................................................................. 168 Manuscripts before the Age of Print: ........................................................................................ 168 Print Comes to India: ................................................................................................................ 168

7) Religious Reforms and Public Debates: ........................................................................................... 169 8) New Forms of Publication: ................................................................................................................ 170

Women and Print:..................................................................................................................... 171 Print and the Poor People: ....................................................................................................... 172

9) Print and Censorship: ....................................................................................................................... 172 Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................. 174

Summary: ................................................................................................................................. 175 Previous Years Board questions: ........................................................................................ 175 NCERT Question: ................................................................................................................ 177 Solved Questions: ................................................................................................................ 178 Review Questions: Class Work / Home Work ..................................................................... 179 Worksheet: ........................................................................................................................... 179

CHAPTER 8: NOVELS, SOCIETY AND HISTORY .............................................. 182

CHAPTER MAP: ....................................................................................................................................... 182 1) The Rise of the Novel: ...................................................................................................................... 182

The Publishing Market: ............................................................................................................ 183 The World of the Novel: ........................................................................................................... 184 Community and Society: .......................................................................................................... 184 The New Woman:..................................................................................................................... 185 Novels for the Young: ............................................................................................................... 185


Colonialism and After: .............................................................................................................. 186 2) The Novel Comes to India: ............................................................................................................... 186

The Novel in South India: ......................................................................................................... 187 The Novel in Hindi: ................................................................................................................... 187 Novels in Bengal: ..................................................................................................................... 188

3) Novels in the Colonial World: ............................................................................................................ 189 Uses of the Novel: .................................................................................................................... 189 The Problem of Being Modern: ................................................................................................ 190 Pleasures of Reading: .............................................................................................................. 191

4) Women and the Novel: ..................................................................................................................... 191 Caste Practices, ‘Lower-Castes’ and Minorities: ...................................................................... 192

5) The Nation and its History: ............................................................................................................... 193 The Novel and Nation Making: ................................................................................................. 194

Important terms to remember: ............................................................................................. 195 Summary: ................................................................................................................................. 195

Previous Years Board Question: ......................................................................................... 196 NCERT Questions: .............................................................................................................. 198 Review Questions Class Work / Home Work ...................................................................... 199 Work Sheet: ......................................................................................................................... 200

Syllabus


Social Science Syllabus (X CBSE) 2017–18

Units Marks I India and the Contemporary World – II History 20 II Contemporary India – II Geography 20 III Democratic Politics – II Civics 20 IV Understanding Economic Development Economics 20 Total: 80

QUESTION PAPER DESIGN AND MARKING SCHEME

S. No. Typology of Questions

Very Short Answer (VSA) 1 Mark

Short Answer

(SA) 3 Marks

Long Answer

(LA) 5 Marks

Total Marks

% Weightage

1 Remembering (Knowledge based simple recall questions, to now specific facts, terms, concepts, principles or theories, identify, define or recite, information)

–– 2 2 16 20%

2 Understanding (Comprehension - to be familiar with meaning and to understand conceptually, interpret, compare, contrast, explain, paraphrase or interpret information)

3 1 2 16 20%

3 Application (Use abstract information in concrete situation, to apply knowledge to new situation, use given content to interpret a situation, provide an example or solve a problem)

2 3 2 21 26%

4 High Order Thinking Skills (Analysis & Synthesis – Classify, compare, contrast or differentiate between different pieces of information, Organize and/or integrate unique pieces of information from a variety of sources)

2 3 1 16 20%

5 Creating, Evaluation and Multi–Creating Evaluation and Multi–Disciplinary (Generating new ideas, product or ways of viewing things Appraise, judge and/or justify the value of worth of a decision or outcome or to predict outcomes based on values)

–– 2 –– 6 8%

6 Map 2 1 –– 5 6% Total 1x9=9 3x12=36 5x7=35 80 100%

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2 Universal Tutorials – X CBSE – History Volume

MARKING SCHEME S.

No. Subject Total Weightage 1 Mark 3 Marks 5 Marks Map Total

1 History 20 2 2 2 2 20 2 Political Science 20 1 3 2 –– 20 3 Geography 20 1 2 2 3 20 4 Economics 20 3 4 1 –– 20 Total 80 7 33 35 5 80

HISTORY Sub–unit 1.1: Events and Processes: (Any two of the following themes) Theme 1: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe (Chapter 1) a) The growth of Nationalism in Europe after the 1830s, b) The ideas of Giuseppe Mazzini, etc. c) General characteristics of the movements in Poland, Hungary, Italy, Germany and

Greece. OR

Theme 2: The Nationalist Movement in Indo–China (Chapter 2) Factors leading to growth of Nationalism in Indo–China. a) French colonialism in Indo–China, b) Phases of struggle against the French, c) The ideas of Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Boi Chau, HO Chi Minh, d) The Second World War and the liberation struggle, e) America and the Vietnam War. Theme 3: Nationalism in India. (Compulsory) (Chapter 3) a) Impact of First World War, Khilafat, Non–cooperation and Differing Strands within

the movement, b) Salt Satyagraha, c) Movements of peasants, workers, tribals, d) Limits of Civil Disobedience, e) The sense of Collective Belonging.

Sub–unit 1.2: Livelihoods, Economies and Societies: (Any one of the following themes) Theme 4: The making of a Global World: (Chapter 4) a) The Pre–modern world b) The Nineteenth Century global economy, colonialism c) The Inter war Economy (Great Depression) d) Rebuilding the World Economy Theme 5: The Age of Industrialization: (Chapter 5) a) Proto–industrialization and pace of industrial change b) Life of workers c) Industrialization in the colonies d) Early Entrepreneurs and workers e) The Peculiarities of industrial growth f) Market for Goods.

Syllabus


Theme 6: Work, Life and Leisure: (Chapter 6) a) Development of modern cities due to industrialization in London and Bombay, b) Housing and Land Reclamation, c) Social Changes in the cities, d) Cities and the challenge of the Environment.

Sub–unit 1.3: Everyday Life, Culture and Politics: (Any one of the following themes) Theme 7: Print Culture and the Modern World: (Chapter 7) a) The history of print in Europe, b) The growth of press in nineteenth century India, c) Relationship between print culture, public debate and politics. Theme 8: Novels, Society and History: (Chapter 8) a) Emergence of the novel as a genre in the west, b) The relationship between the novel and changes in modern society, c) Early novels in nineteenth century India, d) A study of two or three major writers. Map Work: History

Important Indian National Congress Sessions: 1) Calcutta (Sept. 1920) 2) Nagpur (Dec. 1920) 3) Madras (1927) 4) Lahore (1929) Important Centre of Indian National Movement (Non Co–operation & Civil Disobedience): 1) Champaran 1917 (Movement of Indigo Planters) 2) Kheda 1917 (Peasants Satyagraha) 3) Ahmedabad 1918 (Mill Worker Satyagraha) 4) Amritsar 1919 (Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre) 5) Chauri-Chaura 1922 (Calling off the NCM) 6) Dandi 1930 (Civil Disobedience Movement)

Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe 1

Volume 1 of 3 Universal Tutorials – X CBSE – History 1

Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe Chapter Map:

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?

A New Conservatism After 1815

The Revolutionaries

The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation

Italy Unified

The Strange Case of Britain

Visualising the Nation

Nationalism and Imperialism

Introduction

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In What way do you think Sorrieu’s print depicts a utopian vision? Sorrieu’s print depicts a uptopian vision because his vision of society is so ideal that it is

unlikely to actually exist. It shows fraternity among the nations of the world. It shows people of Germany, France, Poland, England, Hungary and Russia, marching in one procession. But actually there were many conflicts among the different nations e.g. during First World War and Cold War.

Sorrieu’s print depicts men and women of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. It is also an ideal situation and unlikely to actually exist because there are many differences between different social classes, all over the world and men–women equality has not yet been achieved.

Source A: Ernst Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’ In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher Ernst Renan (1823–92) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation. The lecture was subsequently published as a famous essay entitled ‘Qu’est–ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’) In this essay (Renan criticizes the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory) ‘A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavor, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people. A nation is therefore large–scale solidarity … Its existence is a daily plebiscite … A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master

Nation:

What is a Nation? A nation is formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory where everyone lives in

harmony and government derives its authority from the people.

Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan understands them. Why, in his view, are nations important? According to Ernst Renan “A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice

and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people. A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity.

Nations’ existence is a daily plebiscite, a province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

Nations are important because here people are more important than the rulers. They have liberty, right to vote, on all public questions. They have feeling of oneness among themselves.

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4 Universal Tutorials – X CBSE – History Volume 1 of 3

Nation State: A nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to

develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people. A centralized power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.

1) The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation:

The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarchy. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the

transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and

shape its destiny.

What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people? (NCERT)

Ans: From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The

Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.

With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

Rule of Napoleon:

What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control, Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.



The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.

In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.

Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Effect of Napoleon Rule: In the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed.

Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.

But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.

Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

2) The Making of Nationalism in Europe:

In the mid-eighteenth-century in Europe there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today. Today’s Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose

rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived

diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.

The Hapsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples – Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Romans to the east in Transylvania. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity.

The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The

members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry.

6


To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.

In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market.

Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in France and parts of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century.

How did nationalism and the idea of the nation – state emerge? After Industrialisation new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and

middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen and professionals. In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late nineteenth

century. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity and nationalism and the idea of nation state emerged.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for: Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology

of liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.

Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical

privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

The Right To Vote: Equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. In revolutionary France, which marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the

right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.

Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the

status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

Economic Nationalism (Liberalism in Economics): In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of

state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. During the nineteenth century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes of the German-speaking regions in the first half of the nineteenth century. Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.

E.g. A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods would have had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them.



Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures, this involved time-consuming calculation.

The measure of cloth, for example, was the elle which in each region stood for a different length. An elle of textile material bought in Frankfurt would get you 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in Freiburg 53.5 cm.

Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.

In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.

The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

Describe the political ends that Friedrich List hopes to achieve through economic measures. Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation

could develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation together. Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of Tubingen in Germany, wrote in

1834: “The aim of the Zollverein (Customs Union) is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the nation materially as much by protecting its interests externally as by stimulating its internal productivity. It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people have realised that a free economic system is the only means to engender national feeling”.

In the same way economic measures develop nationalism in all parts of Europe

Source B: Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation together. Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of Tubingen in Germany, wrote in 1834: ‘The aim of the Zollverein is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the nation materially as much by protecting its interests externally as by stimulating its internal productivity. It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people have realized that a free economic system is the only means to engender national feeling.

A New Conservatism after 1815: Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of

conservatism. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the

monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.

Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could make state power more effective and strong.

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The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

What is the caricaturist trying to depict? The caricaturist was trying to depict that people were not allowed to express their opinion.

Liberty of speech was not given.

The Revolutionaries: During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists

underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread

their ideas. To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had

been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom. Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.

Giuseppe Mazzini: One such individual was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini. Born in Genoa in 1807,

he became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.

Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

3) The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848):

As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.

These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, schoolteachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.

The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings, who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. ‘When France sneezes,’ Metternich once remarked, ‘the rest of Europe catches cold.’

The July Revolution sparked an uprising in 1830 in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

10


The Greek War of Independence:

Write a short note on the Greek War of Independence. An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was

the Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.

The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.

Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling:

Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Importance of Language & Popular Traditions in Creation of National Identity: The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial

expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.

Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people–das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.

The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. This was especially so in the case of Poland, which had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Great Powers – Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive through music and language.

Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.



Box 1:

The Grimm Brothers: Folktales and Nation-building Grimms’ Fairy Tales is a familiar name. The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in the German city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786 respectively. While both of them studied law, they soon developed an interest in collecting old folktales. They spent six years travelling from village to village, talking to people and writing down fairy tales, which were handed down through the generations. These were popular both among children and adults. In 1812, they published their first collection of tales. Subsequently, both the brothers became active in liberal politics, especially the movement for freedom of the press. In the meantime they also published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language. The Grimm brothers also saw French domination as a threat to German culture, and believed that the folktales they had collected were expressions of a pure and authentic German spirit. They considered their projects of collecting folktales and developing the German language as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt: The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The first half of the nineteenth

century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small

producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialization was more advanced than on the continent.

This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanised.

In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

The year 1848 was one such year. Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.

Describe the causes of the Silesian weavers uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist? Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw

material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments. The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows:

In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation… The misery of the workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they order.

On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant windowpanes, furniture, porcelain. Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds. The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

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The Revolution of the Liberals: (NCERT) Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many

European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way.

Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.

In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist–such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire–men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

Frankfurt Parliament:

Write a short note on the Frankfurt Parliament. (NCERT) In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were

middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.

On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.

When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded.

The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

Compare the positions on the question of women’s rights voiced by the three writers cited below. What do they reveal about liberal ideology?

Source C:

How were liberty and equality for women to be defined? The liberal politician Carl Welcker, an elected member of the Frankfurt Parliament, expressed the following views: “Nature has created men and women to carry out different functions … Man, the stronger, the bolder and freer of the two has been designated as protector of the family, its provider, meant for public tasks in the domain of law, production, defence. Woman, the weaker, dependent and timid, requires the protection of man. Her sphere is the home, the care of the children, the nurturing of the family … Do we require any further proof that given such differences, equality between the sexes would only endanger harmony and destroy the dignity of the family?” Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a feminist political association. The first issue of her newspaper (21 April 1849) carried the following editorial: ‘Let us ask how many men, possessed by thoughts of living and dying for the sake of Liberty, would be prepared to fight for the freedom of the entire people, of all human beings? When asked this question, they would all too easily respond with a “Yes!”, though their untiring efforts are intended for the benefit of only one half of humanity – men. But Liberty is



indivisible! Free men therefore must not tolerate to be surrounded by the unfree …’ An anonymous reader of the same newspaper sent the following letter to the editor on 25 June 1850: ‘It is indeed ridiculous and unreasonable to deny women political rights even though they enjoy the right to property which they make use of. They perform functions and assume responsibilities without however getting the benefits that accrue to men for the same … Why this injustice? Is it not a disgrace that even the stupidest cattle-herder possesses the right to vote, simply because he is a man, whereas highly talented women owning considerable property are excluded from this right, even though they contribute so much to the maintenance of the state?’

Write a short note on the role of women on nationalist struggle. OR) How were liberty and equality for women to be defined? The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal

movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in

political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only

as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery. During the time of Frankfurt Parliament even Liberal Leaders those who were fighting for liberty

were against the liberty given to women. They considered women inferior.

Concessions to the Liberal-Nationalist: Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could

not restore the old order. Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.

Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.

Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

4) The Making of Germany and Italy:

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation? After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and

revolution. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.

Unification of Germany by Otto von Bismark: As you have seen, nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who

in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament (Frankfurt Parliament was a failure).

This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.

14


Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. Germen speaking areas were given to Germany. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

The nation-building process in Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Italy Unified: Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several

dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only

one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern

regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and

local variations. Giuseppe Mazzini:

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals.

The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 by Mazzini and Garibaldi meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.

In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance.

Count Camillo de Cavour:

Write a short note on Count Camillo de Cavour. (NCERT) Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a

revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much

better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont

succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of

Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded

in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. However, much of the

Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal nationalist ideology.



The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!

Box 2:

Giuseppe Garibaldi:

Write a short note on Giuseppe Garibaldi (NCERT) (1807-82) is perhaps the most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters. He came from a

family engaged in coastal trade and was a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 he met Mazzini, joined the Young Italy movement and participated in a

republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressed and Garibaldi had to flee to South America, where he

lived in exile till 1848. In 1854, he supported Victor Emmanuel II in his efforts to unify the Italian states. In 1860, Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Fresh

volunteers kept joining through the course of the campaign, till their numbers grew to about 30,000. They were popularly known as Red Shirts.

In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed.

The Red Shirts proved to be no match for the combined French and Papal troops. It was only in 1870 when, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome that the Papal States were finally joined to Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain:

How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe? (NCERT) The model of the nation or the nation-state, some scholars have argued, is Great Britain. In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or

evolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the

eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such

as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth due to industrialization and colonies, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.

The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state with England at its centre, came to be forged.

Scotland: The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the

‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.

The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political

institutions were systematically suppressed.

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The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.

The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

Ireland: Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and

Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely

Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by

Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the New Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God

Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

5) Visualising the Nation:

While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a statue, how does one go about giving a face to a nation? Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.

In other words they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures.(creator)

The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation.

During the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic.

These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols, the attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales. Similar female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation.

In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.

Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. Meanings of the symbols Attribute Significance Broken chains Being freed Breastplate with eagle Symbol of the German empire – strength Crown of oak leaves Heroism Sword Readiness to fight Olive branch around the sword Willingness to make peace



Meanings of the symbols Attribute Significance Black, red and gold tricolour Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned

by the Dukes of the German states Rays of the rising sun Beginning of a new era

6) Nationalism and Imperialism:

By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends. During this period nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.

The major European powers, in turn, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.

Balkans: The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the

Balkans. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day

Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.

A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the

disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself

through modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared

independence. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality

and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.

Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.

Rivalry Among European Power: As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the

Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory

at the expense of the others. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power

rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded.

Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.

This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

18


Events in Chronological Order: 1707 The formation of “United kingdom of Great Britain” England and Scotland were

united. 1789 French Revolution.

1797 Napoleon invades Italy. Napoleonic wars begin.

1798 Irishmen revolted under the leadership of Wolfe Tone.

1801 Ireland was forcibly incorporated into U.K.

1804 Napoleon Code – Civil code did away with all privileges based on birth.

1815 The defeat of Napoleon. Conservatism started.

1815 Treaty of Vienna with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.

1821 Greek struggle for Independence begins.

1830 In July the first revolutionary upheaval took place in France. The Bourbon king over Thrown. Louis Philippe was installed a constitutional head.

1831 In Poland, an armed rebellion against Russian rule which was ultimately crushed.

1832 The Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as an Independent nation.

1834 A custom union Zollverein was formed.

1845 Weavers in Silesia revolted.

1848 In February due to food shortage and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. Louis Philppe was forced to flee. The National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed right to work.

18 May 1848

831, Elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfrut parliament

1861–(1856 to 1870)

Unification of Italy completed Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy Giuseppe Mazzini Worked for unification

Jan 1871 Unification of Germany. Chief Minister of Prussia otto vun Bismark unified Germany. Prussian king William I was proclaimed German Emperor. In a ceremony held at Versailles.

1905 Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsbury and Ottoman Empires

1914 Beginning of First World War

IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER:

Utopian vision: Utopian vision refers to a vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.

Absolutism: Absolutism refers to a system of rule. Plebiscite: A plebiscite is a direct vote by which the people of a region are asked to accept or

reject a proposal. French Revolution: The French Revolution in 1789 was an influential event that marked the age

of revolutions in Europe. The major outcome of the revolution was the formation of a constitutional monarchy and a sizeable reduction in the royal and feudal privileges.



Nationalism: A feeling of oneness with the society or the state, love and devotion for the motherland and belief in the political identity of one’s country are the basic attributes of nationalism.

Nation-state: A state that establishes itself as a separate political and geographical entity and functions as a complete and sovereign territorial unit. This concept emerged in 19th century Europe as a result of the growth of nationalism.

Modern State: A state in which sovereignty is exercised by a centralized power over a specific territory and population.

Liberal Nationalism: Means: (i) Individual freedom (ii) Equality before law (iii) Government by consent (iv) Freedom of markets (v) Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Napoleonic Code: The Civil Code of 1804 introduced by Napolean, was known as the Napoleonic Code. This code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

Zoliverein: A customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

Habsburg Empire: The empire that ruled Austria, Hungary including the Alpine regions of Tyrol, Austria, the Sudetenland and Bohemia.

Ottoman Empire: A former Turkish empire ruled by the Caliph-the spiritual and temporal head of the Muslims.

Ideology: System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision. Conservatism: A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established

institutions, customs and preferred gradual development to quick change. Suffrage: The right to vote. Romanticism: A cultural movement that rejected science and reason and introduced heart and

emotions. The concern of the romantics was to create a sense of shared collective heritage and a common cultural past for arousing nationalism.

Revolutionaries: Upholders of the idea of liberalism and against the conservative regimes of the 19th century.

Feminism: Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on political economic and social equality of genders is also known as Feminism.

Frankfurt Parliament: A large number of political associations comprising of professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt decided to vote for all German National Assembly. On 18th May-1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened at St. Paul’s Church. They drafted a Constitution based on the system of Constitutional monarchy.

Nationalistic Feeling (1830s): The sense of recognizing the society and nation as “we” and the sharing of many traits by its members. Culture with art and poetry, stories and music played a major role in the shaping and expression of nationalistic feelings and nation.

Ethnic: Relates to a common racial, tribal or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with or claims.

Symbol: A symbol is a visual image that represents something other than itself. It may be a representation using an object, picture, written word, sound or a particular mark.

Imperialism: Imperialism refers to the policy of extending the rule and the authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies.

Allegory: When an abstract idea (for instance greed, envy, freedom, liberty, etc.) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.

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Summary: The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a

sense of collective identity amongst the French people. Europe in mid 18th century had no sense of political unity. Ideas of national unity took place in early 19th century. Europe was closely linked to the

ideology of liberation. The first upheaval took place in France in 1830. The development of nationalism did not come about through wars and territorial expansion.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of a nation. In parts of Europe where independent nation–states did not exist such as Germany, Italy,

Poland, the Austro–Hungarian Empire people demanded for constitutionalism with national unification.

The nation–building process in Germany demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.

Italy was unified by the initiative of Chief Minister Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini. In the 18th – 19th century nations were portrayed as female figures. During the 19th century nationalism became narrow which led to imperialism. Imperialistic rivalries led to a series of wars in Europe and finally the First World War.

PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD QUESTIONS

1) Who hosted ‘Vienna Congress’ in 1815? Analyse the main changes brought by the Vienna Treaty. [2017]

2) Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in 1830s. [2017] 3) ‘The first clear expression of nationalism came with the ‘French Revolution’ in 1789. Examine the

statement. [2017] 4) What was the main aim of revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815? [2016] 5) How had the female figures become an allegory of the nation during nineteenth century in

Europe? Analyse. [2016] 6) Who remarked “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”. [2016] 7) “The decade of 1830 had brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the statement

with arguments. [2016] 8) “Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in the administrative field he had

incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.” Analyse the statement with arguments. [2016]

9) Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. [2016]

10) Describe any five steps taken by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity among the French people. [2015]

11) How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain. [2015] 12) What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries? [2015] 13) How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain.

[2014] 14) Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by

the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe. [2014] 15) What were Jacobin Clubs? How did their activities and campaigns help to spread the idea of

nationalism abroad? Explain. [2014] 16) Explain any five social and administrative reforms introduced by Napoleon in the regions under

his control. [2014]



17) How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European States after 1815? Explain with examples. [2014]

18) Describe the process of Unification of Italy. [2012, 2013] 19) Why was the decade of 1830s known as great economic hardships in Europe? Explain any three

reasons. [2013] 20) Name the female allegory, which was invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent

the notion of ‘France’. Explain any two features of it. [2013] 21) Describe the role of culture in shaping the feelings of nationalism in Europe from 1830 to the end

of 19th Century. [2013] 22) How did the Balkans become the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after

1871? Explain with examples. [2013] 23) How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the ‘nation’ in Europe? Explain with

examples. [2013, 2014] 24) Explain any three measure or practice which creates a sense of collective identity amongst the

French people. [2011, 2012] 25) Describe the process of Unification of Germany? [2012] 26) Explain any three provisions of the Vienna of 1815. [2012] 27) “Napoleon had no doubt destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had

incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.” Support the statement. [2012]

28) Explain any four features of the Napoleonic Code. [2012] 29) Examine the main features of the process of German Unification under the leadership of Otto

Von Bismarck. [2012] 30) Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after 1815. [2011] 31) Explain any three economic hardships that Europe faced in the 1830s. [2011] 32) Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered. [2011] 33) Explain any three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the 18th and 19th

centuries. [2011] 34) Explain any three causes of conflict in the ‘Balkan area’ after 1871. [2011] 35) Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe. [2011] 36) Explain in three points, how Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. [2011] 37) Explain any four changes brought about in Europe by the Treaty of Vienna (1815). [2011] 38) Explain any three features of the ‘Nation State’ that emerged in Europe in the twentieth century.

[2011] 39) Why were 1830s called the years of great economic hardships in Europe? Give any three

reasons. [2011] 40) How did Romanticism seek to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiments during the 18th

century? Explain. [2011] 41) Examine the role of women in the national struggle of Europe. [2011] 42) How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe? Explain it by

giving four examples. [2011] 43) Examine the different stages of the unification of Germany. [2011]

NCERT QUESTIONS:

Short Answers: (3 Marks) 1) Write a short note on Guiseppe Mazzini. 2) Write a short note on The Greek war of independence.

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3) Write a short note on Frankfurt parliament. 4) Write a short note on the role of women in nationalist struggles. 5) Write a short note on count Camillo de Cavour. 6) What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the

territories ruled by him? 7) Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in

Europe. 8) Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth

century. Long Answers: (5 Marks) 9) Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were

portrayed? 10) Briefly trace the process of German unification. 11) Explain what is meant by 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and

economic ideas supported by the liberals? 12) Explain the process of nation building in Britain. 13) How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe? 14) Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

SOLVED QUESTIONS:

Very Short Answers: (1 Mark) 1) When was the customs union known as ‘Zollverin’ formed and with what purpose?

Ans The Zollverin was formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and joined by almost all German states. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.

2) What is meant by Liberalism? Ans The word ‘liberalism’, derived from the Latin word ‘libes’ stands for the end of aristocratic and

clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. 3) What were the immediate results of the Revolution of 1830 in France?

OR When and under whom was constitutional monarchy set up in France? Ans As a result of the Revolution of 1830, the Bourbon kings who had been restored to power by the

Congress of Vienna were overthrown by the revolutionaries and constitutional monarchy established with Louis Phillipe as its head.

4) Name the architects of the Italian nation. Ans Names: (i) Count Camillo de Cavour, (ii) Guiseppe Garibaldi and (iii) Guiseppe Mazzini.

5) What were the allegory of the German Nation and Republic of France known as? Ans i) German nation: Germania ii) French nation/France: Marianne.

6) Who were the main architects of the Unification of Germany? Ans The main architects were: i) The Prussian Chancellor Atto von Bismarck. ii) The Prussian King William I.

7) List names of any three Balkan states which earlier constituted a part of the Ottoman Empire.

Ans States were: (i) Bulgaria, (i) Greece and (iii) Romania. 8) When was the Act of Union passed and with what results?

Ans The act of Union between England and Scotland took place in 1701. It led to the formation of United Kingdom of Great Britain.

9) How did France benefit from the Revolution? Ans France benefited from the Revolution.



i) It became a republic, ii) The right to vote was given to all adult males, and iii) The right to work was guaranteed to all.

10) Name the famous hall where Otto von Bismarck gathered to proclaim the German Empire headed by Kaiser William?

Ans The Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. 11) By which name is the Civil Code of 1804 of France known?

Ans The Napoleonic Code. 12) Who were serfs?

Ans Serfs were poor peasants who were bound to the vast estates owned by aristocrats. 13) When and by whom and why was the Congress of Vienna held?

Ans The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815. It was hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. It was held to draw up a new settlement for Europe after the defeat of Napoleon.

14) When and where was the Frankfurt Parliament held? Ans The Frankfurt Parliament was held on 18th May, 1848, in the Church of St Paul in the city of

Frankfurt. 15) What area was known as the Balkans?

Ans The vast territory lying in the East Europe, the modern states of Romania, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Bosnia–Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro was known as the Balkans. All these states were once part of the Ottoman Empire, and were inhabited by people broadly known as Slavs.

16) List the new social groups which came into being as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Ans: The new social groups which came into being as a result of the Industrial Revolution were: i) The working class population, and ii) The middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.

17) What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries? Ans: There main aim was to bring about political and constitutional changes.

18) Who was Frederic Sorrieu? Ans: Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of

a world made up of democratic and social republics. 19) What does ‘Nation–state’ mean?

Ans: A nation state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

20) What was the objective of Treaty of Vienna? Ans: Treaty of Vienna was called with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about

in Europe during the Napoleonic war. The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to power.

21) What do you understand by ‘Romanticism’? Ans: Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

sentiments. 22) Why weavers in Silesia revolted in 1845?

Ans: Earlier in 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payment.

23) Who was Count Cavour? Ans: Count Cavour was the Chief Minister, who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was

neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavours, Sardinia - Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

Short Answers: (3 Marks)

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24) How did French armies begin to carry the idea of nationalism abroad? Ans: i) When the news of the French Revolution reached the different cities of Europe, students and

other educated members of middle class began setting up Jacobin clubs. ii) Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into

Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in 1790s. iii) With the outbreak of the revolutionary war, the French armies began to carry the idea of

nationalism abroad. 25) What do you know about the Treaty of Vienna?

Ans: The treaty of Vienna was signed in 1815. According to this treaty: i) The Bourborn dynasty was restored to power. ii) To prevent the expansion of France a series of state were set up on her frontiers. iii) The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left

untouched. iv) The main intention of this treaty was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by

Napoleon and to create a new conservative order in Europe. 26) Explain the concept of liberal nationalism which developed in Europe in early 18th

century. Ans: Liberalism meant different things to different people. Political liberalism: i) It stood for equality before the law. ii) Revolutionary France marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy in which right

to vote and get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. iii) Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. iv) Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organised

opposition movements demanding equal political rights. Economic liberalism: i) It stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the

movement of goods and capital. ii) Customs Union or ‘zoilverein’ was formed in Prussia, joined by most of the German states. iii) The Union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.

27) Describe the role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian revolutionary. Ans: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in Genoa and became a member of

the secret society of the Carbonari. i) At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution. ii) He founded two more secret societies: (a) Young Italy in Marseilles and (b) Young Europe in

Berne. iii) Members of these underground societies were like - minded young men from Poland, France,

Italy and German states. iv) Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened

the conservatives. 28) State how reactions of local people to French rule was mixed in conquered territories.

Ans: i) Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.

ii) But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.

iii) Increased taxation, censorships, forced recruitment into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.



29) What conditions prevailed in 1848 in France? Ans: i) The year 1848 was the year of food shortages and widespread unemployment. It brought the

population of Paris on the roads. ii) Barricades were erected and Louis Phillippe was forced to flee. iii) A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above the

age of 21 and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were also set up.

30) “Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore old order.” Comment.

Ans: i) After 1848, monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.

ii) Hence in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.

iii) Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

Long Answers: (5 Marks) 31) Briefly trace the process of German unification.

OR Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century. (NCERT)

Ans: Following were the steps during German unification. i) Confederation of 39 states: Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of

countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures [between 1804 to 1815].

ii) Zollverein & Economic Nationalism: In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

iii) Frankfurt Parliament: On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

iv) Leadership of Otto Von Bismark: Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. German speaking areas were given to Germany.

v) In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles. On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

Unification of Germany completed.

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32) Briefly trace the process of unification of Italy. Ans: Following were the steps during unification of Italy: i) 1831 and 1848: During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent

programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 by Mazzini and Garibaldi meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.

ii) 1859: Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray.

iii) 1860: In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.

iv) 1861: In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. However, much of the Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal nationalist ideology.

v) 1867: In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed.

vi) 1870: The Red Shirts proved to be no match for the combined French and Papal troops. It was only in 1870 when, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome that the Papal States were finally joined to Italy.

Unification of Italy completed. 33) Briefly trace the process of development of Nationalism in France.

OR How did France change from Monarchy to a Nation State? Ans: Following were the steps during development of Nationalism in France: i) 1789 French Revolution: The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French

Revolution in 1789. France, as was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarchy. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. In 1804 Napoleon came to power.

ii) 1815 Conservatism: Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.

iii) July 1830 a constitutional Monarchy: The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings, who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.

iv) 1848 A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic: In the year 1848 food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.

France experienced cycles of revolution and repression.



34) What conditions led to the development of a new middle class in Europe? Ans: i) In Western and parts of Central Europe, the growth of industrial production and trade meant

the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market.

ii) Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the 18th century, but in France and parts of the German States, it occurred only during the 19th century;

iii) In its wake, new social groups came into being, a working class population and middle classes made up industrialists, businessmen, professionals.

iv) In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups were smaller in numbers till late 19th century. v) It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the

abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity. 35) What conditions of Balkan areas led to World War I?

Ans: i) As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

ii) The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.

iii) During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as army and naval might.

iv) These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problems unfolded. v) Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austria-Hungry – was keen on countering the hold

of other powers over the Balkans and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: CLASS WORK / HOME WORK

Very Short Answers: (1 Mark) 1) Explain the term conservatism. 2) State one reason for the emergence of liberal nationalists. 3) State the effect of the revolution that took place in France in 1848. 4) Give a reason for the revolution in France in 1848. 5) Explain in brief the Silesia revolt. 6) Who were conservatives? 7) State the meaning of the term absolutist. 8) What were the two basic reasons for the growth of Indian nationalism in the 19th century? Short Answers: (3 Marks) 9) a) Explain in brief the meaning of nationalism. b) State two main features of nationalism in Europe after the 1830’s. 10) Write a short note on ‘Young Italy’. 11) Who was Bismarck? What role did he play in the unification of Germany? Long Answers: (5 Marks) 12) Identify the dissimilarities between the unification of Italy and Germany. 13) What were the changes that were brought about in Europe after the treaty of Vienna, 1815? 14) What is a Nation State? Summarise the attributes of a nation as Renan understands then why in

his view are nations important?

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WORK SHEET:

1) What are nation states? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2) When and where was the first clear expression of nationalism evident in Europe?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3) State two important political and constitutional changes which came in the wake of the

French Revolution? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4) List the new social groups which came into being as a result of the Industrial Revolution?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

5) Name: (i) An Italian revolutionary, (ii) Society of which he was member, (iii) Society founded by him.

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6) “The most dangerous enemy of social order” i) Who said these words for whom. Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

ii) Why - Give two reasons. Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7) Give some symbols used by the French Revolutionaries to signify ‘Liberty’. Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _



8) ‘Equality before law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage’ in nineteenth century Europe. Give reasons.

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9) Define the term:

a) Allegory Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ b) Feminist Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ c) Suffrage Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ d) Plebiscite Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ e) Utopian Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

cessf l u ut - universal tutorials · 2019-02-24 · theme 3: nationalism in india. (compulsory)...

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