analysis of the experiential advertising in tourist

ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIENTIAL

ADVERTISING IN TOURIST DESTINATION

CASE STUDY: “TURESPAÑA”

A dissertation submitted by Juan Carlos Losada

In partial completion of the award of MA European Tourism Management

School of Services Management

Bournemouth University.

Dalarna University (Börlange, Sweden)

Heilbrönn University (Heilbrönn, Germany)

(2009/2010)

ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIENTIAL ADVERTISING IN TOURIST DESTINATION.CASE STUDY: “TURESPAÑA”

MA EUROPEAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

2

DISSERTATION DECLARATION

I declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. I have not included any material

or data from other authors or sources which are not acknowledged and identified in the

prescribed manner.

I have read the section in the Student Handbook on Assessment Offences and

understand that such offences may lead the Examinations Board to withhold or

withdraw the award of Master of Arts.

Juan Carlos Losada



3

ABSTRACT

Advertising plays a significant role in the selection of a destination, and it can be used

to create a competitive advantage of a country. The promotional advertisements of

Spain are changing to a new experiential approach, improving and multiplying the

effects of communication and the importance of emotions and feelings to awake

consumer´s senses.

The purpose of this research is to analyse the effectiveness of the experiential

advertising used in Spain to promote the destination abroad. For this reason seven

hypotheses have been formulated in order to contrast the proposed statements with the

results of the research.

The research method to achieve the objectives is to conduct a comparative analysis

between two different campaigns, “Everything under the Sun” and “I need Spain”. The

first one is a traditional and informative campaign launched in 1986, and the second one

has a different approach based on experiences and emotions, used by the National

Tourism Board “Turespaña” as a new promotional model in recent years.

Secondary and primary sources were used in the research. Secondary sources were

composed of articles, journals and books, while a survey was designed to get

information from primary sources. The questionnaire was sent by e-mail to 240

Germans during May and June, having at the end a sample of 122 respondents.

The results of the analysis show that the components of the sample have a more positive

attitude towards the experiential advertisement “I need Spain”, in the cognitive,

affective and conative aspects of consumer‟s attitude. However, the majority of them

(67, 2%), think that the traditional advertisement represent better the image of Spain to

promote the country abroad, being more informative and realistic than the experiential

model.

Word count of the dissertation: 16.715



4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my family and friends for their continuous encouragement,

support and understanding, not only during the completion of this paper, but through all

my life. I would also thanks to my supervisor, Teresa Villacé, for his availability,

advices and support during all the process of completing this research.



5

Table of Contents

Dissertation declaration ..................................................................................................... 2

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 3

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 4

Table of contents ............................................................................................................... 5

List of tables ...................................................................................................................... 8

List of figures .................................................................................................................... 9

List of abbreviations ........................................................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study ........................................................................................ 12

1.1.1 Advertising and tourist destination ................................................................. 13

1.1.2 Traditional advertising & Expertiential advertising ....................................... 13

1.1.3 Advertising effectiveness ............................................................................... 15

1.2 Rationale of the study ............................................................................................ 15

1.3 Aim and objectives ................................................................................................ 16

1.4 Dissertation Structure ............................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Tourism Advertising .............................................................................................. 20

2.1.1 Printed Advertising ......................................................................................... 21

2.1.2 Destination image of a country ....................................................................... 22

2.1.3 Destination image as a competitive value ...................................................... 24



6

2.2 National Tourism Organisations. The case of “Turespaña” .................................. 25

2.3 Why these two advertisements campaigns of Spain? ............................................ 25

2.4 German Market ...................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 3 – THE EXPERIENTIAL ADVERTISING

3.1 What is an experience? .......................................................................................... 33

3.2 The Experiential Marketing. Concept ................................................................... 34

3.3 Experience economy ............................................................................................. 36

3.4 Customer Experience ............................................................................................. 36

3.5 Experience as a competitive value ........................................................................ 38

3.6 Experiential attitude ............................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER 4 – ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS

4.1 Advertising Effectiveness. Concept ...................................................................... 42

4.1.1 Actors of advertising effectiveness ................................................................. 42

4.1.2 Components of consumer´s attitude ............................................................... 44

4.2 Control of Advertising ........................................................................................... 45

4.3 Advertising effectiveness measures ...................................................................... 46

4.3.1 Cognitive techniques of advertising effectiveness ......................................... 47

4.3.2 Affective techniques of advertising effectiveness .......................................... 48

4.3.3 Conative techniques of advertising effectiveness ........................................... 50



7

CHAPTER 5 – METHODOLOGY

5.1 Research ................................................................................................................ 52

5.2 Research aim and objectives ................................................................................. 52

5.3 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................ 53

5.3.1 Cognitive Component ..................................................................................... 53

5.3.2 Affective Component...................................................................................... 54

5.3.3 Conative Component ...................................................................................... 54

5.4 Secondary Research ............................................................................................... 55

5.4.1 Sources ............................................................................................................ 55

5.5 Primary Research ................................................................................................... 57

5.5.1 Questionnaire Design...................................................................................... 57

5.5.2 Sample ............................................................................................................ 58

5.5.3 Data Collection ............................................................................................... 59

5.5.1 Pilot Test ......................................................................................................... 60

5.6 Analysis ................................................................................................................. 61

5.7 Limitations of the research .................................................................................... 62

CHAPTER 6 – RESULTS AND MAIN FINDINGS

6.1 Results of the survey ............................................................................................. 63

6.1.1 Sample and personal data ............................................................................... 63

6.1.2 Socio-demographic Variables: Sex and Age .................................................. 63

6.1.3 Rate of remember and recognition ................................................................. 68

6.1.4 Representative of Spain as a tourist destination ............................................. 69

6.1.5 Travel´s desire ................................................................................................ 70

6.1.6 Purchase intention ........................................................................................... 70



8

6.1.7 Liking technique ............................................................................................. 71

6.2 Main Findings ........................................................................................................ 72

CHAPTER 7 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 76

7.2 Recommendations for the tourist industry ............................................................ 77

7.3 Recommendations for future research ................................................................... 78

Bibliography and references ..................................................................................... 80

Appendices ................................................................................................................. 93



9

List of tables

Table 2.1 Leading destinations of German outbound holiday travellers (2008) ............. 31

Table 4.1 Actors and factors of advertising effectiveness .............................................. 43

Table 6.1.Opposite adjectives Analysis .......................................................................... 68



10

List of figures

Figure 2.1 Tourist images ............................................................................................... 23

Figure 2.2 Advertising campaign: “Everything under the sun” ...................................... 27

Figure 2.3 Advertising campaign: “I need Spain” .......................................................... 29

Figure 2.4 Outbound and Domestic Travel in the German market (2008) ..................... 30

Figure 3.1 Hallmarkt Star Value ..................................................................................... 39

Figure 4.1 Components of consumer´s attitude .............................................................. 44

Figure 6.1 Gender .......................................................................................................... 64

Figure 6.2 Age ................................................................................................................. 64

Figure 6.3 German people who have and not have visited Spain ................................... 64

Figure 6.4 Kind of tourism .............................................................................................. 65

Figure 6.5 Recognition´s Rate......................................................................................... 68

Figure 6.6 Comparison of images representitive of Spain .............................................. 69

Figure 6.7 Travel´s desire ............................................................................................... 70

Figure 6.8 Purchase intention .......................................................................................... 71

Figure 6.9 Liking ............................................................................................................. 71



11

List of abbreviations

ad - Advertisement

e.g. – For example

et al. – And others

Etc. – Et cetera

GDP – Gross Domestic Product

IET – Tourism Statistics Institute (Spain)

INE – National Statistics Institute (Spain)

PICTE – Plan Integral de Calidad Turistica Española (2002 – 2006)

SEM – Strategic Experiential Modules

UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (January 2010)

WTO – World Tourism Organisation

WTTR – World Travel Trends Report (ITB 2009)



12

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

Introduction

This chapter introduces the topic of the dissertation and sets the framework of the

research. The section also includes the rationale of the research, the aim and objectives,

the hypotheses set according to the theoretical analysis, and finally the structure of the

dissertation will be also presented.

1. Background of the study

According to the World Tourism Trend Report (2009), “tourists have been changing

traditional destinations such as Spain, Portugal and the Caribbean for newer ones in

North Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean and further afield”.

In 2009, 52.2 million tourists arrived to Spain, 8.7 less than in 2008 and caused that

Spain was degraded to the third place in the ranking as the most visited tourist

destination in the world behind France and the U.S.A (IET 2009). The tourism in Spain

since the early 1960s has been an important income generator and a source of

employment with over 11% of GDP (Harrison and Corkill 2004). These facts provoke

that Spain may increase the effort in developing effective promotional campaigns for

the main outbound markets in order to prevent a decline in the number of tourists.

The Spanish Government has seen the importance of the promotion of Spain abroad as a

potential tourist destination and for this reason its budget has been increased more than

20% in the past two years. This has provided, the ability to reach 259 agreements with

Spanish regions, public and private enterprises, airlines in 2009 which have added €25

million € to the Spanish promotional budget, elevating it to a total of €42 million (Plan

Operativo de la Secretaria General de Turismo 2008).

The Operational Plan of The General Secretariat of Tourism in Spain (2008) has created

a new line of products with unique content and experiential value called “Privilege

Spain”.



13

The aim of this model is to create innovative product lines for living unique experiences

and different from the standard tourist products, improving Spain´s competitive

positioning, segmenting the market, adjusting the product to the wishes of the buyer and

measuring the return on investment.

1.1.1 Advertising and tourist destination

“There are a number of likely through which tourism advertising influences destination

choice” (Kim et al. 2005). Actually, we are in the middle of a revolution in the field of

marketing. A revolution that tries to replace traditional features and benefits of products

and services through a new approach based on living unique emotions and experiences

(Smith 1999). This marketing´s approach evokes all types of emotions, feelings and

experiences in the consumer (Schmitt 1999). The term experience will be one of the

most important aspects to be discussed in the research, as one of the emotional elements

used in tourism advertising to generate the desire to select a tourist destination or

another. Bagozzi et al (1999) define emotions as “a mental process that arises from the

evaluation of a fact or thought, which are expressed physically and can lead to specific

actions depending on the nature and the thoughts of the individual”.

According to Edell and Burke (1987) argue that any advertising evokes some kind of

emotions: boredom, indifference, joy, entertainment, etc; suggesting that an

advertisement has emotional character when you create the specific purpose of

provoking certain emotions and experiences.

1.1.2 Traditional advertising & The Experiential advertising

Since no literature exists to date regarding the traditional and experiential

advertisements to give a definition of these concepts, for this research, the traditional

advertisement will be associated with informative advertising, and the experiential

advertisement with emotional advertising.



14

The informative Advertising is the one that provides factual, verifiable and relevant

information on a brand, so that consumers have major ability to assess the benefits of

the products after having seen an advertisement of these characteristics (Puto and Wells

1984). Meanwhile, experiential advertising is integrated into the so-called emotional

advertising, since it is designed to inform feelings and create an experiential value on

the audience. Furthermore, Havlena and Holbrook (1986) identified that the most

important factors in advertising based on experiential values are emotional factors,

which according to Russell and Snodgrass (1987) are personal perception of emotions

and feelings. This is one of the main reasons why experiential advertising is a key

element of the emotional dimension.

According to Lopez (2007), these two types of advertising are understood in different

ways. One of them is represented by informative advertising, which focuses on

providing information about the product or service. This type of advertising evokes a

very small number of emotions with a reduced intensity. The traditional campaign used

in the research is “Everything under the Sun”, and informs about traditional aspects of

Spain, in this case a typical Spanish beach that is full of people. In contrast, the other

way is represented by an emotional value focused on the experiential advertisement “I

need Spain” and the generation of emotions and feelings in the audience (Schmitt

1999). This advertisement evokes on the consumer the desire to enjoy with the family of

a paradise beach.

Within emotional advertising it is possible to identify different kinds of strategies.

Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) argue that emotions can play three different roles in the

field of communication; contributing to inform about product attributes, to act as

benefits in themselves and to influence directly in the attitudes. These authors identify

the emotional value as a key tool to generate a response of cognitive character, e.g. to

increase the visibility of the ad and the brand on the one hand, and on the other hand, to

evoke an emotional response, where the feelings and experiences provoked by

advertising go to the brand.



15

1.1.3 Advertising effectiveness

In advertising effectiveness research, it has been given much attention to the

measurement of advertising effectiveness and media channel choice. To evaluate the

effectiveness of travel destination advertisements it is necessary to focus in that a

promotional campaign “stimulates” visits to a particular destination (Batra et al. 1995).

The fact that an advertisement like it or not, is directly associated with the concept of

attitude, and it is defined as the favourable or unfavourable opinion to a particular

external stimulus, which can be a product, an idea or an advertisement (Lutz 1984).

In this case, the research will explain the role of emotions in advertising used to

promote a destination mainly based on emotional and experience values and not only

informative and traditional aspects.

1.1 Rationale of the study

From a personal point of view, the researcher in the field of marketing has always been

interested in selling a product or service based on mainly economic, environmental and

social factors, but there are other aspects that also influence the consumer. It is for this

reason that the dissertation investigates a new marketing´s approach based on

experiential aspects, which in recent years has been very popular and used in Spain.

This dissertation was planned to be done in the German market, given that Germany is

the main outbound market in Europe, and Spain is for this market one of the first

destination choices.

For professional reasons, the researcher is interested in improving his knowledge about

this topic as a possible work field for the future. This research would benefit both tourist

industry and the national tourism boards, given that a new marketing tool will be

known, influencing people to visit destinations based on internal and emotional values.

This study will also show the opinion of the German tourists regarding both traditional

and experiential advertising campaign, their advantages and disadvantages and which of

both has a higher positive impact when generating the desire to travel.



16

For academic reasons, many studies can be found about measuring the effectiveness of

tourism advertising, but the fact of getting the evaluation of the advertising

effectiveness and the experiential approach together has not been researched by many

authors previously.

1.3 Aim and objectives

The overall aim of this research is “to analyze the effectiveness of the experiential

advertising used in Spain to promote itself abroad, comparing this experiential value

with an informative advertising”.

In order to achieve this aim the objectives of this research will be:

To examine two different advertising campaigns of Spain, focusing on the

traditional and experiential dimension.

To study the impact of the experiential value on the German market.

To establish which of both traditional and experiential advertising is more

effective to promote Spain as a tourist destination.

This research aims to compare empirically which of both, the traditional and the

experiential campaigns used by “Turespaña” are more effective to promote the image of

Spain in the German market. To verify the attainment of these objectives raise a number

of hypotheses based on consumer´s attitude towards the advertisement (the cognitive,

affective and behavioural components), which are derived from theoretical analysis

developed in Chapters two, three and four of the research.

The objectives of the research have the main goal of answering the following

hypotheses.

H1: The cognitive component of the advertisement “I need Spain” is more positive than

the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

H2: The traditional advertisement of Spain “Everything under the sun” has a higher

remember and recognition’s rate than the advertisement “I need Spain”.



17

H3: The answers generated both cognitive and affective by individuals after the ad

exposure, influence more positive in the attitude towards the advertisement “I need

Spain” than the advertisement “Everything under the sun”.

H4: The experiential advertisement creates in the individual an attitude toward the ad

more positive than a traditional advertisement.

H5: The image of the advertisement “I need Spain” is more attractive for the

respondents than the image of the advertisement “Everything of the Sun”.

H6: The attitude toward the advertisement generated by the ad “Everything under the

sun” influences more positively in the purchase intention of the consumer than the

advertisement “I need Spain”.

H7: The advertisement “I need Spain” is more effective to represent the image of Spain

than the advertisement “Everything under the sun”.

To achieve the objectives and to verify the hypotheses of the research, both secondary

and primary data have been gathered throughout the study.

Secondary research

As secondary research, a review of the literature based on useful information and

previous topics related to purposes of the dissertation was chosen. Therefore, the

secondary research consists of a series of different documents and publications of

“Turespaña”, textbooks, journals about marketing, effectiveness of advertising, tourism

research, and previous dissertations, providing a background for the analysis.

Primary research

Primary sources have been required as well for the analysis of the research. The primary

data collection consists in a survey via e-mail with 122 questionnaires in the German

market conducted during June and July 2010.



18

1.4 DISSERTATION STRUCTURE

Chapter 1: Introduction

To begin with, this chapter introduces the topic of the dissertation and sets its

framework of the research. Secondly, the section also includes the rationale of the

research, the aim and objectives, and the hypotheses set according to the theoretical

analysis.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

First, this chapter reviews the literature related to the topic, focusing in previous

research that has been written. This section explains both the advertising‟s role as an

important marketing tool in the tourist industry to generate tourist‟ arrivals, and its

importance in the National Tourism Board “Turespaña” for the promotion of Spain

abroad as a potential tourist destination. Secondly, the author argues the reasons for

choosing the two different advertisements of Spain used in the research. Finally, a

review of the main tourist figures of the German market as a case study is also analyzed.

Chapter 3: The Experiential Marketing

This chapter presents a thorough review of the body of knowledge based on the concept

of experiential marketing. The main attention is focused in a new marketing approach

related with experiences, emotions and feelings; and how this marketing approach is

being used by the advertising campaigns of Spain for its promotion abroad.

Chapter 4: Advertising effectiveness

The research continues with the literature review in the field of advertising, identifying

what constitutes “advertising effectiveness”. The author will focus on the main

techniques that have been used in the research to measure the effectiveness of both

traditional and experiential advertisements used by “Turespaña”. These techniques will

analyze the components of consumer‟s attitude - cognitive, affective and behavioural –

and the influence of these components towards the advertisement.



19

Chapter 5: Methodology

This chapter presents the methodology used in the research in order to achieve the

research aim and objectives. Once the author has established the aim and objectives of

the research, the hypothesis will be presented. Secondly, it will be proceed to explain

the secondary and primary research and the analysis of the data. The limitations

occurred during the research will also be mentioned at the end of this chapter.

Chapter Six: Results and Main Findings

This chapter presents the results and the main findings of the primary research

conducted by the author in the German market.

Chapter Seven: Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions about the research are presented in this chapter, by reviewing the results

against the hypothesis and answering the questions proposed. It also suggests some

recommendations for future research and even for managers of the tourist sector.



20

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature related to the topic, focusing in previous research that

has been written. This section explains both the advertising‟s role as an important

marketing tool in the tourist industry to generate tourist‟ arrivals, and its importance in

the National Tourism Board “Turespaña” for the promotion of Spain abroad as a

potential tourist destination. Then, the author argues the reasons for choosing the two

different advertisements of Spain used in the research. Finally, a review of the main

tourist figures of the German market as a case study is also analyzed.

2.1 Tourism Advertising

Advertising is one of the phenomena in our time, and plays an essential role in the

communication and promotional activity unfolded by the tourism organizations

(Muhcina et al. 2005).

However, advertising can be understood from different perspectives. Campanario

(1996) explains that advertising is used to influence the opinion of citizens. In contrast,

the economist John Kenneth Galbraith (1992) argues that advertising is a key

component of the actual socio-economic system, and according to Johnson and Mesmer

(1991) it can influence aspects such as knowledge, attitude or purchase intention.

Instead, Cao (1999) defends both ideas, arguing that advertising is useful to increase

sales of a product or a service, to improve the firm´s “corporate image”; to persuade

people that the company is benevolent and trustworthy, and to change the behavior of

people.

The author has chosen the printed advertising used by “Turespaña”, in order to know

the influence of this marketing tool in the image that customers have of tourist

destinations.



21

2.1.1. Printed Advertising

The advertising through printed materials is situated among the most frequently used

advertising instruments (Muhcina et al. 2005) and have a significant dimension in

marketing budget. Printed advertising is useful to inform tourists on the present offer or

on the new products or services, to influence the tourists´ attitude in a favorable way

towards the brand and its offer, or to convince them to buy these tourism products or

services (Muhcina et al. 2005). It can also be used as a communication support and

additional instrument and as part of other communication approaches, such as direct

marketing or marketing events, amplifying their effects.

As a part of the tourism promotion, the role of printed advertising, such as catalogues,

prospectuses, posters, tourism brochures, rise especially on certain annual periods,

correspondent to holidays. Designed in an attractive way, elaborated in languages of

international circulation, including useful pieces of information, the tourism

publications are successfully used at a local scale as well as at a national or international

one (Muhcina et al. 2005).

Printed materials are not only use to increase the interest of potential tourists but also to

inform the customers through an adequate content of advices, pieces of information and

useful facts for potential tourists (Muhcina et al. 2005). In fact, printed advertising is

useful to create a favorable or unfavorable image of a destination, given that a

destination can be considered as products (Ashworth and Voogd 1990) and, therefore

can be promoted, sold and bought.

Due to the importance of this advertising, the publications are printed and offered by a

wide range of services suppliers, tour operators, and even local and national public

authorities, from which they can differentiate (Gherasim et al. 1999: 144-147 cited

Muhcina 2005), influencing the destination´s image generated in the customers.

However, most of the marketing strategies of tourist destinations focus on the global

image rather than in partial images (Ahmed 1996).



22

The National tourism Organizations, publish and distribute advertising printed

materials, which contains generally information about tourism attractions and about the

culture, history and geography of the respective country that is presented like a tourism

destination (Muhcina 2005).

When a country is promoted as a tourism destination, the advertising message content in

these materials must distinguish its tourism attractions (mountains, lakes, forests,

architectural monuments, folklore, customs, gastronomy), “creating in such way an

image which is capable to include the essence of natural, sociological and cultural

features of a certain country, suggesting to the message receivers both the tourism offer

diversity and the unique and attractive tourism products features” (Nadelea 2003 cited

Muhcina 2005 ).

In addition, these printed materials are an effective and promotional tool, which support

the tourism organizations activity in national borders limits and in foreign countries

(Muhcina 2005).

2.1.2 Destination image of a country

Destination image plays an important role on the behaviour of individuals, given that

image is defined by many authors as the global perception or total set of impressions

about a place or as the mental picture of a destination (Alhemoud and Armstrong 1996;

Seaton and Bennett 1996 cited Richards and Munsters 2010), influencing the behaviour

of tourists (Cooper et al. 1993).

The definition offered by Moutinho is quite complete: “The image is a description of

the attitude of the tourist to a number of issues related to product attributes”. The image

of a destination tends to be an oversimplification in the mind of tourists and at the same

time, consistent configuration built according to the information available. The image is

not what the product actually is but what the holiday-makers think it to be (Moutinho

1987; 16).



23

The destination image is a multidimensional concept (Leisen 2001). In fact, tourists

perceive different images that can influence their behaviour. The identification of the

different components of the image of a destination can provide relevant information to

develop promotional strategies that focus on key segments (Ahmed 1996).

There are several authors (Ashworth and Goodall 1988; Cooper et al. 1993; Seaton and

Bennett 1996) that explain the existence of two types of tourist image: organic image

and induced image. The organic image is developed from information sources that do

not pursue intentionally the promotion of the destination, which may include a wide

range of mediums (Pike 2008). The induced image, however, is formed through the

influence of tourism promotions directed by marketers, such as advertising (Gunn 1988

cited Pike 2009).

Other authors incorporate a third type of tourist image (Echtner and Ritchie 1991;

Fakeye and Crompton 1991; Gunn 1988): the complex image. This image is the result

of the real visit to the destination. Due to the tourist experience, the individuals acquire

more detailed information about the destination, creating a more complete picture.

These types of images are represented in the Figure below.

Figure 2.1 Tourist images

Source: Adapted from Fakeye and Crompton (1991)



24

However, Gartner (1996 cited Chen 2006) explains that “destinations images are made

up of three different but hierarchical interrelated components: cognitive, affective and

conative. The interrelationship of these components ultimately determines

predisposition for visitation” (Gartner 1996 cited Chen 2006).

In contrast, Calantone and Mazanec (1991) believes that the image of a tourist

destination is based only on conative and emotional components, reducing the image to

an affective dimension, regardless the rational factor could also influence. And other

authors such as Moutinho (1987) and Alhemoud and Armstrong (1996), explain the

existence of both affective and cognitive elements. These three components, cognitive,

affective and conative will be essential for Chapter four of the research, which measure

the effectiveness of advertising through these components.

2.2.3 Destination image as a competitive advantage

The high competition that exists nowadays between tourist destinations reinforces the

importance of an effective promotion management, and their ability to differentiate

themselves (Pritchard and Morgan 1998). These authors argue that this differentiation is

a particular difficulty given the diversity of actors involved (public and private), and the

complex interplay that occurs between them.

However, tourist destinations compete mainly through its image, so the image is a key

element of the destination competitiveness (Kozak et al. 2004) and this factor influence

both the decision making process of potential tourists (Crompton 1979; Ashworth and

Goodall 1988) and the levels of satisfaction of the tourist experience (Chon 1991).

Consequently, the construction of an appropriate image for a destination will determine

the ability to attract and retain tourists (Ahmed 1996).

In this sense, tourism promotion, especially advertising, can also play an added value in

creating and maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage over other destinations,

since, according to Ahmed (1996), it is based on the construction of an effective image.



25

The intense competition that exists today among the tourist destinations (Bigné, Font,

and Andreu 2000) reinforces the importance of identifying the image held by current

and potential tourists and select those segments most receptive to marketing actions, to

get the most of the limited resources in the destination (Leisen 2001).

2.2 National Tourism Organizations. The case of Turespaña

The control of tourist communication in Spain is broken as a result of implementing the

democratic Constitution of 1978, which allows autonomous communities and other

smaller administrative entities to organize and promote their areas as tourist

destinations. The Spanish Government maintains the competence to promote the

country abroad, while the autonomous communities can only make tourism advertising

to Spanish consumers, requiring prior administrative authorization for advertising

abroad (Garrido et al. 2007).

The National Tourism Board, “Turespaña”, has been working on the creation and

consolidation of Spain as a tourist destination brand since the beginning of the twentieth

century, when in 1928 this organism was established. “Turespaña” is responsible for

planning, development and implementation of tourism promotion activities of the image

“Spain” in international markets (Recoder 1999). This Spanish organism also

collaborates with the Autonomous Communities, local institutions and private sector in

promotion and marketing programs of their products abroad (Vogeler and Hernandez

1997).

The international campaigns carried out by “Turespaña” act as “umbrella campaigns”

which establish the communication guidelines that, in general, the rest of institutions

which promote the Spanish tourism and image will have to follow (García 2001).

2.3 Why these two advertising campaigns of Spain?

A variety of campaigns have been launched by the National Tourism Board of Spain

(Turespaña) from its creation, each one with its own formats, objectives and strategies.



26

For this research, two posters promoting the sun and beach tourism in Spain will be

analyzed through quantitative techniques in order to know the level of effectiveness of

these two ads in the German market.

Sun and beach destinations are the most important in Spain, both in terms of national

and international tourism. In recent years, this destination has slowed particularly in the

Balearic Islands due to the presence of new markets at a reasonable price; this makes

that many tourists replaced the Spanish coasts for other destinations, such as Tunisia,

Morocco or the Caribbean (Garrido et al. 2007).

The main problem of tourism advertising in Spain is the low level of differentiation

among the advertising campaigns undertaken by various sun and beach destinations

(Garrido et al. 2007); due to the fact that people do not have enough memory or

retention capacity to remember all the goods or services that organizations offer. For

this reason, the corporate image becomes crucial (Capriotti 1999). In fact, since the

eighties the corporate image of Spain as a tourist destination has been strengthened by

its logo designed by Joan Miró, and has been used in all advertising campaigns carried

out by “Turespaña”. The painter Miró reflects the real image of Spain representing the

sun and the bullring (Morgan and Pritchard 2004).

In this sense, the author has chosen two campaigns based on sun and beach,

“Everything under the sun” and “I need Spain” to carry out the analysis, which can be

seen below.

´Everything under the sun´ , the first of the advertisements used for the research has

been the most famous of all Spanish branding campaigns, turning Spain into the world´s

favorite sun & beach destination choices from the 80s till the 90s. In fact, the slogan

´Everything under the sun´ tried to show the world the variety of tourism offers,

including culture, sporting possibilities, etc; being its perception very different, and

positioning Spain mainly, as a sun and beach destination (Lennon, J., et al, 2006).



27

Figure 2.2 Advertising campaign: “Everything under the sun”

Source: Instituto de Estudios Turísticos (1990)

This trend changed in the early 1990s focusing the Spanish promotional strategy on

competitiveness, on environmental sustainability and quality tourism with higher value

added. Advertising campaigns were launched to the main outbound markets to promote

specific segments such as cultural tourism, sport holidays, health spas and eco-tourism

(Morgan et al. 2004).

The new thinking promoted by the “Plan Integral de Calidad Turistica PICTE 2000-

2006” which addresses the quality in the Spanish tourism, was focused in differentiating

Spain from its competitors, and persuade tourists that the country had much more to

offer than just beach holidays. Also, an effort was made by the National Tourism Board

“Turespaña” to work all the actors involved together in the tourism sector, such as the

autonomous communities, local authorities and the private sector in order to produce a

comprehensive plan to promote Spain (Morgan et al. 2004).



28

According to the “Plan Operativo de la Secretaria General de Turismo” (edited by

“Turespaña”) in 2008 (Operational Plan of the General Secretariat of Tourism), there is

a new type of consumer who changes from a traditional to an experiential consumption.

This situation represents a challenge for both traditional products and destinations,

which must evolve to maintain and improve the value of its business. This Plan explains

that Spain is based on a type of consumption that introduces emotional values and

increased customization for each tourist. The diversity of Spain and the tourist offer can

propose ways for different types of tourists with completely different behaviour

profiles, attitudes and motivations.

The second of the advertisements object of study is the new campaign of the National

Tourism Board of Spain (Turespaña) “I need Spain”, which replaces the previous

advertisement “Smile, you are in Spain”, aims to strengthen the leadership of Spain as a

tourist destination through its diverse offer and, at the same time, positioning Spain as a

sun and beach destination.

This campaign was presented during 2010 with a clear message focusing on the lifestyle

of Spain - “experience Spain”-, highlighting one of the main added values of Spain: the

quality of life, to transmit experiences, sensations and feelings that encourage potential

source markets to visit Spain. Figure 3 shows the new campaign “I need Spain”

conducted by “Turespaña”, based on the experiential value as a marketing strategy.



29

Figure 2.3 Advertising campaign: “I need Spain”

Source: www.tourspain.es (2010)

In this sense, the campaign is expected to reach 400 million people in over 40

countries, with a main goal: to convey an image of Spain as a global destination,

including regions where the image and positioning of Spain is weaker, such as China,

India, Middle East, South America or the U.S.A. This media campaign has adapted to

the specific characteristics of each source market, highlighting promotional spots, for

example, to the Asian market, new in the promotion of tourism in Spain (Plan Operativo

de la Secretaria General de Turismo, 2008, edited by “Turespaña”).

http://www.tourspain.es/



30

2.4 German Market

One of the main reasons why Germany has been chosen in this research as a case study

is that Spain remains the number one country for the German market with over 11% of

total tourism expenditure, not being the year 2009 positive for this market given that the

budget of tourists decreased by 6%.

The intention of this research will be to explain the impact of the Spanish

advertisements in the German market, and whether this market chose the destinations

according to traditional or experiential stimuli. This section presents statistical figures

regarding the importance of the German market in the tourist arrivals in Spain.

According to the German Travel Monitor, German people made a total of 302 million €

trips (domestic and international, of one night or longer) in 2008, an increase of 2%

over the previous year – compared with a 4% increase in 2007. Overnight volume

increased by 5% to 1.8 billion €, and spending rose by 6% to 134 billion € – a much

more dynamic performance than last year´s 1% increase, which was not even enough to

keep pace with inflation. Some three quarters of these trips were domestic, with only

25% going to foreign destinations.

Figure 2.4 Outbound and Domestic Travel in the German market (2000 – 2008)

Source: German Travel Monitor, IPK International (2009)



31

The total number of domestic trips increased to 226 million € in 2008. With a 6%

increase in nights spent on these trips, the average length of domestic trips increased

slightly to 3.5 nights, reversing a significant decline in 2007. Spending on domestic

trips rose by 6% to 66 billion €.

The top seven holiday destinations for German outbound travelers –which account for

slightly over two thirds of total trips – are all within Europe. Demand for what used to

be the top four – Spain, Austria, Italy and France – has tended to slip in recent years,

and in 2008 Turkey overtook France. In 2008 the Netherlands and Switzerland in

seventh place, even though trips to Greece declined by 4%. The fact that Spain is the

first leading destination in the German market has been the reason why the researcher

chose to focus the research in this market. Table 1 shows the top seven destinations in

the German outbound market in 2008.

Table 2.1: Leading destinations of German outbound holiday travellers (2008)

Top 7 Destinations % Market share % Change in 2007

1. Spain 17 1

2. Austria 15 5

3. Italy 14 5

4. Turkey 8 10

5. France 6 -10

6. Netherlands 4 -9

7. Greece 4 -4

Source: German Travel Monitor, IPK International (2009)



32

According to this report about the situation of German outbound market developed by

the Spanish Office of Tourism in Munich (2009), the economic conditions in 2009 for

consumption and tourism for this market have been complicated.

Despite the deep recession and the great confusion in consumption, Germany has

achieved the first place in Tourism (measured from absolute expenditure for tourism)

ahead of U.S., Britain and China. Anyway, the importance given to price is palpable

when choosing holiday destinations. The trend of cheap travel destinations clearly

reflects the balance of tourism in Germany in 2009.

Summary

The study and analysis of advertising and marketing has given rise to several lines of

research. Advertising plays an important role in the promotion of tourism destinations,

because it generates awareness of the destinations as possible places to visit, creating

positive images of the destinations and thus motivating tourists to travel to those

countries. Through its advertising campaigns, “Turespaña” is promoting Spain abroad

as a potential tourism destination from a new approach, based on living unique

experiences. The next chapter will explain the main characteristics of this new

marketing approach.



33

CHAPTER 3 – THE EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING

Introduction

This chapter presents a thorough review of the body of knowledge based on the concept

of experiential marketing. The main attention is focused in a new marketing approach

related with experiences, emotions and feelings; and how this marketing approach is

being used by the advertising campaigns of Spain for its promotion abroad.

3.1 What is an experience?

Before explaining the meaning of the experiential marketing, it is essential to define the

concept of experience. “Experience is the collection of points at which companies and

consumers exchange sensory stimuli, information and emotion” (Robinette et al. 2001).

Glaesser (2006: 70-71) explains experience as “the total of all ideas and perceptions

which a person or group of people connect to a particular object. It is based on

cognitively recorded, learnt and examinable facts and the connection with subjective,

emotionally loaded interpretations of certain characteristics of the object or service in

question”. Besides, Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) define experiences as emotions

which are indispensable part of the organisation of daily life; e.g., feelings of sadness,

happiness, commitment, fear, etc.

In this case, Glaesser (2006) explains how the experience can be used to achieve a

differentiation in the additional benefits of the product or service, and so to attain a

unique position in the consumer´s world. This is a competitive advantage that is

obtained through the establishment of additional and sustained emotional benefits

(Glaesser 2006). This idea is strengthened by Schmitt (1999) who suggests that “the

experiential marketing” is based on the introduction of emotions to establish a brand

relationship with customers through the creation of “Customer experience”.



34

The efforts to attain a differentiation within the area of additional benefits can be

observed, for example, in Spain –the traditional destination for beach holidays – where

emotional dimensions are constantly emphasized within the strategic marketing

measures, for example, promoting the country through the five senses.

3.2 The Experiential Marketing. Concept

Schmitt (1999) argues that marketing has progressed into a new stage, which focuses on

experiences. The concept of experiential marketing is helpful for companies to find

market niches through emotions instead of competing in price or products.

The Experiential Marketing is understood from two perspectives. On one hand,

Experiential Marketing is a revolutionary concept in marketing thinking that allows

marketers to move beyond the traditional “feature and benefit” approach and focus on

creating fresh connections between brands and consumers based on experiences and

feelings (Schmitt 1999). On the other hand, it´s a concept as old as time – it is all about

letting people enjoy the benefit of a product, service or brand before actually becoming

a customer- (Glaesser 2006).

A great experiential marketing campaign even inspires people to come together and

share those experiences with each other (Schmitt, 1999; Lenderman and Sánchez 2008).

Thus, Schmitt (1999) proposed the strategic experiential modules (SEM), which include

sense, feel, think, act and relate as the basis of experiential marketing. When using a

particular SEM, managers need to give careful consideration to its objectives and

principles. For each SEM, there is a set of concepts, techniques and tools that managers

can use when they have decided to use a certain SEM (Schmitt 1999). The five different

strategic experiential modules are explained in more detail below:

- “Sense” marketing appeals to the sense and tries to create sensory experiences

by stimulating sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell (Schmitt 1999). Sense ad

campaigns are dynamic, with fast-paced, fast-cut images and music (Schmitt

1999 cited Pot 2005).



35

- “Feel” marketing appeals to customers‟ inner feelings and emotions, with the

objective of creating affective experiences that range from mildly positive

moods to strong emotions of joy and pride. For example, when the marketer is

thinking in terms of product and brands, he creates a general positive or negative

feeling, a like/dislike affect at the side of customers.

However the strongest emotions of joy and distress, happiness and resentment,

satisfaction and fear, relief and disappointment are created when a consumer can

use the product and experience the brand. Feel advertisements are often slice-of-

life ads and slowly build emotion by drawing the viewer in. Moreover, in

consumption situations, face-to -face interactions are the most important because

they involve strong feelings (Schmitt 1999 cited Pot 2005).

- „Think” marketing appeals to the intellect with the objective of creating

cognitive, problem-solving experiences that engage customers creatively‟

(Schmitt 1999: 67). By surprising, intriguing, and provoking, customer‟s are

involved in convergent (analytical reasoning or probabilistic thinking) and

divergent (associative) thinking (Schmitt 1999 cited Pot 2005).

- “Act” marketing targets to shape body experiences, lifestyles, and interactions in

order to enrich the lives of consumers (Schmitt 1999). In addition, their physical

experiences are enhanced, by showing alternative ways of doing things,

alternative lifestyles, and interactions. Body signals, environments that are

affecting the brand, incorporation of various act components and the suggestion

of an entire lifestyle or the use of norms and role models are examples of act

marketing tools (Schmitt 1999 cited Pot 2005).

- „Relate marketing expands beyond the individual‟s personal, private feelings,

thus adding to „individuals' experiences‟ and relating the individual to his or her

ideal self, other people, or cultures‟ (Schmitt 1999: 68). As such, persons or

groups to which the customer wants to relate to are shown during these

campaigns (Schmitt 1999 cited Pot 2005).



36

Also Kotler (1999) explains the need to ensure that in each of the moments of truth,

moments in which the customer interacts with people in the organization, can get a

positive perception. Five years later, in 2004, Kotler refers to Experiential Marketing as

the ability to offer a high quality service each time when the customer interacts with the

brand.

3.3 Experience economy

Pine II and Gilmore (1998) present experiences as a new economic value that it has

progressed from an economy of commodities, goods and services to an experience

dimension. These authors start from the premise that low-price competition is difficult

and it is necessary to find new ways to bring value to companies. This concept focuses

on the customer, and claim that customer experiences generate economic value.

Therefore, Pine II and Gilmore (1998), describe six different features of an experience.

First of all, experiences need to be worth remembering. Secondly, experiences need to

be focused on an appropriate theme, which characterizes the company and appeals to

customers. Thirdly, negative elements which can divert the customers´ attention from

the experience need to be removed. Fourthly, experiences need to appeal to as many

customers´ senses as possible. Fifthly, since every experience is the consequence of an

interaction between an organized event and the (emotional, mental, physical, etc.)

condition of the customer at the time of the interaction, every experience is personal.

Finally, Pine II and Gilmore (1998) suggest that customers need to pay for experiences.

According to their viewpoint, as long as a company does not ask a price for an

experience, the experience cannot be considered as a proper economic offering.

3.3 Customer Experience

The consumer has become, for various reasons, in the main character in contemporary

society. Related to this and according to Garrido et al (2007), “the tourist is also a

consumer, a consumer of experiences”.



37

The concept of customer experience was formulated by Holbrook and Hirschman as a

new experiential approach to consumer behavior. Until then, the consumer was

considered to be a rational decision-taken; however, Holbrook and Hirschman (1982)

stated that in contrast to this rational approach, some consumption activities were better

explained by an experiential approach.

Schifferstein (2007) suggests that experiential elements are changing by the influence of

emergent trends, being now more persuasive, holistic, customized, interactive and

transient.

The consumer´s desire have increased based on holistic experiences that provoke the

immersion in their senses, evoke emotion, and stimulate their thinking, resulting in

more rewarding and memorable encounters (Schmitt 1999; Pine II and Gilmore 1998).

These emergent trends show the expectation and desires of the new consumer.

Schmitt (1999) and Lindstrom (2005) argue that a customer is often attracted towards a

brand based upon its sensory experience. In the case of Spain, it has been developed

through the search for greater personal development, (Camino de Santiago), the

attended rest (Spa La Toja), sun and beach (Benidorm), fun (Ibiza), culture

(Salamanca), nature (Asturias) or purchases (Madrid).

Consumers now expect a compelling experience which they cannot get elsewhere.

Schmitt (1999) suggests that the better way to create an emotional experience for a

target audience is through living a unique experience which engages, involves,

entertains and educates the customer while exposing them to the brand. Experience is

usually motivated by extrinsic stimuli; thus, marketers should provide experiential

stimuli to consumers (Schmitt 1999).

In other sense, attending to the consumers´ purchase decisions, they are not only taken

by a rational or logical thinking, but also may be driven by affects and emotions

(Holbrook and Hirschman 1982).



38

3.5 Experience as a competitive value

Destinations traditionally classified in the literature and in business practice as “sun and

beach”, are implementing new strategies that allow them to remain competitive in the

market. Some destinations are beginning to employ the use of communication and

marketing strategies focused on the different emotions that the tourist experience evokes

(Küster et al. 2009). In fact, this author argues that the research of emotions in the

tourism sector is essential because the enjoyment is based on the experience and

involvement of the tourist.

The good experiences, based on different emotions, surprises and sensations, is much

more durable, more powerful and potentially better communicator than traditional

communication systems to which people are accustomed, and in some cases cause a

certain rejection (Segura and Garriga 2008).

The experiential literature suggests that the experiential marketing is related to the

customer experience and its adding values. For example, in view of the tourism

research, cultural tourists visit a particular destination mainly for the experiential value

of tourism attractions (Ivanovic 2009).

Mathwick et al. (2001 cited Williams and Uysal 2004) explain that the value in a

consumption experience is derived by interaction involving goods and services.

Whereas extrinsic benefit is usually derived from buying experiences that are utilitarian

in nature, intrinsic value is derived from the appreciation of the experience itself.

In addition, Lindgreen et al. (2009) argues that what makes an experience memorable is

related with internalized values, and these values are also related directly with the

memories of an experience. Three factors underlie the internalized value of experiential

marketing (Lindgreen et al. 2009).

In the first place, these authors suggest that the internalized value is affected by the

consumers‟ personal connectivity with an experiential offering, because it relates to

some important aspects of their lives, allowing consumers to participate in the “real”, or

at least what they perceive as real, experiencing unmediated desire.



39

Secondly, the internalized value is affected also by the extraordinary characteristics of

an experiential offering. The value of an experiential offering is not merely that it

provides an escape, but also that it allows for a sense of discovery. Thirdly, the

internalized value depends on the social connectivity of the experience. The internalized

value of an experiential offering seems to increase when consumers can talk about it

with others before, during, and after the engagement.

Robinette et al. (2001) explain experience as part of the emotional value explained by

the Hallmarkt Value Star. This model makes an important distinction between the

rational and emotional values, based on five points: Cost (Money and Energy) and

Benefit (Product, Equity, and Experience). The emotional components have been called

by Hallmark as “the Emotional Es”. These authors explain the “Emotional Es” as

emotional values not only provide opportunities for clear differentiation from the

competition, but also drive the majority of decisions to purchase.

Figure 3.1 Hallmarkt Star Value

Source: Robinette et al. (2001)

VALUE

RATIONAL EMOTIONAL

Product

Money

Experience

(relationship)

Energy

Equity



40

However, why is experience so important? This is one of the questions that many

researchers made. There is no better way to offer a value than creating an experience

that lets people interact with the company (Robinette et al. 2001). This question can be

answered by the memorable experience model. This model is based on four memories

that customers can form, depending on the effectiveness and interaction of the

emotional and rational experience: delighted, dissatisfied, dysfunctional and directed

(Lindgreen, et al. 2009).

These authors explain this model arguing that it is the process that customers remember

being full of joy or pleasure. Customers form this memory when the experience evokes

the desired emotion while enabling the customer´s performance. The result is that we

expect customers to say, “Wow! That was great!” when the experience concludes

(Lindgreen et al. 2009).

3.6 Experiential attitude

“Attitude is the enduring and consistent behavioral tendency toward an object, such as a

person, a brand, or an event” (Kao et al. 2007: 84). This author argues that attitude

focuses on affect or feelings, and it is also an important variable to predict behaviours.

Therefore, attitude is used in this research as a mediator in the experiential process,

being defined the experiential attitude by Kao et al. (2007: 84) “as consumers‟ positive

or negative behavioural tendency towards experienced stimuli during consumption

processes”.

Therefore, positive emotions aroused by external stimuli would generate positive

feelings towards the stimuli and thus positively affect experiential attitude. That is,

emotional experiences will positively affect experiential attitudes. There is a positive

relationship between emotional experiences and consumers‟ experiential attitudes (Kao

et al. 2007). This author reinforces the idea that emotions and experiences are essential

part of the decision making process.



41

This experiential value will be one of the main variables used in the research. The

influence of this variable in the target audience will be crucial to determine the

effectiveness of the experiential ad “I need Spain” used in the research.

Summary

This chapter has presented the literature review on the most important aspects of a

marketing approach – the experiential marketing-. This new approach has added a new

value to products and services through the experience´s element as a means to influence

consumer choice. Firstly, a background of the experiential marketing has been

presented. Secondly, different theoretical views of the economy experience and

customer experience have been considered. Finally, the experiential value according to

this marketing approach has been explained.

The next chapter will continue with the literature review on different techniques to

measure the effectiveness of the traditional and experiential advertising.

“Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand”.

Confucius, 450 B.C



42

CHAPTER 4 - ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS

Introduction

The research continues with the literature review in the field of advertising, identifying

what constitutes “advertising effectiveness”. The author will focus on the main

techniques that have been used in the research to measure the effectiveness of both

traditional and experiential advertisements used by “Turespaña”. These techniques will

analyze the components of the consumer´s attitude - cognitive, affective and

behavioural – and the influence of these components towards the advertisement.

4.1 Advertising Effectiveness. Concept

The concept of advertising effectiveness is usually used to measure the results of an

advertising campaign or an advertisement, and is also related with the advertising

message and the media plan (Beerli and Martín 1999).

In recent years, due to increased advertising campaigns, the evaluation of the

advertising effectiveness is shaped as a key element in determining whether or not it has

achieved the objectives set, calculating the profitability of these investments, and to

assure with a major probability the success of future campaigns (Paz Aparicio et al.

2000).

4.1.1 Actors of advertising effectiveness

The effectiveness in the advertising activities is affected by a series of actors -

consumer, advertisement, product/service, medium and environment-. In the praxis, the

advertising effectiveness is related with the interactions of these actors. In a narrow

sense, the advertising effectiveness means only the effectiveness of the advertisement,

which considers only the interaction between the consumer and advertisement excluding

factors of product/service, medium and environment (Cao 1999).



43

This author explains those actors that considers not be included in the advertising

effectiveness arguing that the product/service represent the motivation of the

advertising; Cao (1999) understands the medium (newspapers, magazines, radio, TV,

direct mail, Internet, outdoor) as the carrier of the advertising message.

The first criterion for effectiveness is that enough numbers of the target audience should

get to see or hear the advertisement, which is mostly decided by the nature of the

medium. Finally, the environment includes other factors around the medium that can

affect the advertising (Cao 1999). The following table represents the different actors and

factors involved in the advertising effectiveness.

Table 4.1 Actors and factors of advertising effectiveness

Actors Factors

Consumer - Resources

- Knowledge

- Attitude

- Personality

- Personal value

- Lifestyle

Advertising - Type

- Physical factors

- Content

Product/Service - Category

- Brand

- Information

Medium - Type

- Abilities

Environment - Culture

- Cognitive component (Beliefs)

- Affective component (Feelings)

- Conative component (Behaviour)



44

- Social class

- Personal influence

- Family

- Situation

Source: Adapted from Coen (1999)

4.1.2 Components of consumer´s attitude

The author considers that the components of attitude are essential to understand the

influence of advertisements analyzed in the consumer´s responses. The components of

consumer´s attitude will be the focus of the research.

According to Van Wely and Ireland (2004), an attitude comprises three components.

Firstly, the cognitive component, which represents the thinking part of an opinion

towards an attitude object, reflects beliefs and knowledge about the affective object.

Secondly, the affective component consists of feelings or an emotional response

towards an attitude object. Finally, the behavioural component concerns how a person

intends to behave towards an attitude object, including the purchase intention. These

three components are represented in the Figure below.

Figure 4.1 Components of consumer´s attitude

Source: Dierks (2005) – Modified from Engel et al. (1993: 323)

Cognitive

Component

Affective

Component

Conative

Component

Belief Attitude Intention

Behavior



45

Based on these criteria, the classification of the evaluation techniques of advertising

effectiveness is the following (Bendixen 1993; Moliner 1996; Beerli and Martín 1999).

- Techniques for measuring the cognitive components: These techniques

measure the ability of an ad to attract the attention of potential consumers as

well as knowledge and understanding they have of it. These techniques can also

measure the ability of ads to be memorized and convey the message desired by

the advertisers.

- Techniques for measuring the affective components: These techniques are

used to measure the consumer´s feelings of like or dislike towards an object

(Dierks et al. 2005). These techniques are usually applied to those ads pursued

in an effective response on the part of consumers, such as interest. Consumers

are already aware of the existence of the brand.

- Techniques for measuring the behavioural components. It refers to the

consumer´s action or behavioural tendencies towards the attitude object and is

also known as the intention stage. (Engel et al. 1993: 323).These techniques are

used to measure the response of individuals, not only in terms of purchase, but

also the willingness of individuals to act in the direction wanted, e.g. for

measuring the desire (purchase intention) and also action.

4.2 Control of Advertising

According to Beerli and Martín (1999), the control of advertising allows evaluate

whether the advertising actions undertaken by a company have achieved their

objectives. However, the advertising control is used to measure the following aspects:

1. The achievement of the objectives set

2. To get relevant information to make decisions about future actions

3. To determine the profitability of the advertising investments



46

4. To determine the impact and influence of the advertising campaign in target

audience

According to Aaker, Batra and Myers (1992), the advertising control can be performed

at four different times of the process of creating the ad campaign:

1. At the beginning of the creative stage

2. At the end of the creative stage

3. At the end of the production stage

4. At the beginning, during and after the campaign has been launched.

The tests performed in the first three stages are called “pre-test advertising” and have a

diagnostic function, and those in the last stages are known as “post-test advertising” and

have an assessment function. The next section explains the different techniques to

measure the advertising effectiveness, and especially those used by the author to

analyze the promotional advertisements of Spain.

4.3 Advertising Effectiveness measures

According to Beerli and Martín (1999) to assess the success or failure of an advertising

campaign it is necessary to know the possible responses of individuals towards

advertising. When a person is exposed to an ad, he/she must go through a process and

their answers will be linked to the stage of the process where they are; it is a valid

criterion for grouping the techniques of advertising effectiveness in three main stages:

the cognitive stage, affective stage and conative stage (Beerli and Martín 1999; Lavidge

and Steiner 1961). In other sense, these three stages of advertising effectiveness have

been understood by Lambin (1995) as communication or perceptual effectiveness,

efficiency and effectiveness behavioural psychology.



47

Beerli and Martin (1999) explain that there is a general consensus among academic

researchers and professionals about the techniques used to measure the effectiveness of

the advertising based on these three components -cognitive, affective and

behavioural/conative- , which are presented in the following section.

4.3.1 Cognitive techniques of advertising effectiveness

Beerli and Martín (1999) present this stage based on techniques to measure the ability

of ads to get attention, to be memorized and to transmit the message you want to

communicate, analysing the degree of knowledge and understanding what individuals

think about the ads. These authors classify the cognitive techniques as follows (Beerli

and Martin 1999):

A. Physiological measures, mechanical or laboratory. These are used mainly in

advertising pretest, consisting of the use of a series of mechanical devices that

record the emotional reactions of individuals who are exposed to a particular

advertising stimulus.

B. Semi-physiological measures. These measures differ from the previous one in

that the individuals have full control to set their response. They are used, as in

the previous case, as devices or procedures to measure the response of

individuals to advertising stimuli.

C. Index of reading. It is about indexes used to assess the ease, dynamism and

comprehensibility of the written part of an ad, and can be applied as pretest

advertising (Flesh index, Hass index and Cloze Method).

D. Brand awareness measures. This measure assesses the simplest level of

cognitive response, e.g. awareness by the individual of the existence of a

product, brand or company. The following types of measures of recognition can

be distinguished: top of the mind, spontaneous notoriety and suggested

notoriety.



48

E. Measures based on memory. These measures determine the intensity of the

impact of a message through the public´s ability to remember and recognize.

(Díez de Castro and Martín Armario 1993; Bendixen 1993; Moliner 1996;

Perreault and Pettigrew 1998; Beerli and Martin 1999).

This measure includes two phases: (1) test of memory, which is done by choosing a

sample of people under the action of a series of ads, and (2) requesting information

about what they remember of each one (Martin 1999).

To measure the effectiveness of ads in the cognitive stage, the author has decided to use

measures based on memory, given that the aim is to demonstrate that experiential ads of

Spain will be able to obtain better levels of brand recall that previously ads based on

traditional methods. For the research, and for a printed advertising, the author has found

that the most appropriate technique to measure the cognitive stage is the “test of

memory”.

4.3.2 Affective techniques of advertising effectiveness

According to Beerli and Martín (1999), the use of this type of measurement techniques

are justified by the fact that one of the aims of advertising is to modify in a positive way

the behaviour of consumers towards the brand. Gorn (1982) suggests that affective

executions of ads lead to a more favourable attitude towards the product, because the

liking for an advertisement gets conditioned into the brand itself and becomes part of

the attitude towards the brand.

These techniques are often used when the objective of an advertisement or advertising

campaign is to get an emotional response by the consumer, once it is already aware of

the existence of the brand or product advertised (Beerli and Martín 1999). These authors

classify the affective techniques as follows:

Opinion measures: These techniques are very simple and try to know directly the

opinion of the individuals about the advertisements or advertising campaigns to test.

Stresses “the liking”, which is the easiest way to measure the attitude towards a

particular object (advertisement, product, brand…).



49

The measures that can be used to measure liking are: the dichotomous question (yes/no)

or the scale of 1-10 points on a single item.

Attitude measures: These techniques attempt to measure not only the different

dimensions of individual´s feelings towards the object to be tested, but also the intensity

of those feelings. Likert scales can be used to quantify the attitudes of individuals

(degree of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements), semantic differential

(of pairs of adjectives with opposite meanings), and even the scales of order (Beerli and

Martin 1999). In order to measure the advertising effectiveness the more useful

measures are the individual´s attitude towards the ad and the individual´s attitude

towards the brand.

The attitude of individuals towards the advertisements and the brand will be very

important variables in the research, helping the author to analyze the difference of both

advertisements “Everything under the sun” and “I need Spain”.

To measure an individual´s attitude towards a brand, seeks to assess the extent to

which the opinion is favourable to the brand or the individual object of analysis

in relation to other competitors, whether the individual has any intention of

buying it or not.

The individual´s attitude towards the ad is a variable consisting of two clearly

different components: the affective or emotional component, which refers to the

feelings that individuals may experience individually during the exposure to the

ad, such as nostalgic, joy, etc., and cognitive or evaluative component, which

reflects the views of the individual over the ad´s quality, the degree of

information provided and its usefulness.

Beerli and Martin (1999) introduce the idea that the behaviour´s choice of a consumer

towards the brand can be influenced by the attitude to advertising stimuli. This

contradicts the theory of Ajzen and Fishbein‟s attitude (1980), who believed that

cognitive reactions to brands are the only factor influencing the change and attitude

formation.



50

Analyzing the different definitions of attitude toward the advertisement, it can be seen

that this concept has been discussed from two points of view. The first is the attitude

toward the ad from a one-dimensional approach and an affective view. The second

approach considers that the attitude towards the advertisement cannot be analyzed

globally, but must be viewed from a multidimensional perspective. These two

perspectives are developed below.

From a one-dimensional approach, Lutz, MacKenzie and Belch (1983) consider the

attitude toward the ad as the satisfaction´s index. This definition is purely emotional

and does not include cognitive and behaviour components (Gardner 1983; Kempf and

Smith 1998; MacKenzie and Lutz 1989; MacKenzie, Lutz and Belch 1986; MacKenzie

and Spreng 1992).

The analysis of this definition argues that the attitude towards the ad does not generate

the maximum impact on consumer responses at the time of exposure or immediately

after the advertisement, and secondly, it focuses on a particular exposure to a particular

advertisement.

In contrast, the multi-dimensional approach, Baker and Churchill (1977) explain that the

attitude towards the ad consists of three components: cognitive, affective and

behavioral.

The most appropriate technique to measure the affective component of the attitude of an

individual to a specific ad is “the emotional Quotient Scale (EQ)” designed by Wells in

1964.

4.3.3 Conative techniques of advertising effectiveness

These techniques let to know the effects of advertising campaigns or advertisements

when the consumer acquired a particular good or service. These techniques are used to

measure the consumer response in terms of purchase (Beerli and Martín 1999). The

conative or behavioural component is frequently treated as an expression of the

consumer´s intention to buy (Schiffman et al. 2008). Beerli and Martin (1999) classify

the conative techniques as follows:



51

Measures of purchase intention: These measures quantify the probability that a person

try or buy the product or service in a near future, as a result of exposure to the

advertisement. The most common way to measure the purchase intention is through an

attitude scale of a single item, asking directly the consumers whether they have any

intention to buy, try or use the product in a near future (Beerli and Martin 1999).

Response measures of individuals to direct marketing activities. These measures are

used to evaluate the achievement of the objectives of the campaigns that, on the one

hand, they pursue a certain conduct by the individual, and on the other hand, they

incorporate into its design some mechanism to evaluate the effectiveness of direct

marketing campaigns.

Measures of sales. According to Beerli and Martin (1999) is difficult to establish a

direct relationship between sales and advertising; however, there are some experiments

in order to know the relationship between sales and advertising, such as simulated

experiments or split –scan testing.

This research will use these techniques in order to analyze these different components –

cognitive, affective and behavioural/conative- as variables of the research.

Summary

This chapter has reviewed the concept of advertising effectiveness. Once the

background is defined, a detailed description of the main techniques to measure the

effectiveness of the promotional advertisements of Spain is given, identifying at the

same time the components of consumer´s attitude.

The next chapter explains the methodology used by the author in order to accomplish

the aim and objectives of the research.



52

CHAPTER 5 - METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology used in the research in order to achieve the

research aim and objectives. Once the author has established the aim and objectives of

the research, the hypothesis will be presented. Secondly, it will be proceed to explain

the secondary and primary research and the analysis of the data. The limitations

occurred during the research will also be mentioned at the end of this chapter.

5.1 Research

This research is based on a deductive approach, which taking the existing body of

theoretical and empirical knowledge as its primary starting point with the finally of

implement or refine the existing theory, or to develop a new one (Brotherton 2008). The

research takes as the main aim and objectives the follows.

5.2 Research aim and objectives

The overall aim of this research is to analyse the effectiveness of the experiential

advertising used in Spain to promote the destination abroad, comparing experiential

advertising with the traditional advertising used from the 80s to the present. In order to

achieve this aim, the objectives of this research will be:

To examine two different advertising campaigns of Spain, focusing on the

traditional and experiential dimension.

To study the impact of the experiential value on the German market.

To establish which of both traditional and experiential advertising is more

effective to promote Spain as a tourist destination.



53

5.3 Hypotheses

“A hypothesis expresses a prediction of what we would expect to find if the theory

proves to be sound” (Brotherton 2008: 90).

In Chapter four, the components of attitude were presented as variables of the research.

The promotional advertisements of Spain used in the research are analysed according to

the cognitive, affective and conative/behavioural components in order to know the

influence of its attitudes, positives or negatives, towards the advertisements and brand.

These hypotheses try to compare which of both campaigns used in the research is more

effective to promote Spain; the author will compare both, referring to each one as the

traditional campaign “Everything under the sun” and the experiential campaign “I need

Spain”.

5.3.1 Cognitive Component

Van Wely and Ireland (2004) explain that the cognitive component represents the

thinking part of an opinion towards an attitude object. In order to analyze the cognitive

approach, the author establishes the following hypothesis:

H1: The cognitive component of the advertisement “I need Spain” is more

positive than the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

To measure the effectiveness of the cognitive component, the author has used the test of

memory. As mentioned above, this technique is useful to determine the impact of a

message through the public´s ability to remember and to recognize it (Beerli and Martin

1999).

H2: The traditional advertisement of Spain “Everything under the sun” has a

higher remember and recognition’s rate than the advertisement “I need Spain”.

To this variable of remember of the advertisement it is necessary to add two others: the

answers of cognitive and affective character argued by Batra and Ray (1986):



54

H3: The answers generated both cognitive and affective by individuals after the

ad exposure, influence more positive in the attitude towards the advertisement

“I need Spain” than the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

5.3.2 Affective Component

Secondly, the affective component represents the thinking part of an opinion towards an

attitude object (mentioned above in Chapter four). Stout and Leckenby (1988) explain,

that consumers who experience emotions, have an attitude more favourable toward the

advertisement. These statements can be argued as follows:

H4: The experiential advertisement creates in the individual an attitude toward

the ad more positive than a traditional advertisement.

It has been demonstrated that the emotional ads help to build more positive attitudes

toward the advertisement than if they were informative ads (Mitchell and Olson 1981).

These authors propose that a positive assessment of the ads becomes in a positive

attitude toward the brand.

According to Beerli and Martin (1999), the opinion techniques are used to measure the

affective component of consumer´s attitude. This technique measures directly the

positive or negative opinion of the individuals towards the advertisements. This

statement can be argued as follows:


respondents than the image of the advertisement “Everything of the Sun”.

5.3.3 Conative Component

The third aspect refers to the conative or behavioural component, and it is related to

behaviour and the purchase intention. Smith and Wortzel (1997) argue that the attitude

toward the ad has a significant influence on this variable. In contrast, Lord et al. (1995)

explain that the attitude toward the brand on purchase intention is higher than the

attitude toward the advertisement.



55

H6: The attitude toward the advertisement generated by the ad “Everything

under the sun” influences more positively in the purchase intention of the

consumer than the advertisement “I need Spain”

Therefore, the author has used other variables to compare the effectiveness of both

traditional and experiential advertisements.

The destination image, as mentioned above in Chapter two, plays an essential role on

consumers´ behaviour. This variable helps to create a mental picture of the destination

(Alhemound and Armstrong 1996), representing the real image of the place.

H7: The advertisement “I need Spain” is more effective to represent the image

of Spain than the advertisement “Everything under the sun”

The central purpose of all these hypotheses is to verify that experiential advertising is

more effective to promote Spain's image abroad.

5.4 Secondary Research

Creswell (1994) has given a very concise definition of quantitative research as a type of

research that is explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed

using mathematically based methods, and it is useful to quantify opinions, attitudes and

behaviors and find out how the population feels about a certain issue. Poynter (1993)

explains that secondary research implies the compilation of existing literature.

Secondary data consists on the information that has been produced by someone else for

primary usage and is afterwards used by another researcher not associated with the first

project (Jennings 2001). Secondary research is essential to contrast the hypothesis

established at the beginning of the research, since, according to Brunt (1997) practically

no research can be conducted without the benefit of references.

5.4.1 Sources

The author used different types of secondary data during this research, such as books, e-

books, journals, statistics and official publications, professional data from companies

and the Internet.



56

The research was focused in the following topics: the tourist industry, tourism

advertising, advertising effectiveness and experiential marketing. A second literature

review has been conducted regarding the promotional strategies used in Spain to

promote the destination abroad, in order to know the impact of these advertising

campaigns in the German market.

Books and journals: Academic sources such as books, e-books, journals and e-journals

in three languages (English, Spanish and German) have been used for this research.

General books about the selected topics have been provided by the libraries of three

different universities: Dalarna University, Heilbrönn Höchschule and Rey Juan Carlos

University of Madrid. Other libraries were used by the author for the collection of

secondary data Caja Madrid Library in Majadahonda (Madrid, Spain) and Lemos

Library in Monforte de Lemos (Lugo, Spain). Data and articles from journals, such as

Journal of Travel Research, Journal of Advertising Research, World Travel

Organization, have been collected in order to get up-to-date information. According to

Bell (1999) journals is a more updated source of data than books, due to the frequency

of its publication.

Official publications and statistics: The author used secondary data published by

official organizations such as the national tourism boards, Turespaña (Spanish NTO),

the INE (Spanish Statistic Institution), the WTO and the WTTR. This data was mainly

based in brochures and statistics.

Internet: Documents and news from different websites including information and

statistics were very practical for the author, as this data is renewed frequently and can be

accessed worldwide. Meanwhile the author was abroad, Internet has been the main

channel of getting information about the topic.

Dissertations and thesis: Previous research from university students has served to the

author in order to define a structure in different parts of the work, and so to find

interesting bibliographic sources.



57

5.5 Primary Research

According to Clark et al. (1998), primary research refers to the investigation involving

the collection of original information by using an accepted methodology. Burns and

Bush (2000) added that this type of research is done for the precise purpose in order to

answer a specific research difficulty. The use of primary research is essential when the

researcher requires information that does not exist elsewhere (Brunt 1997). Finally,

Silverman (2000) considered that primary research could be divided into two types:

quantitative and qualitative researches that will be explained in detail in the following

section.

The author used the quantitative research for the gathering of primary data. The process

of primary research includes the design and piloting of the questionnaires

5.5.1 Questionnaire Design

“A questionnaire is a printed list of questions that respondents are asked to answer”

(Goddard and Melville 2004).

All of the questions presented in the questionnaire, were designed as close questions to

facilitate the respondents´ task and the later analysis. The weakness of close questions is

that the information is limited and the participants are sometimes forced into an answer

that does not represent completely what they want to say (Veal 2006). However, the

closed questions are easier to quantify than open questions if you are carrying out a

large number of questionnaires (Rayner et al. 2001). According to Goddard and

Melville (2004) closed questions often use a four-point scale to force a decision, while a

five-point scale allows the possibility of a neutral answer. In this research, the author

has chosen the five-point scale: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) indifference, (4)

agree, and (5) strongly agree.

To measure the following variable: attitude towards the advertisement, the author used

some procedures such as the opposite adjectives based on in the literature review

presented below.



58

Considering the attitude toward the advertisement, the analysis of earlier research that

has addressed this variable (Beerli and Martí 1999; Cox and Cox 1988; Gardner 1983;

Graeff 1997; Homer, 1990; Kardes, 1988; Kempf and Smith 1998; MacKenzie and Lutz

1989; MacKenzie and Spreng 1992; Ray and Batra 1994; Yi 1990), shows that the best

way to analyse the consumer´s attitude towards the advertisement is through two

appositive adjectives.

The advertisements presents a set of questions which contain the opposite adjectives to

measure the consumer´s attitude towards the advertisement, e.g. 10 items based on

Wells 1964, Madden et al. 1988; Olney et al. 1991: disgusting/nice,

unattractive/attractive, not interesting/interesting, not informative/informative,

unconvincing/convincing, empty of meaning/full of meaning, not important/important,

unrealistic/realistic, not creative/creative, without life/full of life, difficult to

understand/easy to understand; and recognition of the advertisement.

In the case of the attitude towards the ad, it was found in the studies reviewed (Beerli

and Martín 1999; Cox and Cox 1988; Gardner, 1983; Hill, 1989; MacKenzie and Lutz

1989; MacKenzie and Spreng 1992; Wansink, Ray and Batra 1994; Yi, 1990) that the

pairs of adjectives used to measure the liking technique is the following: I do not like

anything/ I like it.

5.5.2 Sample

A total of two print advertisements of Spain, based on sun and beach, were presented to

a representative sample of 122 people in Germany (65 man and 57 women) used as

stimuli. The picture A belongs to the advertising campaign “Everything under the sun”,

and the picture B belongs to the last advertising campaign of Spain used in the main

European outbound markets with the slogan “I need Spain”.

Respondents were aged between 18 and 65+, and were selected following a quota

sampling procedure, using age and whether they have visited Spain or not as quota

variables.



59

5.5.3 Data Collection

In the first stage of the process, the author decided to send questionnaires by e-mail,

given that the universe of the sample is large and is widely spread geographically

(Kothari, 2008). The author approached the respondents identifying himself as a Master

student from Bournemouth University and informing them about the purpose of the

survey.

The questionnaire was distributed between men and women indiscriminately.

Respondents must achieve only one requirement to access the questionnaire: to be

German residents in Germany. Questionnaires were sent to recipients via e-mail and the

researcher received completed questionnaires. The email addresses were obtained from

friends and family contacts in Germany, as well as various German people known by

the author. The procedure was carried out in two phases:

1. The researcher sent the questionnaire to German contacts used to carry out this

research technique.

2. The questionnaires were returned directly to the researcher.

Around 240 questionnaires were sent, a much longer number than was needed for the

research due to the fact that online survey have a lower response rate than those carried

out through direct contact with individuals under study. The researcher received 133

completed questionnaires of which 122 were valid. 11 were dismissed either by defects,

either because the individuals under study do not complete the questionnaire correctly.

The largest number of responses was received during the three days after the mailing of

questionnaires, but they kept coming up to fifteen days after mailing.

The 36 questions of the questionnaire are divided in two blocks. Each of the two blocks

consists of 18 similar questions to compare the results of both campaigns.



60

Questions 1 to 2: demographic information, including sex and ages.

Questions 3: (Have you ever visited Spain?) This question allows dividing the

results attending to two types of approaches; people who has visited Spain and

people who has never visited Spain.

Question 4: test of memory. This question refers to the index of remember and

recognition of both advertisements.

Question 5 to 15, and 18 to 28: these questions analyse the cognitive and

affective components of the advertisements.

Question 16 and 29: these questions refer to the purchase intention, and let to

know the influence of the ads in the German market.

Question 17 and 30: these questions refer to the “liking” technique, and it is used

to compare the rate of satisfaction.

Questions 31 to 36: these questions compare both traditional and experiential

advertisements, in order to know which of them represents better the image of

Spain, the type of tourism that the respondents associate to Spain, and the

brand´s recognition “www.spain.info”.

5.5.4 Pilot Test

According to Clark et al. (1998) a pilot test is essential to judge how the questionnaire

works in practice and to recognize any possible trouble. The author conducted a pre –

test sending via-email questionnaires to 10 German people in order to test before

sending the final questionnaire and so, to identify possible mistakes. In this way, some

mistakes were corrected and some suggestions were implemented in order to improve

the understanding of the questionnaire.

http://www.spain.info/



61

5.6 Analysis

Rubin (1995) added that the analysis of the data collected is the final stage of the

research. Two different computer programs, the Statistic Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS) and Microsoft Excel, were used in order to analyse the data collected from the

questionnaires conducted in the German market. All the questions from the survey were

coded in SPSS before the questionnaires were conducted. After the survey process, all

the data collected was typed in SPSS, and frequencies and graphics were created.

Afterwards, the most important information was selected and more detailed graphics

concerning this data were created using Microsoft Excel.

5.7 Limitations of the research

During the process of the research, both secondary and primary, the author has found

different limitations. Some of them were known previously and other have appeared

during the research process and even planning and structuring consciously the research,

it was impossible to avoid the occurrence of some limitations.

Firstly, one of the limitations was related to the languages. In the secondary research,

sources in English and Spanish have been used, so therefore, some of them had to be

translated. In the primary research, the questionnaire was written in English, although in

some cases had to be translated to German, because some people did not speak English.

Another limitation is that only posters were used as case study and no other promotional

material. The author focused the research in two different campaigns, a traditional or

informative advertisement and an experiential or emotional advertisement. In this sense,

the author decided to bring into the analysis those that promoting Spain as a sun and

beach destination, due to one of the reason why Spain is known in the German market is

for the desire to travel on holidays to some sun and beach destinations such as Mallorca,

Canary Islands, etc.

Secondly, there is not much literature on the experiential marketing approach, which has

caused that the author had to focus the research in other closely related topics, such as

emotional marketing and consumer behaviour.



62

The primary research was carried out sending questionnaires via e-mail, waiting the

researcher some weeks until get an enough sample.

Summary

This chapter has presented an approach to the methodology used during the research

process. Moreover, the reasons for choosing the different research methods, their

explanation and the data analysis have also been described. Finally, the different

limitations occurred during this research have also be named.

Next chapter will explain the main findings and the results of the questionnaires from

the primary research.



63

Chapter 6 – RESULTS AND MAIN FINDINGS

Introduction

This chapter presents the major results obtained from the German market in order to

contrast the hypothesis with the theory set in the literature review. As explained in

Chapter 4, the best techniques to measure the effectiveness of the advertisements are

those based on the cognitive, affective and purchase intention stages. It is necessary to

remark that the results of this research are not at all representative due to the small size

of the sample, only 122 German people. Finally, the main findings according to the

literature review are also analysed.

6.1 Results of the survey

This section explains the major results of the questionnaires in order to present a

complete view of the German market regarding the opinions, beliefs, feelings and

behaviour towards the advertisements set as case study. The results are presented in the

following sections.

6.1.1 Sample and personal data

The final sample of this research is composed of 122 German people over 18 years old.

This section presents the results of the following variables: sex and age, and the

cognitive, affective and behavioural components. The author applied statistical

techniques that best meet the aims of the research: comparison of percentages, media

and mode which are statistic techniques contained in the statistical package SPSS.

6.1.2 Socio-demographic Variables: Sex and Age

Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 show the gender and age of the respondents. The sample was

composed by 65 men (53.28%) and 57 women (46.72%) and most of the respondents

were aged between 25 and 34 years old, i.e. 67 people and 54.92%, which means that

the sample is based on a young population. In contrast, the segments of people between

35 and 64 years old are only represented by 34 people and 27.86%.



64

Figure 6.1 Gender Figure 6.2 Age

Source: author´s own Source: author´s own

At the same time, the sample was divided in people who have visited Spain and people

who never have visited Spain. The Figure 6.3 shows that 107 of the respondents

(87.70%) have visited Spain at least once in their life, and only 15 of them (12.30%)

never have visited the country.

Figure 6.3 German people who have and not have visited Spain

Source: author´s own

87,70 % have

visited Spain



65

Figure 6.4 shows the kind of tourism associated to Spain. 53, 3 % (65 people) of

respondents considers that Spain is associated with a sun and beach destination. 28, 7 %

think that Spain is a cultural destination; while, 18 % consider Spain as a country based

on gastronomic and ecotourism activities.

Figure 6.4 Kind of tourism


6.1.3 Cognitive and Affective Components

This section presents the cognitive and affective results of the respondent´s attitude

towards the advertisement.

Table 6.1 shows the percentage of respondents and the media and mode´s comparison

of the cognitive and affective components of both, the traditional campaign “Everything

under the sun” and the experiential campaign “I need Spain”. As mentioned in Chapter

five, the author has chosen the five-point scale to compare the cognitive and affective

components of the advertisements through opposite adjectives.



66

The adjectives disgusting/nice show that 49,2 % of the respondents (60 people) think

that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” have a medium value (3), it is not

disgusting or nice; while a 30,3 % of them think that the advertisement is nice (value 4).

In contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 46, 7% of respondents have an

indifferent value (3), and only 18.9% thinks that it is a nice advertisement.

The adjectives unattractive/attractive show, that 33, 6 % of the respondents (41 people)

has an indifference attitude towards the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”;

while the same percentage (33, 6 %) thinks that the advertisement is attractive (value 4).

In contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 39, 0% of respondents have

also an indifference attitude towards the advertisement (3), and 23, 0 % of them thinks

that the advertisement is not attractive.

According to the adjectives not interesting/interesting, 44, 3 % of the respondents (60

people) have an indifference attitude towards the advertisement “Everything under the

sun” and only 26, 2 % of them think that the advertisement is interesting (value 4). In

contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 26, 2 % of respondents have a

medium value (3), being representative that 46, 3 % (54 people) thinks that the

advertisement is interesting.

The adjectives not informative/informative show that 23, 8 % of the respondents (29

people) think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” have a medium value

(3); while a 38, 5 % of them (47 people) think that the advertisement is informative

(value 4). In contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 40, 2 % of

respondents have a value 2 – not informative -, and 27, 9 % thinks that it is an

advertisement is not informative or informative.

The adjectives unconvincing/convincing show that 31, 1 % of the respondents (38

people) think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” have a medium value

(3), they have an indifferent attitude towards the ad; while a 26, 2 % of them think that

the advertisement is convincing (value 4). In contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain”

shows that 36, 9 % of respondents have a medium value (3), and 34, 4 % thinks that it is

an advertisement convincing.



67

The adjectives an ad without meaning/an ad with meaning show that 46, 7 % of the

respondents (57 people) think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” have a

medium value (3), the ad has not any type of meaning, the ad is full of meaning; while a

19.7 % of them think that the advertisement is full of meaning (value 4). In contrast, the

advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 30, 3 % of respondents have an indifferent

attitude towards the ad (3), and 36, 1% thinks that it is an advertisement empty of

meaning.

The adjectives unrealistic/realistic show that 43, 4 % of the respondents (53 people)

think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” is realistic, while 27, 9 % of

them value the advertisement with a medium value (3). In contrast, the advertisement “I

need Spain” shows that 40, 2 % of respondents is not realistic.

The adjectives not creative/creative show that 34.4 % of the respondents (42 people)

think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” is not creative. In contrast, the

advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 33.6 % of respondents think that it is a creative

advertisement.

The adjectives not transmit any type of feeling/transmit many feelings show that 42.6%

of the respondents (52 people) think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”

have a medium value (3), it transmits an indifferent attitude. In contrast, the

advertisement “I need Spain” shows 38.5 % of respondents think that the advertisement

transmit any type of feeling.

The adjectives difficult to understand/easy to understand, show that 53.3 % of the

respondents (65 people) think that the advertisement “Everything under the Sun” is easy

to understand. In contrast, the advertisement “I need Spain” shows that 51.6 % of

respondents think that is easy to understand.



68

Table 6.1.Opposite adjectives Analysis

Image A

Media

Image B

Media

Image A

Mode

Image B

Mode

Disgusting/Nice 3.39 3.76 3 4

Unattractive/Attractive 3.27 3.77 3 4

Not interesting/Interesting 2.93 3.43 3 4

Not

informative/Informative

2.67 2.49 2 2

Unconvincing/Convincing 3.09 3.35 3 3

Empty of meaning/Full of

meaning

3.03 3.44 3 4

Not important/Important 2.51 2.89 3 3

Unrealistic/Realistic 3.63 3.22 4 4

Not creative/Creative 2.50 3.43 2 3

Without life/Full of life 2.74 3.53 3 4

Difficult to

understand/Easy to

understand

4.20 4.31 5 5


6.1.4 Remember and recognition´s Rate

Figure 6.5 shows that 73.8% of the respondents do not remember any of the two

advertisements presented in the research, and only 26.2% previously knew any of them.



69

Of this 26.2% that remind one of the two campaigns, 23 of the respondents remember

the “Image A”, and only 9 remember the “Image B”.

Figure 6.5 Recognition´s Rate


6.1.1 Representative of Spain

Figure 6.6 shows a comparison between both the traditional advertisement, “Everything

under the Sun” and the experiential advertisement “I need Spain” in order to know

which of them better represents the image of Spain. 67,2 % of the respondents think that

the Image A “Everything under the Sun” represents better the image of Spain against

32,8 % of them who think it‟s the Image B “.

Figure 6.6 Comparison of images representitive of Spain


YES Frequency

Image A 23

Image B 9

TOTAL 32



70

6.1.1 Travel´s desire

Figure 6.7 shows a comparison between both images, the traditional and the experiential

advertisements in order to know which of them influence more positively to generate

the travel´s desire to Spain. 27 % of respondents think that the Image A “Everything

under the Sun” influence more positively than the Image B “I need Spain” ,only

represented by 18 %. A significative data is that 54, 9 % of them (67 people) think that

neither of both advertisements would influence them to travel to Spain.

Figure 6.7 Travel´s desire


6.1.7 Purchase intention

This section presents the purchase intention of the respondents once being exposed to

both advertisements. The Image A “Everything under the Sun” shows that 40,2 % of

respondents do not know if they would buy a trip to visit Spain after being exposed to

the advertisement, and 34,5 % of them think that there are more likely to buy a trip to

Spain after being exposed to the advertisement. In contrast, the Image B “I need Spain”

shows that 31,1 % of respondents do not know if they would buy a trip to visit Spain,

and 50,0 % of them think that they would buy a trip to visit Spain after being exposed to

the advertisement.



71

Significantly, figure 6.8 shows that only 12, 3 % of respondents have visited the website

“www.spain.info”, the official website of “Turespaña” to promote the Spanish‟s tourism

compared to 87, 7 % of them that never have visited the website. In addition, this 12, 3

% only 2% have acquired any type of service (accommodation, rental car, fly tickets,

etc.) compared to 10, 7 % of them do not.

Figure 6.8 Purchase intention


6.1.8 Liking technique

The author uses the liking technique, which consists in asking respondents directly

which of the two campaigns like more and the results are really representative. Figure

6.9 shows that 63.9% prefer the campaign “I need Spain”, based on experiential

advertising, while 36.1% would choose the campaign “Everything under the Sun”, a

representative image of tourism in Spain in the 80s.

Figure 6.9 Liking


Frequency Percent %

Image A 82 67,2

Image B 40 32,8

TOTAL 122 100,0



72

This indicates that the image A “Everything under the Sun” does not evoke a very

significant value in the respondent. While, the image B shows a more positive attitude

toward the advertisement.

6.2 Main Findings

This section presents the results contrasted with the hypotheses set at the beginning of

the research.

The hypotheses one and three refer to cognitive and affective components of the attitude

of German market towards the advertisements, “Everything under the Sun” and “I need

Spain”.

H1: The cognitive component of the advertisement “I need Spain” is more positive that

the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

H3: The answers generated both cognitive and affective by individuals after the ad

exposure, influence more positive in the attitude towards the advertisement “I need

Spain” than the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

As mentioned in Chapter four, the cognitive component represents the thinking part of

an opinion towards the advertisement and the affective component reflects the feelings

and the emotional responses towards the advertisement (Wan Wely and Ireland 2004).

Comparing the medias of both advertisements, the advertisement “I need Spain”

represents more positive value than the Image A “Everything under the Sun”, e.g. the

respondents think that the experiential advertising to promote the image of Spain is

more nice (3,76), attractive (3,77), interesting (3,43), convincing (3,35), full of meaning

(3,44), creative (3,43), full of life (3,53) and easy to understand (4,31) than the

traditional advertisement. And it is the value 4 the most repetitive value, which

represents a positive attitude towards the advertisement. In contrast, the advertisement

“Everything under the Sun” shows more positive values in the following variables: they

think that the traditional advertisement is more informative and realistic that the

experiential. This promotional campaign presents a more realistic Spain, however the

experiential advertisement raises the senses of the individuals.



73

This fact supports the idea of Schmitt (1999) that the experiential approach creates

feeling connections between brands and consumers.

H2: The traditional advertisement of Spain “Everything under the sun” has a higher

remember and recognition’s rate than the advertisement “I need Spain”.

In the chapter two, the researcher explained that the traditional advertisement

“Everything under the Sun” was one of the most famous campaigns of Spain during the

80s, while the advertisement “I need Spain” is the new creativity of Spain that has been

presented during 2010. This hypothesis refers to remember and recognition‟s rate of

respondents. The results show that only 26, 2 % of them remembered any of the

advertisements, which indicates that although it is not a very representative sample, the

rate of remember and recognition of the advertisements is very low; this suggests that

the incursion of the promotional campaigns of Spain in the German market is not very

significant.

These advertisements presented in the research are very useful, as Ashworth and Voogd

(1990) explain, to create a favourable or unfavourable image of a destination. This fact

is essential to create a memory image of Spain in the consumer and the best way to

achieve this is through the creativity of the advertisement, representing in the case of

both campaigns a high value of non-recognition. 53, 3 % of the respondents associate

Spain with sun and beach tourism, which supports the author´s choice of

advertisements. This hypothesis is interesting in order to know which of both campaigns

better show the image of Spain in the respondent´s mind.

H4: The experiential advertisement creates a more positive attitude in the consumer

than a traditional advertisement.

According to the results, the experiential advertisement creates in the German market a

more positive attitude towards the advertisement. This hypothesis is contrasted with the

cognitive and affective results, which indicate that this type of advertisement based on

emotional and experiential values provokes a more positive opinions as explained

above, considering for the respondents that this experiential creativity is more nice,



74

attractive, interesting, convincing, full of meaning, creative and full of feelings than the

traditional advertisement.


respondents than the image of the advertisement “Everything under the Sun”.

The experiential advertisement “I need Spain” is more attractive to the respondents that

the traditional “Everything under the Sun”, which proves the hypothesis five formulated

by the researcher. The table 6.1 shows that the German market has an indifferent

attitude towards the traditional advertisement; however, the experiential reflects the idea

that it is a more attractive image. Glaesser (2006) explains that this attractive plays an

important role in the consumer´s world as a competitive advantage. Both advertisements

represent the image of Spain through a sun and beach tourism. In the traditional

“Everything under the Sun” is presented a typical beach destination, and the experiential

presents a paradise beach where the individual can enjoy their family, living different

experiences.

H6: The attitude toward the advertisement generated by the ad “Everything under the

sun” influences more positively in the purchase intention of the consumer than the

advertisement “I need Spain”.

The results of the primary research show that the experiential advertisement “I need

Spain” generate a higher purchase intention for travelling to Spain (50, 0% of the

respondents) than the traditional advertisement “Everything under the Sun”, which does

not confirm the hypothesis number six. Stout and Leckenby (1988) supports this

argument explaining that consumers who feel emotions have significantly a more

favourable attitude towards the advertisement and brand and are more likely to

purchase.



75

H7: The advertisement “I need Spain” is more effective to represent the image of Spain

than the advertisement “Everything under the sun”.

However, the hypothesis number seven is not contrasted with the results of the

questionnaires. The respondents think that the experiential advertisement “I need Spain”

is not more effective to represent the image of Spain than the traditional “Everything

under the Sun”. As mentioned before, 67, 2 % of respondents think that the traditional

advertisement better represent the image of Spain to promote the country abroad. This

traditional advertisement reflects the image of one of the thousands beaches that are

integrated in Spain, its traditional architecture and its popular sun. In contrast, only 32,

8 % of respondents believe that the experiential advertisement better represents the

image of Spain, and its traditions. According to Ahmed (1996) one of the problems is

that the tourist destinations are focus on the global image rather than in partial images.

In this case, the experiential advertisement evokes a partial image of Spain, awaking the

experience desire of being with the family in a paradise beach.

Summary

This chapter has presented the main findings obtained from the responses of the sample.

The next chapter will confront this results with the literature reviewed about the main

topics of the dissertation. Recommendations for the tourism industry and for future

research will also be exposed.



76

CHAPTER 7 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter exposes the conclusions from the dissertation, by comparing the main

results of the primary research to the information obtained from the literature review.

Finally, some recommendations for the tourist industry and for future research will be

also presented.

7.1 Conclusion

As it has been mentioned below, the aim of this dissertation was to analyse the

effectiveness of experiential advertising in tourist destinations, taking “Turespaña” as

the case study. The main thing to be analysed is which of both, traditional or

experiential advertisement is more effective to promote the image of Spain as a tourist

destination in the German market.

“Turespaña” is the responsible organism for planning, development and

implementation of the image “Spain” in international markets (Recoder 1999). The

WTTR (2009) explains that in recent years, tourists have been changing traditional

destinations such as Spain or Portugal for newer ones in North Africa, the Eastern

Mediterranean and other destinations. For this reason, “Turespaña” has been changing

its promotional approach, developing new promotional campaigns based on experiential

values. This marketing approach related with emotions, feelings and experiences called

“experiential marketing” is being effective to promote tourist destinations.

As mentioned in chapter three, the experience evokes emotions which are indispensable

part of the organisation of daily life (Ashforth and Humphrey 1995), helping to achieve

a differentiation in the consumer‟s destination choice. In order to know the influence of

traditional and experiential advertisements, the cognitive, affective and conative attitude

components are essential to analyse the effectiveness of Spain promotion in the German

market.



77

To evaluate the effectiveness of the campaigns “Everything under the Sun” and “I need

Spain”, the researcher designed a survey in order to know the opinions and feelings of

122 respondents towards both advertisements.

The results obtained in chapter six show that only four of the seven hypotheses

formulated have been confirmed. The hypotheses related to the experiential

advertisement “I need Spain” have a greater influence on variables such as consumer

attitude towards the advertisement (H1, H3), and the cognitive and affective

components (H4, H5). The respondents think that the experiential advertising is nicer

and more attractive, interesting, convincing, full of meaning, creative, full of life as well

as easier to understand than the traditional advertisement. However, the traditional

“Everything under the Sun” only shows that it is more informative and realistic than the

experiential model.

Subsequently, the two hypotheses that have not been confirmed are explained.

Concerning the purchase intention (H6) for travelling to Spain, the results show that the

experiential advertisement “I need Spain” is more effective in influencing consumers to

buy a trip to Spain (50, 0% of the respondents) than the traditional advertisement

“Everything under the Sun”. Besides, the respondents think that the traditional

campaign represents better the image of Spain (H7) than the experiential advertising.

These results show a series of recommendations, both for the tourist industry and for

future research on the experiential aspect of tourism advertising, which are explained in

the sections below.

7.2 Recommendations for the tourist industry

Firstly, the tourism advertising plays an important role as a marketing tool in the tourist

industry in order to generate tourist´s arrivals. The advertising is used by the tourism

organisations to influence the attitude and opinion of citizens (Campanario 1996;

Johnson and Mesmer 1991).



78

In fact, the National Tourism Board of Spain “Turespaña” uses the printed materials

such as posters or promotional advertisements, to create a positive image of Spain; the

construction of an appropriate image of a destination will determine the ability to attract

and retain tourists (Ahmed 1991).

As mentioned in chapter three, the experiential marketing is helpful for tourist

companies to compete through emotions instead of competing in price or products. This

revolutionary concept will allow tourist companies to create fresh connections between

destinations and consumers based on experiences and feelings. The experiential

advertisement “I need Spain” try to differentiate Spain from its competitors, and

persuade tourists that the country is a paradise destination to live unique experiences.

This strategy can be used by other tourist destinations in order to arouse the interest of

tourists through the emotions.

Secondly, other concept that should be studied in depth by the tourist industry is the

advertising effectiveness. This concept is used to measure the results, positive or

negative, of an advertising campaign or an advertisement, and to assure with a major

probability the success of future campaigns (Paz Aparicio et al. 2000). The chapter four

establishes the different techniques to measure the effectiveness, being the cognitive,

affective and conative components the key aspects in the consumer´s behaviour.

Finally, tourist companies should analyse the effectiveness of promotional

advertisements in order to know whether the campaigns are truly effective to induce

tourists to visit the destination.

7.3 Recommendations for future research

First of all, it is essential to establish a consensus among authors about the experiential

marketing. There are many researchers who deal the experiential marketing as a

discipline; however, this discipline of marketing has not been analysed in depth, and

specifically in the tourism sector. This marketing tool helps to promote destinations

based on emotions.



79

Future researchers should realize about the influence of these emotions and future

experiences in tourists and its importance in their behaviour in order to create a

competitive advantage. As Schmitt mentioned (1999) in chapter three, “We are in the

middle of a revolution in the field of marketing”, which provokes that advertisements

need to evoke new feelings, e.g. to enjoy with the family in a paradise island, to taste

typical Spanish gastronomy with friends or to discover the Green Spain´s smell. This

aspect can be analysed as an important competitive value of destinations for its

promotion.

Researchers have studied the emotional value in advertising; however, the experiential

value has not been explored enough in the tourism sector. Therefore, future researchers

should investigate how tourist advertising is changing for a new approach in which the

consumer has become the main character in the contemporary society.

Finally, this research compares two different advertising´s approaches, traditional and

experiential advertising. Future researchers, with more time and resources, could use

more advertisements of “Turespaña” in order to know which of all creativities have

been the more effective to promote the image of Spain abroad.



80

Bibliography and References

- Aaker, D.A., Batra, R., J.G. Myers 1995. Advertising Management. 5th

ed.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

- Ahmed, Z.U. 1996. The need for the identification of the constituents of a

destination's tourist image: a promotional segmentation perspective. The Tourist

Review, 2, 44-57.

- Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. 1980. Understanding attitudes and predicting social

behaviour. Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

- Alhemoud, A.M. and Armstrong, E.G. 1996. Image of tourism attractions in

Kuwait, Journal of Travel Research, 34, 76-80.

- Ashforth, B.E. and Humphrey, R.H. 1995. Emotion in the Workplace: A

Reappraisal, Human Relations, 48.

- Ashworth, G.J. and Goodall, B. 1988. Marketing in the tourism industry: the

promotion of destination regions. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

- Ashworth, G.J. and H. Voogd. 1990. Selling the City: Marketing Approaches in

Public Sector Urban Planning. Belhaven, London.

- Bäckström, K. and Johansson, U. 2006 Creating and Consuming Experiences in

Retail Store Environments: Comparing Retailer and Consumer Perspectives,

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 13, 417-430.



81

- Bagozzi, R.; Gopinath, M. and Nyer, P. 1999. The Role of Emotions in

Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27, 184-206.

- Baker, M.J. and Churchill, G.A. 1977. The impact of Physically Attractive

Models on Advertising Evaluations”, Journal of Marketing Research, 14, 538-

555.

- Bendixen, M.T. 1993. Advertising Effects and Effectiveness, European Journal

of Marketing, 3 (10), 19-32.

- Bello, L., Vázquez R. Y Trespalacios, J. A. 1996. Investigación de mercados y

estrategia de marketing. Editorial Civitas (2ª ed.), Madrid.

- Beerli, A., and Martín, J.D. 1999. Técnicas de Medición de la Eficacia

publicitaria. Editorial Ariel: Barcelona.

- Bigné, J.E., Font, X. and Andreu, L. 2000. Marketing de destinos turisticos.

Analisis y estrategias de desarrollo. ESIC, Madrid.

- Brunt, P. 1997. Market research in travel and tourism. Oxford, Butterworth-

Heinemann.

- Brotherton, B. 2008. Researching Hospitality and Tourism: A Student Guide.

SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

- Buhalis, D. 2000. Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism

Management, 21, 97-116.

- Burns, A. and Bush, R.F. 2000. Marketing research, 1. Prentice Hall. University

of Indiana.

- Burke, M.C. and Edell, J.A 1989. The Impact of Feelings on Ad-Based Affect

and Cognition”. Journal of Marketing Research, 26, 69-83.



82

- Calantone, R.J., Mazanec, J. 1991. Marketing Management and Tourism. Annals

of Tourism Research, 18.

- Campanario, J.M. 1996. The competition for journal space among referees,

editors, and other authors and its influence on journal´s impact factors, Journal

of the American Society for Information Science, 47.

- Cao, J. 1999. Evaluation of Advertising Effectiveness Using Agent-Based

Modeling and Simulation. In: 2nd

UK Workshop of SIG on Multi-Agent

Systems, December, 1999, Bristol, UK. Available from:

http://stuff.mit.edu/~caoj/pub/doc/jcao_c_adver.pdf [Accessed 28 June 2010]

- Capriotti, P. 1999. Planificación Estratégica de la Imagen Corporativa, Ariel,

Barcelona.

- Chen, J.S. 2006. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure. Elsevier Book Series on

Science Direct. Emerald Group Publishing.

- Chon, K. 1991. Tourism Destination Image Modification Process. Marketing

Implications. Tourism Management, 12, 68-72.

- Christou, E. 2009. Advertising Mass Tourism Destinations: Mediterranean

Brand Confusion. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Management. University of

Massachusetts Amherst.

- Clark, M., Riley, M., Wilkie, E. and Wood, R. 1998. Researching and Writing

Dissertations in Hospitality and Tourism. London, International Thomson

Business Press.

- Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D., Wanhill, S., and Shepherd, R., 1998

Tourism: Principles and Practices (2nd

edition). Marlow: Longman.

- Cox, D.S and Cox, A.D. 1998. What Does Familiarity Breed? Complexity as a

Moderator of Repetition Effects in Advertising Evaluation, Journal of Consumer

Research, 15.

http://stuff.mit.edu/~caoj/pub/doc/jcao_c_adver.pdf



83

- Creswell, J.W. 1994. Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches,

London: SAGE Publications.

- Crompton, J.L. 1979. An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation

destination and the influence of geographical location upon that image, Journal

of Travel Research, 17, 18-23.

- Dierks, L.H., Mazzocchi, M. and Hanf, C. 2005. Consumers‟ Reactions to a

Food Safety Incidence in Germany. In: Mausall, B. and Bolton, D.J (Eds.). Food

Safety Risk Communication: The Message and Motivational Strategies, Dublin,

Irland.

- Diez de Castro, E.C. and Martin Armario, E. 1993. Planificación Publicitaria.

Pirámide Ed., Madrid.

- Echtner, C.M. and Ritchie, J.R.B. 1991. The Meaning and Measurement of

Destination Image, Journal of Tourism Studies, 2 (2).

- Edell, J.A. and Burke, M.C. 1987. The power of feelings in understanding

advertising effects, Journal of Advertising Research, 14.

- Fakeye, P.C. y Crompton, J.L. 1991. Images differences between prospective,

first time, and repeat visitors to the Lower Rio Grande Valley, Journal of Travel

Research, 30, 10-16.

- Galbraith, J.K. 1992. La sociedad opulenta. Barcelona: Ariel.

- García, A. 2001. Análisis de la publicidad turística española (1985-1999): la

construcción de una imagen. Thesis, (PhD), Granada University

- Gardner, M.P. 1983. Advertising Effects on Attributes Recalled and Criteria

Used for Brand Evaluations, Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 310-318.



84

- Gardner, M.P. 1985. Does Attitude towards the Ad affect Brand Attitude under a

Brand Evaluation Set? Journal of Marketing Research, 22, 192-198.

- Garrido, M., Ramos, M. and Rodriguez, J.C 2007. Analisis de la publicidad

institucional del Estado Español: Objetivos y Cualidades Discursivas.

Comunicación, 5, 377-389. Sevilla University.

- Glaesser, D. 2006. Crisis management in the tourism industry. Hospitality

Series. Butterworth-Heinemann.

- Gorn, G.J. 1982. The Effects of music in advertising on choice behaviour: a

classical conditioning approach, Journal of Marketing, 46, 94-101.

- Graeff, T.R. 1997. Comprehending Product Attributes and Benefits: The Role of

Product Knowledge and Means-End Chain Inferences. Psychology &

Marketing, 14, 163-183.

- Gratton, C. and Jones, I. 2004. Research methods for sport studies. Routledge.

- Gunn, C. 1988. Vacationscapes: Designing tourist regions. Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York.

- Harrison, J., Corkill, D. 2004. Spain: a modern European economy. Modern

economic and social history series. Ashgate Publishing.

- Havlena, W. and Holbrook, M. 1986. The Varieties of Consumption Experience:

Comparing Two Typologies of Emotion in Consumer Behaviour, Journal of

Consumer Research, 13.

- Holbrook, M. and Hirschman, E. 1982. The Experiential Aspects of

Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun, Journal of Consumer

Research, 9.

- Homer, P.M. 1990. The Mediating Role of Attitude toward the Ad: Some

Additional Evidence”, Journal of Marketing Research, 27, 78-86.



85

- IET (Instituto de Estudios Turisticos) 2009. INE Website [ON-LINE]. Available

from: http://www.iet.tourspain.es [Accessed on 13 June 2010]

- Informe de la situación del Mercado emisor alemán 2009. Oficina Española de

Turismo de Munich. Report translated from Commerzbank.

- Ivanovic, M. 2009. Cultural Tourism. Juta and Company Ltd. Available

from:http://books.google.es/books?id=fZ6Wb8AptvYC&printsec=frontcover&d

q=cultural+tourism&cd=3#v=onepage&q&f=false.

- Jennings, G 2001. Tourism Research. Milton, John Wiley and Sons.

- Kardes, F.R 1988. Spontaneous Inference Processes in Advertising: The Effects

of Conclusion Omission and Involvement on Persuasion. Journal of Consumer

Research, 15, 225-233.

- Kao, Y.F., Huang, L.S. and Yang, M.H 2007. Effects of experiential elements

on experiential satisfaction and loyalty intentions: a case study of the super

basketball league in Taiwan, Int. J. Revenue Management, 1, 79-96.

- Kempf, D.S and Smith, R.E 1998. Consumer Processing of Product Trial and the

Influence of Prior Advertising: A structural Modeling Approach, Journal of

Marketing Research, 35, 325-338.

- Kim, D., Hwang, Y. and Fesenmaier, D 2005. Modeling Tourism Advertising

Effectiveness, Journal of Travel Research, 44.

- Kothari. C.R 2008. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age

International. [ON-LINE] Available from: http://www.books.google.es

[Accessed on 15 June 2010]

- Kotler, P 1994. Marketing Management. Analysis, Planning, implementation

and Control, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

http://www.iet.tourspain.es/

http://www.books.google.es/



86

- Kozak, M., Bigné, E., González, A. and Andreu, L 2004. Cross-Cultural

Behaviour Research in Tourism: a Case Study on Destination Image. Consumer

Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, 3: 303-317. Crouch, G.I.;

Perdue, R.R.; Timmermans, H.J.P. and Uysal, M. eds. CAB International.

- Küster, I., Vila, N. and Canales, P 2008. El Marketing Relacional y el Marketing

Emocional: Dos enfoques competitivos para el turismo de sol y playa. Estudios

sobre Consumo 84. Valencia University.

- Lambin, J-J 1995. Marketing estratégico. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.

- Lavidge, R.J. and Steiner, G.A 1961. A model for Predictive Measurements of

Advertising Effectiveness, Journal of Marketing, 25, 59-62.

- Leisen, B 2001. Image segmentation: the case of a tourism destination, Journal

of Services Marketing, 15.

- Lenderman, M. and Sánchez, R 2008. Marketing Experiencial: La revolución de

las marcas. ESIC Editorial. Madrid.

- Lennon, J., Cockerell, N. and Trew, J 2006. Benchmarking national tourism

organizations and agencies: understanding best practice. Advances in Tourism

Research Series. Elsevier.

- Lindgreen, A., Vanhamme, J. and Beverland, M.B 2009. Memorable Customer

Experiences: A Research Anthology. Gower Publishing.

- Lord, K.R., Lee, M.S. and Sauer, P.L 1995. The combined Influence Hypothesis:

central and peripheral Antecedents of attitude toward the Ad, Journal of

Advertising, 24, 73-85.



87

- Lopez Vazquez, B 2007. Publicidad emocional: estrategias creativas. Esic

Editorial. Madrid.

- Lutz, R.J 1984. Affective and Cognitive Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad:

A Conceptual Framework, Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects:

Theory, Research and Application, Linda Alwitt and Andrew Mitchell,eds.

Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cited by Muehling and McCann.

- Lutz, R.J 1985. Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad: A Conceptual Frame

work”. Psycological Processes and Advertising Effects: Theory, Research and

Application, L.F. Alwitt and A.A. Mitchell, eds., Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates. Cited by Muehling and McCann (1993).

- MacKenzie, S.B.; Lutz, R.J. and Belch, G.R. 1986.The Role of Attitude Toward

the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing

Explanations”. Journal of Marketing, 23, 130 – 143.

- MacKenzie, S.B and Lutz, R.J. 1989. An Empirical Examination of the

Structural Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad in an Advertising Pretesting

Context, Journal of Marketing, 53, 48-65.

- MacKenzie, S.B and Spreng, R.A 1992. How Does Motivation Moderate the

Impact of Central and Peripherical Processing on Brand Attitudes and

Intentions? Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 519-529.

- Mitchell, A.A and Olson, J.C 1981. Are Product Attribute Beliefs and Attitude

toward the Ad as mediators of Brand Attitude: A second Look, Journal of

Marketing Research, 27, 209 – 219.

- Moliner Tena, M.A. 1996. La medición de la eficacia publicitaria en el

marketing social”. ESIC Market, 107-119.

- Morgan, N., Pritchard, A. 2001. Advertising in tourism and leisure. Butterworth-

Heinemann.



88

- Morgan, N., Pritchard, A. and Pride, R 2004. Destination branding: creating the

unique destination proposition. Butterworth-Heinemann.

- Moutinho, L 1987. Consumer behaviour in tourism, European Journal of

Marketing, 21 (10), 5-44.

- Muhcina, S., Condrea, E., Popovici, V. and Botezat, E 2005. Printed Materials

Advertising: Tourism Marketing Communication Tools, 1298 – 1301. Available

from: http://steconomice.uoradea.ro/anale/volume/2007/v1-management-and-

marketing/134.pdf [Accessed 20 May 2010]

- Paz Aparicio, C., Vázquez, R. and Santos, L 2000. Publicidad y Eficacia

publicitaria: Influencia de la Posición, Repetición y Estilos publicitarios en la

Eficacia de los Anuncios televisivos entre los Jóvenes. Anales de Economía

Aplicada XIV. ASEPELT – España.

- Pine II, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. 1998. Welcome to the Experience Economy.

Harvard Business Review.

- Pike, S 2008. Destination marketing: an integrated marketing communication

approach. Butterworth-Heinemann.

- Pot, C 2005. An evaluation of Spain´s marketing campaign „Smile you are in

Spain‟, through an image analysis in the Dutch market, MA European Tourism

Management, Bournemouth University.

Available from: http://www.du.se/PageFiles/5052/Pot%20Claire.pdf

- Poynter, J 1993. How to research and write a thesis in hospitality and tourism: a

step-by-step guide for college students. New York, John Willey & Sons.

- Pritchard, A. Y Morgan, N.J 1998. Mood Marketing. The new destination

branding strategy: a case study of Wales the brand, Journal of Vacation

Marketing, 4 (3), 215-229.

http://steconomice.uoradea.ro/anale/volume/2007/v1-management-and-marketing/134.pdf

http://steconomice.uoradea.ro/anale/volume/2007/v1-management-and-marketing/134.pdf

http://www.du.se/PageFiles/5052/Pot%20Claire.pdf



89

- Puto, C.P. and Wells, W.D 1984. Informational and Transformational

Advertising: The Differential Effects of Time, Advances in Consumer Research,

11, 572-576.

- Plan Operativo de la Secretaría General de Turismo 2008. Turismo 2020. The

National Tourism Board of Spain. [ON-LINE]. Available from:

http://www.tourspain.es. [Accessed on 15 June 2010]

- PLAN INTEGRAL DE CALIDAD TURISTICA 2000-2006. [ON-LINE]

Available from: http://www.mcx.es/turismo/picte2000. [Accessed on 15 June

2010].

- Rayner, P., Wall, P. and Kruger, S 2001. Media studies: the essential

introduction”. Routledge.

- Recoder De Casso, C 1999. Política de Promoción del Turismo, La Actividad

turística en España 1997, 193-202, Madrid: Eds. Asociación Española de

Expertos Científicos en Turismo.

- Richards, G. and Munsters, W 2010. Cultural Tourism Research Methods.

CABI: Oxfordshire. England.

- Robinette, S., Brand, C. and Lenz, V 2001. Emotion marketing: the Hallmark

way of winning customers for life. Mc Graw-Hill Professional. Available from:

http://www.google.es/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=Emotion+marketing%3

A+the+Hallmark+way+of+winning+customers+for+life&btnG=Buscar+libros.

- Rubin, J.H. and Rubin, S.I 1995. Qualitative Interviewing: The art of hearing

data. London, SAGE.

- Russell, J. A. and Snodgrass, J 1987. Emotion and the Environment, in D.

Stokols and I. Altman (Eds.): Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New

York: Wiley.

http://www.tourspain.es/

http://www.mcx.es/turismo/picte2000

http://www.google.es/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=Emotion+marketing%3A+the+Hallmark+way+of+winning+customers+for+life&btnG=Buscar+libros

http://www.google.es/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=Emotion+marketing%3A+the+Hallmark+way+of+winning+customers+for+life&btnG=Buscar+libros



90

- Schifferstein, H., Hekkert, P 2007. Product Experience. Elsevier.

- Schiffman, L.G., Hansen, H. And Kanuk, L 2008. Consumer Bahviour: A

European Outlook. Pearson Education.

- Seaton, A.V. and Bennett, M.M. 1996. Marketing Tourism Products. Concepts,

issues, cases. International Thomson business press, London.

- Segura, C, Garriga, F 2008. Marketing Experiencial: el marketing de los

sentimientos y sus efectos sobre la mejora en la comunicación. In 2nd

International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Industrial

Management, September 3-5, 2008, Burgos, Spain. Available from:

http://personal.telefonica.terra.es/web/mdem/CVPublications/CIO2008%20Mar

keting%20Experiencial.pdf [Accessed on 29 May 2010]

- Severn, J.; Belch, G.E. and Belch, M.A. 1990. The Effects of Sexual and Non

Sexual Advertising Appeals and Information Level on Cognitive Processing and

Communication Effectiveness, Journal of Advertising, vol. 19, January, pages

14-22.

- Smith, R.E. and Wortzel, L.L.H. 1997. Prior Knowledge and the effect of

Suggested frames on Reference in Advertising, Psychology & Marketing, 14:2,

pages 121-143.

- Schmitt, Bernd H. 1999. Experiential marketing: how to get customers to sense

feel, think, act, and relate to your company, New York: Free Press.

- Schmitt Bernd H. 2003. Customer experience management: a revolutionary

approach to connecting with your customers, John Wiley and Sons.

- Stout, P. and Leckenby, J.D 1988. Let the Musical Play: Music and a Non-verbal

Element in Television Commercials, Hecker and Steward, Non-verbal

Communication in Advertising. Lexington Books: Lexington, M.A.

http://personal.telefonica.terra.es/web/mdem/CVPublications/CIO2008%20Marketing%20Experiencial.pdf

http://personal.telefonica.terra.es/web/mdem/CVPublications/CIO2008%20Marketing%20Experiencial.pdf



91

- Stout, P.A. and Rust, R.T 1993. Emotional Feelings and Evaluative Dimensions

of Advertising: Are they Related? Journal of Advertising, 22 (1), 61-71.

- Van Wely, S. and Ireland, J 2004. Revise for advanced PE for OCR A2.

Heinemann. Available from:

http://www.google.es/search?hl=es&tbs=bks%3A1&q=Revise+for+advanced+P

E+for+OCR+A2&btnG=Buscar&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=

- Veal, A. J 1997. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A practical Guide.

(Second Edition).Pearson Education Limited: Essex, England.

- Vogeler Ruiz, C. y Hernandez Armand, E 1997. Estructura y Organización del

Mercado Turístico. Centro de Estudios Ramón Areces: Madrid. Spain

- Wansink, B.; Ray, M.L. and Batra R. 1994. Increasing Cognitive Response

Sensitivity, Journal of Advertising, 23, 65-75.

- Wells, W. 1964. EQ, son of EQ and the Reaction Profile, Journal of Marketing.

28, 45-52.

- Williams, J.A. and Uysal, M. 2004. Current issues and developed in hospitality

and tourism satisfaction, Routledge. Available from:

http://books.google.es/books?hl=es&q=Current+issues+and+development+in+h

ospitality+and+tourism+satisfaction [Accessed 15 June 2010]

- World Tourism Trend Report 2009-2010. Prepared by IPK International on

behalf of ITB Berlin – The World´s Leading Travel Trade Show. [ON-LINE].

Available from: http://www.itb-berlin.com/library. [Accessed on 12 June 2010]

- Yi, Y. 1990. Cognitive and Affective Priming Effects of the Context for Print

Advertisements, Journal of Advertising, 19, 40-48.

- Zeitling, D. M. Weswood, R. A. 1986. Measuring emotional response”, Journal

of Advertising Research, 26 (5), 33-44.

http://www.google.es/search?hl=es&tbs=bks%3A1&q=Revise+for+advanced+PE+for+OCR+A2&btnG=Buscar&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai

http://www.google.es/search?hl=es&tbs=bks%3A1&q=Revise+for+advanced+PE+for+OCR+A2&btnG=Buscar&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai

http://www.itb-berlin.com/library



92

- APPENDIX 1- QUESTIONNAIRE TO THE GERMAN

MARKET

My name is Juan Carlos Losada. I am a Spanish student in the Master of European

Tourism Management at the University of Bournemouth (United Kingdom), Heilbronn

Hochschule (Germany) and Dalarna University (Sweden). For my final dissertation I

am conducting a research project on the implementation of the advertising that Spain is

developing abroad as a potential tourist destination. The following survey is divided in

two blocks. It will show you two advertising campaigns used to promote Spain as a

tourist destination, and then a series of questions to know your opinion. I would greatly

appreciate if you could be part of the research responding to this questionnaire. The data

collected is confidential and will be used for academic purposes only.

Thank you very much for your cooperation.



93

FIGURE 1. TOURSPAIN´S ADVERTISING

“Everything under the sun”

FIGURE 2. TOURSPAIN´S ADVERTISING

“The siesta is not for sleeping, is for dreaming”



94

I. Socio – Demographic Variables:

Q1. –Sex

1.- Male

2.- Female

Q2. Which of the following age groups do you belong

to?

1. 18 – 24 2. 25 – 34 3. 35 – 44

4. 45 – 54 5. 55 – 64 6. 65 +

Q3. Have you ever visited Spain? 1. Yes 2. No

Q4. Do you remember any of these campaigns to promote Spain? If your answer is “No”, skip to the

question 5.

1. Yes 2. No

1. Image A 2. Image B

II. FIGURE 1. Tourspain´s Advertising

In general terms, answer the following questions about the advertising campaign in Figure 1.

- Value from 1 to 5, the following adjectives describes your attitude toward the advertisement

Q5. It is disgusting 1 2 3 4 5 It is very nice

Q6. It is unattractive 1 2 3 4 5 It is very attractive

Q7. Ii is not interesting 1 2 3 4 5 It is very interesting

Q8. It is not informative 1 2 3 4 5 It is very informative

Q9. It is unconvincing 1 2 3 4 5 It is very convincing



95

Q10. It is empty of meaning 1 2 3 4 5 It is full of meaning

Q11. It is not important to me 1 2 3 4 5 It is very important

Q12. It is unrealistic 1 2 3 4 5 It is very realistic

Q13. It is not creative 1 2 3 4 5 It is very creative

Q14. It is an ad without life 1 2 3 4 5 It is an ad full of life

Q15. Difficult to understand 1 2 3 4 5 Easy to understand

Q16. Based on what you saw in the ad, how likely would you buy a travel to Spain? Value 1 is the

minimum score and 5 the highest score.

Highly unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 Very Likely

Q17. In general terms, and in a 5 point – scale, knowing that 1 is the minimum score and 5 the highest

score, do you like the Figure 1 (Image A)

I don‟t like it at all 1 2 3 4 5 I really like it

III. FIGURE 2. Tourspain´s Advertising

In general terms, answer the following questions about the advertising campaigns in Figure 2

Q18. It is disgusting 1 2 3 4 5 It is very nice

Q19. It is unattractive 1 2 3 4 5 It is very attractive

Q20. Ii is not interesting 1 2 3 4 5 It is very interesting

Q21. It is not informative 1 2 3 4 5 It is very informative

Q22. It is unconvincing 1 2 3 4 5 It is very convincing

Q23. It is empty of meaning 1 2 3 4 5 It is full of meaning

Q24. It is not important to me 1 2 3 4 5 It is very important

Q25. It is unrealistic 1 2 3 4 5 It is very realistic



96

Q26. It is not creative 1 2 3 4 5 It is very creative

Q27. It is an ad without life 1 2 3 4 5 It is an ad full of life

Q28. Difficult to understand 1 2 3 4 5 Easy to understand

Q29. Based on what you saw in the ad, how likely would you buy a travel to Spain? Value 1 is the

minimum score and 5 the highest score

Highly unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 Very Likely

Q30. In general and in a 5 point – scale, knowing that 1 is the highest score and 5 the minimum score, do

you like the Figure 2 (Image B)

I don‟t like it at all 1 2 3 4 5 I really like it

IV. Figure 1 & Figure 2

In general terms, please answer a series of questions comparing the two advertising campaigns of the

Figures 1 and 2.

Q31. Which of the two Figures did you like most? 1. Figure 1 2. Figure 2

Q32. Which of the two Figures do you think that represent Spain better? 1. Figure 1 2. Figure 2

Q33. Do any of the two Figures have influenced you to visit Spain? 1. Figure 1 2. Figure 2

3.None of them

Q34. What kind of tourism are you looking for in Spain?



97

1. Cultural 2. Sun and Beach 3. Gastronomy 4. Business 5. Ecotourism

6. Sport 7. Others

Q35. Do you know the web www.spain.info? If your answer is Yes, skip to Q36 1. Yes 2. No

Q36. Have you booked any product on this webpage? If your answer is Yes, which?

1. Yes 2. No

1. Accommodation 2. Airline tickets 3. Car rental 4. Others

Thank you very much

http://www.spain.info/



98

APPENDIX 2 - “TURESPAÑA” – ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS

TRADITIONAL ADVERTISEMENTS

EVERYTHING UNDER THE SUN (1986)



99



100

EXPERIENTIAL ADVERTISEMENTS

I NEED SPAIN (2010)



101



102

APPENDIX 3- RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE

COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE COMPONENTS

NICE - IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

NICE Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid really disgusting 1 10 ,8 8,2

disgusting 12 32 9,8 26,2

normal 60 57 49,2 46,7

nice 37 23 30,3 18,9

very nice 12 23 9,8 18,9

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

ATTRACTIVE - IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

ATTRACTIVE Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid very unattractive 5 10 4,1 8,2

unattractive 24 36 19,7 29,5

normal 41 48 33,6 39,3

attractive 37 28 30,3 23,0

very attractive 15 28 12,3 23,0

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

INTERESTING - IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

INTERESTING Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid not very interesting 8 7 6,6 5,7

not interesting 27 15 22,1 12,3

normal 54 32 44,3 26,2

interesting 32 54 26,2 44,3

very interesting 1 14 ,8 11,5

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0



103

INFORMATIVE - IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

INFORMATIVE Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid not very informative 17 20 13,9 16,4

not informative 17 49 13.9 40,2

Normal 29 34 23,8 27,9

Informative 47 11 38.5 9,0

very informative 12 8 9,8 6,6

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

CONVINCING– IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

CONVINCING Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid very unconvincing 8 0 6,6 0

unconvincing 31 23 25,4 18,9

Normal 38 45 31,1 36,9

Convincing 32 42 26,2 34,4

very convincing 13 12 10,7 9,8

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

MEANING – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

MEANING Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid very empty of meaning 8 3 6,6 2,5

empty of meaning 22 20 18 36.1

normal 57 37 46,7 30,3

full of meaning 24 44 19.7 16.4

very full of meaning 11 18 9,0 14,8

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

IMPORTANT – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

IMPORTANT Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid not very important 27 10 22,1 8,2

not important 32 27 26,2 22,1

normal 41 60 33,6 49,2

important 18 17 14,8 13,9

very important 4 8 3,3 6,6

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0



104

REALISTIC – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

REALISTIC Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid very unrealistic 1 3 ,8 2,5

unrealistic 14 53 11,5 40.2

normal 34 33 27,9 27,0

realistic 53 14 43,4 24.6

very realistic 20 7 16,4 5,7

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

CREATIVE – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

CREATIVE Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid not very creative 23 4 18,9 3,3

not creative 42 21 34,4 17,2

normal 36 31 29,5 25.4

creative 15 41 12,3 33.6

very creative 6 25 4,9 20,5

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

FEELINGS – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

FEELINGS Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid not transmit anything of feelings 17 2 13,9 1,6

not transmit many feeling 27 22 22,1 18,0

normal 52 29 42,6 23,8

transmit feelings 23 47 18,9 38,5

transmit many feelings 3 22 2,5 18,0

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0

UNDERSTAND – IMAGE A AND IMAGE B

UNDERSTAND Frequency IMAGE A

Frequency IMAGE B

Percent % IMAGE A

Percent % IMAGE B

Valid difficult to understand 11 5 9,0 4,1

normal 19 15 15,6 12,3

easy to understand 27 39 22,1 32,0

very easy to understand 65 63 53,3 51,6

Total 122 100,0 100,0 100,0



105



106