data and data collection in qualitative research

DATA AND DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Presented by:Rizky Amelia 140221807915

Yuni Wahyuningsih 140221807458

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

OUTLINE:• DATA• DATA COLLECTION METHODS • 1. INTERVIEWS• 2. INTROSPECTIVE METHOD– Think-aloud– Retrospective– Diary studies

• 3. Questionnaires• 4. OBSERVATIONS• 5. Documents• 6. Production task

DATA

• Data refers to the rough materials researchers collect from the world they are studying.

Data is both the evidence and the clues.

1. INTERVIEWS:An interview is a purposeful interaction in which one person obtains information from another. Advantages and disadvantages INTERVIEWS

Structured Unstructured Semi-structured

1. Structured Interview It is a formal interview in which

researchers has specified a set of planned questions that elicits the same questions from the interviewees.

2. Unstructured Interview It is an informal interview that allows

researchers to obtain more complex or personal information.

3. Semi-structured Interview

• The interview in which the interviewer has general idea or framework, but does not enter the interview with a list of predetermined questions.

Guidelines for interviewing

• Listen more, talk less.• Do not interrupt.• Avoid leading questions.• Keep participants focused and ask for concrete

details.• Follow up on what they say.• Do not be judgmental about their views.• Do not debate with them over their responses.

Focus group Interview

• Focus group interview includes several individuals who can contribute to interviewer understanding of the research problem.

E-mail interviewE-mail interview can be used effectively by

qualitative researchers.

Collecting the Data in Interviews:

• Taking notes during the interview

• Writing notes after the interview

• Audio- or videotaping the interview

Introspective MethodIt is a method for studying thought process.

Think-aloud:While the process

Restrospective:After the process

Verbal reports:Oral records of thought

Diary studies:Recorder on a first-person diary

Introspective method• It is a method for studying thought processes, designed

to help researchers to derive insights into the mental process underlying observable behavior.

• cognitive psychology

• Verbal reports is the oral record of thoughts.

• think aloud the learners are asked to verbalize their thought processes while they are involved in processing language.

• reading a text or writing an essay.

• Restrospective the learners to verbalize their thought processes immediately after they process the language.

• listening and speaking task.

Example of verbal reports:• SESILIA: At times I had the curious feeling

that he was trying to make up his mind about me, asking himself if I were friend or foe. (0.1) Foe. Lawan katanya friend mungkin, (0.5). Foe, foe, foe, foe, foe, foe. (0.2) Ya, he eh, (musuh).

The general strategies used by Block in verbal reports:

1. Anticipate content“I guess the story will be about how you go about talking to

babies”2. Recognize text structure“This is an example of what baby talk is”.3. Integrate information“Oh, this connects with the sentence just before”.4. Question information in the text“Why is (baby talk among adults) usually limited to lovers?”5. Interpret the text“I think that’s why some people doing this”.

6. Use general knowledge and associations“That’s true. It’s not easy to hold baby’s attention”.7. Comment on behavior or process“I’m getting this feeling. I always get when I read like I lost

a word”.8. Monitor comprehension “Now I see what it means. It doen’t seem like what I am

thinking of”. 9. Correct behavior“Now I read this part I understood.”10. React to the text “I love little babies”.

Sample of studies on verbal reports:1. Feldman and Stemmer (1987)

Think aloud and retrospective interviewDescribe specific problem-solving behavior on the basis on strategies.

2. KusumarasdyatiVerbal reportsInvestigate the vocabulary strategies

3. Buck (1990)Think-aloudExamine the types of knowledge skills and abilities influenced item performance on EFL listening tasks .

4. Cohen and Olshtain (1993)Verbal reportsExamine role play in order to see what strategies used in achieving the test goal.

Strengths and weaknesses• 1. invaluable data

• 2. enabled inner thoughts

• 3. easier to observe the patterns

• 1. silence

• 2. ambiguous statement

• 3. ability degree

Diary studies

• It is an account of a second language experience as recorder in a first-person diary.

Strengths and weaknesses• Provide information and

perspectives

• allow researchers to see factors identified by teachers and learners

• more accessible

• data triangulation

• involve a small number

• Based on subjective data

• it is questioned how one can analyze all of the processes involved in their own language learning and teaching experiences.

3. Questionnaires

• It is a written collection of self-report questions to be answered by selected group of research participants.

Guidelines for developing and presenting questionnaires:

1. avoid a sloppy presentation.2. carefully proofread.3. avoid a lengthy questionnaire.4. do not ask unnecessary questions.5. be clear. 6. an “other comments” section.7. Put their names or not.

Several advantages of questionnaires:• The knowledge needed is controlled by the questions.• It can be used on a small scale, in-house, and on a large

scale.• Data can be gathered in several different time slots.• Self-completion questionnaires allow access to outside

contexts.

Types of questionnaires:

Closed ended: the range of possible responses is determined by the researcher

Open ended the subject can decide what to say and how to say it

Mixture of closed and open ended.

Closed ended

Open ended

Mixture of Closed and Open ended

• Question wording

Example: Would you prefer a short, non-award course with part-day

release and one evening per week attendance with financial reimbursement for travel or longer, non-award course with full-day release, or the whole course designed on part-time release without evening attendance?

• Pre-test the Questionnaire

• With a small number of interviews• can reveal unanticipated problems• can help us see if the interviewees understand our

questions and give useful answers.

4. OBSERVATIONSWhat is Observing?

• Gathering data from natural situation• Obtaining data by watching participant

What is the purpose of observing?

Understanding the natural environment as live by participant.

What is Observation’s Characteristics?

• Non interventionist

What is Observing’s Type?1. Participant Observation2. Nonparticipant Observation3. Recording Observations/ Fieldnotes

What is Participant Observation?

The observer becomes a part of and a participant in the situation being observed.

The researcher participates in the situation while observing and collecting the data.

Participant Observation

Advantage• It allows the researcher to

gain insights and develop relationships with participants that would not be possible if the researcher observed but did not participate.

Disadvantage• The researcher may lose

objectivity and become emotionally involved with participants, For instance, or may have difficulty participating and collecting data at the same time.

Nonparticipant ObservationThe observer does not directly involve in the situation being observed.

The researcher observes and records behavior but does not interact or participate in the life of the setting understudy.

Nonparticipant Observation

AdvantageNonparticipant observers are less intrusive and less likely to become emotionally involved with participants

DisadvantageNonparticipant observers may have more difficulty obtaining reliable information about participants’ opinions, attitudes, and emotional states than participant observer do

What is Recording Observation/Fieldnotes?A method to document your observation.Qualitative research material gathered, recorded, and compiled during the course of study.

What is Field Notes?• Qualitative research material gathered, recorded, and

compiled (usually on site) during the course of the study

• It describes, as accurately and as comprehensively as possible

• It should be as extensive, clear, and detailed as possible.

Files notes’ type

Descriptive Information1. Descriptive information

Reflective Information2. observer thought or comment

What is Document?• Materials such as photographs, videos, films, memos,

letters, diaries, clinical case records, and memorabilia of all sorts

Document’s type according to Bogdan (1998: 134)1. Personal Document (Intimate Diaries, Personal Letter,

Autobiography)2. Official Documents (Internal Document, External

Communication, Student Record and Personal Files)3. Popular Culture Documents (video, educational

feature films, rock and roll, magazine, television, romance novels, and advertisement)

Production Task• Task produce by participant• For example, the Interview Test of English

as a Second Language (ITSEL) to know twenty target grammatical items.

• Item 6: Test probe for personal pronouns• Stimulus pictures:

Picture 1: Illustrate of man working in gardenPicture 2: Illustration of woman working in gardenPicture 3: Illustration of man and woman working in garden

• Instructions to tester:• DO SAY• Point to picture of man working and say: Look at him• (emphasise “he’s”) he’s working• Point to picture of woman working and say: And her?• Point to picture of man and woman working:• Indicate both people and say: and them?• Scoring criteria:• 0 neither she nor they is used as required• 1 one of she or they is used• 2 both she or they are used as required

• DO SAY• Point to picture of man working and say: Look at

him• (emphasise “he’s”) he’s

working• Point to picture of woman working and say: And her?• Point to picture of man and woman working:• Indicate both people and say: and them?

• Scoring criteria:• 0 neither she nor they is used as required• 1 one of she or they is used• 2 both she or they are used as required

• TABLE 7.1 HYPOTHESISED ORDER OF ACQUISITION ACCORDING TO THE INTERVIEW TEST OF ENGLISH FOR MIGRANTS

• Grammatical item Rank• Nouns 1• Verb 2• Adjectives 3• Verb be 4• Possessive pronouns 5• Personal pronouns 6

• Adverb of time 7• Request 8• Simple present 9• Futures 10• Wh- questions 11• Present continuous 12• Directions 13• Possessive adjective 14• Comparatives 15

• Offers 16• Simple future 17• Simple past 18• Infinitives/ gerunds 19• 1st conditional 20

Advice on how to keep the data:

• well-organized;• Develop a plan;• Back up the files;• chronologically;• Inquire about a software program

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