Definitions:Agriculture: science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising crops and rearing livestock. It is also called farming.Sericulture: commercial rearing of silk worms.Pisciculture: commercial breeding of fish.Viticulture: cultivation of crops.Horticulture: growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial useSubsistence farming- farm produce only meant for meeting the basic needs of family.Primitive subsistence farming- it is practised on small patches of land with primitive tools. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of soil etc. It is a slash and burn agriculture. It is practised by tribal population mainly in NE states, MP, TN and Kerala. Productivity is low, trees are cut to clear land, soil erosion. Also known as jhumming in NE, Dipa in Chhattisgarh. Major crops are rice, corn, jowar, bajra etc. Intensive farming-practised in areas of high population, high use of labour and capital both, high use of fertilizers and irrigation facilities. Farmer tries to get the maximum possible output from the small piece of land. More than one crop is cultivated in a year. It is practised in western and eastern coastal regions, flood plains and areas adjacent to them. In this type, farm is divided into small parts, cattle play imp role, and yield per hectare is high. Major crops are food grains, fruits, vegetables and oilseeds.Extensive farming- low population thus land is not divided, yield per hectare is low, min use of human resources. The farmer specializes in one or two commercial crop. It is widely practiced in Tarai region of Himalayas and north western states.Plantation farming- major crops are tea, coffee, sugar, rubber, spices, palm etc. Single crop is grown in large area. Nearly all the products of plantation farming are raw material for industries. They found only in tropical region, not in temperate region. This is a type of commercial farming. It requires large amount of capital. It is labour intensive.Commercial farming- use of modern tools and techniques, primarily grown for commercial purpose.Net Area Sown:This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once.

Gross Cropped Area:This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.

Irrigated Area: The area is assumed to be irrigated for cultivation through such sources as canals (Govt. & Private), tanks, tube-wells, other wells and other sources. It is divided into two categories:(i) Net Irrigated Area: It is the area irrigated through any source once in a year for a particular crop.(ii) Total Net Un-irrigated Area: It is the area arrived at by deducting the net irrigated area from net sown area.(iii) Total/Gross Irrigated Area: It is the total area under crops, irrigated once and/or more than once in a year. It is counted as many times as the number of times the areas are cropped and irrigated in a year.(iv) Total/Gross Un-Irrigated Area: It is the area arrived at by deducting the gross irrigated area from the gross sown area.(v) Cropping Intensity: It is the ratio of Net Area Sown to the Total Cropped Area.Irrigated farming- protective irrigation farming is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency where as productive irrigation farming is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture to boost production. Area under irrigation is 48.3%.Two distinct irrigated ecosystems emerge. Indo-Gangetic Plain region comprising the states of Punjab, Haryana, plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and plains of Jammu & Kashmir. Coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.Estimates indicate that more food grain comes from irrigated ecosystem while rain fed agriculture contributes less to national food grain production. In future also at least 80 per cent of the incremental food needs required by 2025, has to come from irrigated ecosystem where new technology and intensive fertilizer use will continue to play dominant role in enhancing crop productivity

Rainfed farming-it is further classified as wetland and dryland farming. Wetland farming in which rainfall is more than the requirement of soil and thus water intensive crops are grown like rice, sugarcane and jute. It receives rainfall more than 75 cm. In dry land farming rainfall is less than 75 cm and drought resistance crops are grown like millets and Gram , moongetc. Suicides are seen in rainfed areas.

Causes of low productivity in Indian agriculture.1Resource characterizationcategorization of land on the basis of land, water availability and climate is crucial for efficient land use planning and resource deployment.2Farmers Participationlack of mechanisms to build up research programmes that take into account the experience and knowledge base thatexists within the farming community. The farm family had never been the focal point of investigations. This top down approach of agricultural scientists had given a poor perception of the problems that they tried to solve.3Low Water Use EfficiencyDespite the fact that water is a precious and scarce resource, its application and use efficiencies have been quite low. Low water use efficiency is apparently attributable to:i. Excessive use of water due to improper leveling of fields coupled with improper application methods, even in agriculturally advanced areas, and faulty pricing policy for electricity and canal water leading to over irrigation.ii. Non-adoption of appropriate cropping systems. For example extensive cultivation of rice in sandy soils of Punjab, and advancement of rice transplanting to April/May in Punjab and Haryana.4Land Degradation ProblemSoil salinity hazards due to ground water rise andimpeded natural drainage in certain canal commandareas are well known. 5 Indiscriminate Exploitation of Ground WaterThe excessive pumping of ground water for irrigationpurposes in intensively cultivated areas of Punjab,Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh has caused loweringdown of the ground water table in certain pockets.Declining water tables not only raise production costsdue to higher energy requirements for pumping waterfrom greater depths but such rapid rates of decline sparkserious questions about the long-term sustainability ofrice-wheat system itself in these areas. Contrary to this,the vast potential of ground water in Eastern UttarPradesh, Bihar and adjoining areas remains untapped.6 In-efficient Land UseDiversion of highly productive irrigated land to non-agricultural uses; such as industry, housing etc., especiallyat rural-urban interface needs to be viewed seriously.7 Decline in Factor ProductivityDue to imbalance in fertilizer use, widespreaddeficiencies of secondary and micro-nutrients andreduced organic matter contents of cultivated lands, a declining trend for responses to nutrients, specially tonitrogen, in major cropping systems is being observedon farmers fields. That is, to sustain earlier yield levelsfarmers need to apply higher fertilizer doses.8 Imbalance in Fertilizer UseThe problem of imbalance in fertilizers is causing negative balanceof nutrients in soil. And if this trend continues, a seriousthreat persists for sustainability of the major croppingsystems of irrigated areas.Due to continuous cereal-cereal cropping in most of the irrigated fertile lands during post green revolutionperiod, multiple nutrient deficiencies have emerged. Thelong term experiments have clearly shown a decline inorganic carbon, nitrogen and P in cereal-cereal intensivecropping.Farmers have developed tendencies to use higher doses of nitrogenous fertilizers, may be because N is comparatively cheaper than P and K. This, therefore, has resulted in widening ratios of N: P and N: K to undesirable levels.9 Build-up of Diseases/PestsWith crop intensification under high input use, seriousthreats of occurrence and build up of some obnoxiouspests and diseases have crept in. This factor again hindersthe vertical growth and questions are being raised aboutthe sustainability of the environment under intensiveinput use, which is otherwise needed for maximizingcrop yields. Heavy infestation of Phalaris minor incontinuous rice-wheat cropping system in north westernplains is a glaring example.10 Inadequate Considerations for Environmental QualityWith a pressing need for producing more and morefrom less and less land resource, a serious threat islurking upon the environmental quality. A potentialdanger may be envisioned in the form of pollution ofnatural water bodies and underground aquifers due tonitrate leaching and phosphates causing irreparable harmto natural ecosystems under high fertilizer use withoutimproving their use efficiencies.

Major cropping seasonsRabi- sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Crops need cool climate during its sowing and warm climate during the germination of seed and maturation. Important crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, masoor etc. North and NW parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, UK and UP are important for wheat and other Rabi crops. Availability of precipitation during winter months due to western temperate cyclone helps in the success of these crops. Kharif- crops are grown at the beginning of SW monsoon and harvested at the end of the SW monsoon (Sep-Oct). Major crops are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, cotton, jute, groundnut and soybean.Zaid-in between Rabi and Kharif seasons a period during summer. Major crops are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber vegetables and fodder crops.Rice 100-200cmPlenty of sunshine.Fertile alluvial soil.Temp- above 25Rice is grown almost throughout the year in hot and humid regions of eastern and southern parts of India because most of the eastern and southern regions are fulfilling the above said conditions. In those areas yearly two to three crops of rice is not uncommon. For example in the Cauvery delta regions of Tamil Nadu paddy is cultivated thrice in a year viz. Samba crop for 5 to 6 months again Kuruvai crop for 3 to 4 months again Thaladi crop for remaining period.

2005-22.71% of gross cropped area2010-22.05%

Rice West Bengal, UP, AP

Problems faced by rice farmers The major rice growing areas are concentrated in Eastern region and this region is generally experiences high rainfall and severe flood almost every year. Low and imbalanced use of fertilizers, low use efficiency of applied fertilizers particularly in the North-Eastern and Eastern States. Lack of response to the application of balanced fertilizers. About 78% of the farmers are small and marginal in the country and they are poor in resource. Therefore, they are not in a position to use optimum quantity of inputs in their crops which are essential for increasing the productivity.Possible solutions Improving soil fertility by inclusion of leguminous crops in the crop rotations or as mixed crop. Emphasis on balanced use of plant nutrients along with the popularization of integrated plant management system. Promoting the Integrated Pest Management Approach for effective control of pests and diseases by emphasizing the need based application of pesticides.

MAIZE:1. Rainfall should be 50-100cm and it cannot be grown in areas of more than 100cm.2. The crop usually grows well under temperature varying from 21-27 degree Celsius.3. Frost is injurious to maize so it requires four and a half frost free months in a year.4. Fertile alluvial and red loam soil is suitable for maize.Maize is mainly a Kharif crop which is sown just before the onset of the monsoon and harvested after retreat of the monsoon. In some states like Bihar it is grown in Rabi season also.The cultivation of maize in India is characterised by inter-culture i.e. it is produced along with pulses, oil seeds and vegetables. In Tamil Nadu it is a Rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the onset of winter rainy season in September and October. This is because of Tamil Nadu is getting good rain fall in this period (north-east monsoon).Maize2005-5.01%2010-4.22%Karnataka, AP, Maharashtra

MILLETS:Millets are short duration (3-4 months) warm weather grasses grown in those areas where the main crops like rice and wheat cannot be grown successfully.Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are some important millets.MilletsRajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra

Jowar (sorghum):Bajra:

Ragi:

Next to rice and wheat jowar is the third most important food crop both with respect to area and production. 1. It is grown both as kharif and Rabi crop. As a kharif crop temperature between 26 -33 degree Celsius is good. As a Rabi crop temperature should not go below 16 degree Celsius.2. Rain fall needs more than 30cm but should not exceed 100cm.3. Clayey deep regur and alluvium are best suited soils.Usually it has been cultivated in the dry and irrigation is not used areas. Maharashtra produces more than 50 per cent of the total jowar production of India

2005-13.7%2010-3.7%

1. Rainfall 40-50cm.2. Temperature 25-30 degree Celsius.3. Can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red soils.It is a kharif crop. Rajasthan is the largest producer, it is mainly grown in the central plateau having poor soils and dry climate2005- 4.49%2010-4.86%

mainly grown in drier parts of south India1. Rainfall 50-100cm2. Temperature 20-30 degree Celsius.3. It is raised on red, light black and sandy looms.It is a kharif crop Karnataka is the largest producer2005- 4%2010- 0.63%

COTTON:1. Uniformly high temperature (21-30). 2. Rainfall normal (50-100cm)3. Black cotton soil.Frost is the number one enemy of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops such as maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum, castor, ground nut and some vegetables.Cotton grows well in the deep black soils of the Deccan and Malwa plateau and those in Gujarat. Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil. Therefore regular application of manures and fertilizers to the soil is very necessary.2005- 4.47%2010- 5.50%

CottonGujrat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh

Problems faced by cotton farming1. Increased expenses on pesticides: both due to emergence of new pest and increase in the cost of pesticides have increased the spending of farmers on pesticides. Mostly pesticides are bought from lending money from local money lenders at exorbitant rates.2. Credit needs: for farmers kharif season may prove distress when rainfall is not adequate. Farmers often get into debt trap in case of poor monsoon.3. Fluctuation in cotton fortunes: due to fluctuating market prices and growing a cotton has become a gamble for farmers.4. Health: generally farmers spray their field with their own sprayer and consequently some of the farmers mentioned breathing problems, dizziness and headaches.5. Womens role in cotton cultivation: unlike other food crops their role in cotton cultivation is limited.

JUTE:1. requires high temperature (24-35) degree2. Requires heavy rainfall 120-150cm.3. Grow well in light sandy or claying loams.Jute rapidly exhausts the fertility of the soil. So in the delta regions of the Hoogly River it grows well because the Hoogly River would made the new alluvium deposits often over the older layer. West Bengal largest producer and Bihar is second.

SUGARCANE:Conditions of growth:It is a long duration crop and requires 10 to 15 and even 18 months to mature, depending upon the geographical conditions. It requires hot and humid climate.1. temperature 21-27 degree.2. Rainfall 75-150 cm. Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content and deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous crop.3. In fact, sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soils are ideal for its growthThree belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified.1. The satluj-ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar.2. The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil nadu along the eastern slopes of the western Ghats.3. Coastal Andhra and the Krishna valley.In the northern plain of India, the summer temperatures ranging from 30 to 35 degree hamper the growth of the cane. In the winter months of December and January the sugarcane crop is likely to be damaged by excessively cold weather accompanied by frost. Consequently the yield per hectare is low. In south India, on the other hand reasonably high temperature in the summer and frost free winter, coupled with the maritime winds in the coastal areas are some of the climatic factors which are extremely beneficial to this crop. But due to some economic and political conditions from the older days more sugars are cultivated in north India to compare with south India. But nowadays it has been changing towards the south India.

2005-2.41%2010-2.66%

SugarcaneUP, Maharashtra, TN

SugarcaneWater requirement of sugarcane is 1500-2000 mm per hectare twice that of rice and 4 times that of wheat. But sugarcane grows over 11-12 months, as against 4-5 months for the latter. Also, the best Punjab farmer cannot harvest beyond 5-6 tonnes of wheat and 8-9 tonnes of paddy a hectare. In contrast, cane yields arent below 40 tonnes for the worst Uttar Pradesh grower, while averaging 105 tonnes in Tamil Nadu. Sugarcane, in other words, uses less water per day and even less for every unit weight of biomass produced.The reason: It is a rare crop in a list that includes maize, sorghum and a few grasses exhibiting C4 photosynthesis, a more efficient mechanism of deploying solar energy to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide and water into plant matter. This is significant considering that scientists have sought to genetically modify rice, which uses the more common C3 photosynthetic pathway, into a C4 plant. The latter is seen to potentially yield 50 per cent more grain and double water-use efficiency.The biggest constituent in sugarcane, about 30 per cent by weight, is bagasse: the fibrous residue remaining after extraction of the juice and a rich source of biofuel. Not many know that sugar is an industry that generates its own energy, not only to meet captive consumption requirements but also to supply to the grid.Balrampur Chini Mills, for instance, generated 75 crore units and exported 55 crore units valued at Rs 229 crore to the UP Power Corporation in 2013-14.At 70 tonnes, the average one-hectare Indian cane farmers yield can contribute 6,500-odd units of exportable electricity.The leftover juice after extraction of the maximum possible sugar from three cycles of boiling and crystallisation. The non-recoverable sugar in the molasses is what gets fermented into alcohol. Why not give mills the flexibility to ferment cane juice directly or at least after the first/ second stages of crystallisation? Given that mills are now holding sugar stocks equivalent to almost four months consumption, shouldnt they be making more alcohol? With direct fermentation, they can produce up to 72 litre from every tonne of cane, against only 11 litre through molasses. This is where policy matters.The UP government reserves 34 per cent of molasses production by mills for supplying to country liquor manufacturers. So, even while cane farmers dont get paid, desi daru makers are guaranteed subsidised molasses.

Wheat1. Low to moderate temperature below 202. Moderate rainfall around 50-753. Fertile alluvial soil. Black soil of DeccanIn the ripening stage of the wheat there should be very less moisture in the atmosphere and the temperature should rise gradually. This rise in temperature would happen with the travelling of the sun from the tropic of Capricorn to the tropic of cancer.2005-0.85%2010-14.99%

Wheat UP, Punjab, Haryana

PULSES:2005-11.58%2010-12.94%

PulsesMP, UP, Rajasthan

Gram:Gram is the most important of all the pulses.1. Mild cool temperature 20-25 degree Celsius.2. Rainfall 40-50 cm.3. It grows well in loamy soils.It is a rabi crop, most of the gram comes from Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Maharashtra

Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or red gram): Chiefly grown as kharif crop but in area of mild winter it is grown as rabi crop also. Seldom grown as a single crop.Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarath, and Karnataka are the chief producing states.

TOBACCO:It is a crop of tropical and sub-tropical region.1. Temperature varying from 16-35 degree Celsius.2. Rainfall normally 100cm.3. Well drained friable sandy loams, not too rich in organic matter but rich in mineral salts.In fact, soil rather than climate is the determining factor for its geographical distribution.Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are major states.

OILSEEDS:India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Five major oil seeds are:1. Ground nut, 2.sesamum, 3.rapeseed and mustard, 4.linseed, 5. Castor seed.2005-16.04%2010-14.6%

Oilseed totalMP, Rajasthan, Gujrat

Ground nut:1. it requires 20-30 degree Celsius temperature.2. rainfall 50-75 cm.3. enemies= frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain, stagnant water.4. well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black cotton soils.Around 90 per cent of the ground nut is produced as the kharif crop. But it can be grown both as kharif and rabi crop. It serves as an important rotation crop because it synthesizes atmospheric nitrogen and increases soil fertility.GroundnutGujrat, TN, Andhra Pradesh

Sesamum:1.it requires 21-23 degree temperature.2.45-50cm rainfall.3.well drained light loamy soils.It is a rainfed crop it is grown as kharif crop in north India and rabi crop in south India.

Odisha, Rajasthan, west Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are the main producers.Rapeseed and mustard:Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate of the satluj-ganga plain and very small quantity is grown in peninsular India. They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed with wheat, gram, and barley.Rape seed & MustardRajasthan, MP, Haryana

TEA:1. Temperature for its growth is 20-30 degree Celsius and temperatures above 35 degree and below 10 degree is harmful for the bush.2. It requires 150-300cm annual rainfall.3. High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour the rapid development of young leaves.4. Tea is shade loving plant and develops more vigorously when planted along with shady trees.5 Mountain soil, Soil should be deep fertile, rich in humus and organic matter and water should not stagnate6. Although tea requires heavy rainfall for its growth, stagnant water is injurious to its roots. It is therefore, grown on the hill slopes.7. Most of the tea plantations in India are found at elevations varying from 600 to 1800m above the sea level.Tea in India is highly concentrated in few selected areas.1. North eastern India:It is more are less a triangular area in Assam and west Bengal. 75 per cent tea produced in india is coming from here. In Assam main tea producing belts are Brahmaputra valley and surma valley. In west Bengal it is in the Duars and Darjeeling.2. South India:In south India tea is produced in Nilgiri, Cardamom,Palani and Annaimalai in Tamilnadu, kerala and Karnataka. This region accounts for 22 per cent of tea production in India. In south India Tamilnadu is the largest producer of tea accounting for over 14 percent of total tea production in India.3. North west India:Some of tea is produced in UK and HPCOFFEE:1.it grows in hot and humid climate, temperature varying from 15-28 degree is good. Temperature above 30 degree is harmful. And also it does not tolerate frost, snowfall.2.rainfall from 150-250cm. Is good. Stagnant water is harmful.3.dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening.4.well drained, rich friable loams containing good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal.Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon sun and the south west monsoon winds. The restricted agro climatic conditions have forced the coffee plantations to confine themselves to small area in south india comprising hill areas around nilgiris. Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka, kerala, tamil nadu. Karnataka is the leading producer in india.

RUBBER:1. It requires hot and humid climate with temperature of 25-35degree Celsius. And annual rainfall of about 300cm.2. Dry spell and low temperature is harmful. Daily rainfall followed by strong sun is very useful.3. Deep well drained loamy soils on the hill slopes at elevation ranging from 300-450 m above sea level is best condition. There is no rubber tree found above 700m elevation, because the yield will reduce.Kerala is the largest producer of rubber followed by Tamilnadu and Karnataka SPICES:Pepper, cordomum, chillies, turmeric and ginger are some of the important spices produced in india. They generally require heavy rainfallHORTICULTURE:Horticulture is the section of agriculture in which fruits and vegetables are grown. Immense agro climatic diversity enables india to grow a large variety of horticulture crops.

Cropping patternThe pattern of crops grown on a given piece of land, or order in which the crops are cultivated over a fixed period to earn maximum benefit is known as cropping pattern. So depending upon the physiographic conditions, climatic condition, economic condition, scientific conditions and political conditions we would change different variety of crops in a given piece of land over the period this is called cropping pattern.Types of cropping patternMixed cropping: growing of 2 or more crops simultaneously and intermingled on the same piece of land without row arrangements (without any regular pattern) in a single growing season. This reduces the risk and gives some insurance against failure of one crop.Intercropping: growing 2 or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern. Advantages of intercropping are better control of weeds, pest and diseases, better use of resource growth, stability in yield etc. Major disadvantages are yield decreases because of competition effect, difficulty in using machines.Relay cropping: growing 2 or more crops on the same field with different maturing age i.e. one is harvested earlier than other.Crop rotation: growing of different crops in planned succession. Major advantages are the more effective control of weeds, pests and more economical utilisation of soil fertility. EX- leguminous crops like pulses are grown alternately with wheat, barley or mustard.Single cropping: cultivators grow one crop. It is generally undertaken in those areas where soil and climatic conditions are most favourable for the production of a particular crop only. EX-Tea, Coffee etc1. Sole cropping: also known as solid planting, growing of only one crop variety in the given piece of land.2. Monoculture: repetitive growing of same sole crop on same land.

The crop occupying the highest percentage of the sown area of the region is taken as the base crop and all other possible alternative crops which are sown in the region either as substitutes of the base crop in the same season or as the crops which fit in the rotation in the subsequent season, are considered in the pattern.Determinants of cropping pattern Physical factorClimateTerrain i.e. soil and slope InfrastructuralIrrigation facilitiesTechnology like HYV are short duration crops thus more crops in cropping pattern EconomicDemand based cropping pattern Social and culturalFood habits etc like wheat in western India and rice in eastern India. Size of landSmall holding farmers prefer labour intensive cropping where as large land holders prefer for capital intensive croppingIndian agriculture has multiplicity of cropping systems due the following reasons- Still almost 50 % of the cropped area are dependent upon rain, thus cultivating a larger area under a particular crop is risky business. Due to the prevailing socio-economic condition like small land holdings, high population pressure etc all this led India towards subsistence agriculture.Change in cropping patternA change in the cropping pattern means a change in the proportion of area under different crops. The cropping pattern changes depend upon changes in demand patterns, development of irrigation, availability of marketing infrastructure and new trade arrangements.

PREVALENT CROPPING SYSTEMS in IndiaMultiplicity of cropping systems has been one of the main features of Indian agriculture. This may be attributed to following two major factors: Due large area lacking irrigation facilitiespractice of intercropping, due to greater risks involved in cultivating larger area under a particular crop. Due to prevailing socio-economic situations most of the farmers resort to grow a number of crops on their farm holdings, primarily to fulfil their household needsClassification of cropping pattern:Indias cropping pattern is dominated by food crops due to huge population. The net sown area is 46% of total land. The most convenient method is to classify the agricultural production into two groups ie. Food grains and non-food grains. The area under foodgrains are UP, MP, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. The areas under non-food crops are Maharashtra, MP, AP and Gujarat. A large proportion of the area under food grains is occupied by cereals i.e. total food grains occupy 64.18% of the gross cropped area whereas total cereals occupy 51.24% of gross cropped area.

If we study the area of cultivation of food grains and non-food grains, there was a gradual shift from non-food grains to food grains. Important reasons are: the prices of food grains have been rising quite fast and the farmers have started growing food crops in the similar way they grow commercial crops like cotton, oil seed crops sugarcane etc. Secondly, the cultivation of food grains has become highly remunerative and productive under the impact of new technology.

SPECIFIC ISSUES RELATING TO SOME IMPORTANT CROPPING SYSTEMSRice-WheatRice-Wheat system is the most widely adopted cropping system in the country and it is prevalent in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh Despite enormous growth of this cropping system in the country during the past few years, reports of stagnation in the productivity of these crops, with possible decline in production in future, have raised doubts on its sustainability. Important issues emerging as a threat to the sustainability of rice-wheat system are: Over mining of nutrients from soil Decreasing response to nutrients Declining ground water table Build up of diseases/pest Low use of fertilizer in eastern and central India Lack of appropriate varietal combination.Rice-RiceRice-rice is the popular cropping system in irrigated lands in humid and coastal ecosystems of Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala . The major issues in sustaining productivity of rice-rice system are: Deterioration in soil physical conditions. Micronutrient deficiency. Poor efficiency of nitrogen use. Imbalance in use of nutrient Build up of obnoxious weeds such as Echinochloa crusgalli and non-availability of suitable control measures.Rice-Mustard From a view point of food security and national economy, rice-rapeseed/mustard may be considered as an important cropping system. In this cropping system, the yield of Rice is satisfactory in all ecosystems, however, wide variations in yield of mustard were recorded from one ecosystem to anotherRice-Pulses Rice-Pulses cropping system is a dominant crop rotation in Chhattisgarh, Orissa and parts of Bihar.Factors limiting productivity of this cropping system in the region are as follows:-A.Physical factors Droughts and erratic distribution of rainfall. Small area under assured irrigation. High percolation, resulting in heavy nitrogen losses in red sandy-loam soils, particularly Bhata soils.B. Input related factors Delayed and prolonged biasi/transplanting. Low coverage under high yielding varieties (HYVs). Little attention to timely weed control. Inadequate supply of quality seed. Little attention to disease/pest control.C. Social factors Low literacy. Large proportion of marginal and tribal farmers. Practices of animal grazing on agricultural lands. Low risk bearing capacity of farmers of the region.Sugarcane-WheatPrevalent in N India. Problems in sugarcane-wheat system are: Late planting of sugarcane as well as wheat. Imbalance and inadequate use of nutrients. Since majority of farmers apply only N in sugar cane and the use of P and K is limited. The emerging deficiencies of P, K, S and micro-nutrients are limiting system productivity directly and through interactions with other nutrients. Low productivity of ratoon due to poor sprouting of winter harvested sugarcane in north India. Poor nitrogen use efficiency in sugarcane

Maize-WheatAmong maize-wheat growing areas, maize is the principal crop of Kharif season in northern hills of the country but plains of northern states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar also have sizeable acreage under this crop.Poor maize-wheat yield has been reported from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tripura, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. There are number of reasons for poor yield but the most significant are: Sowing time Poor plant population Poor weed management Poor use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. Large area under rain fed

Cotton-WheatCotton is widely grown in alluvial soils of north India (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Western Uttar Pradesh) and black cotton soils of central India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka). With the availability of short duration varieties of cotton, cotton-wheat cropping system has become dominant in North. About 70-80 per cent area of cotton is covered under this system. In Central region also, wherever irrigation is available, cotton-wheat is practiced. The major issues of concern in cotton-wheat cropping system are: Delayed planting of succeeding wheat after harvest of cotton. Stubbles of cotton create problem of tillage operations and poor tilth for wheat. Susceptibility of high yielding varieties of cotton to boll worm and white fly and consequently high cost on their control leading to unsustainability. Poor nitrogen use efficiency in cotton results in low productivity of the system. Appropriate technology for intercropping in widely spaced cotton is needed to be developed

LEGUME BASED CROPPING SYSTEMSLegume crops (pulses and oilseeds) are popular for their suitability in different cropping systems. Recent advances in the development of large number of varieties of pulse and oilseed crops, varying largely for maturity duration, have made it possible to include them I irrigated crop sequences. The popular cropping systems are pigeon pea-wheat in Madhya Pradesh and groundnutwheat in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and groundnut-sorghum in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.The major issues in legume based cropping systems are: No technological breakthrough has been achieve so far in respect of yield barriers, particularly in legumes. Susceptibility of the pulses to aberrant weather conditions especially water logging and adverse soils making them highly unstable in performance. High susceptibility to diseases and pests. Low harvest index, flower drop, indeterminate growth habit and very poor response to fertilizers and water in most of the grain legumes. Nutrient needs of the system have to be worked out considering N-fixation capacity of legume crops.

AlluvialRed Black Laterite Desert Mountain

Property43.7% of IndiaBhaggar- dark in clour, olderKhaddar-light in colour, newer depositRed colour is due to Fe. pH varies from 6.6 to 8 and are poorer than alluvial. They are loamy or sandy and have low water retention capacity. They are deep and fertile in low lands and poor in up lands.Also known as regur, they are of lava origin, clayey and impermeable. High moisture retention level. On the up lands they low fertility compared to low landsUnder high temp and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Process of leaching occurs, heavy particles like Fe, Al settles down whereas light particles like Silica and lime are washed away. Process of soil formation is called laterization.Only found b/w tropicsSandy, alkaline, low water holding capacity.Acidic loamy

RichPotash KAl, Lime, IronIron, K, Al, Mg, LimeFe, AlP, K

deficientN, P, HumusN,P,K and organic matterN, P, humusMg, lime, silica NN, humushumus

Major cropsRice, wheat, sugarcane, jute, oilseeds, vegetables etcunder irrigation, can produce excellent crops like cotton, wheat, pulses, tobacco, jowar, linseed, millet, potatoes and fruits. These are also characterized by stunted forest growth and are suited to dry farmingCotton, sugarcane, groundnut, banana- most of the commercial cropTea, coffee, rubber, Cashewnut, spices.