agriculture management notes - frames

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Volume 49, No.21988

FireManagementNotes

FireManagementNotes An international quarterly periodical

devoted to forest fire management

Contents3 Artificial Intelligence Applications to Fire

DOll J. Latham

6 The Florida Division of Forestry Helicopter ProgramJohn Mason Glen

8 Prescribed Burning for Cultural ResourcesJohn E. HUJ1ler

10 "SO. Ya Wanna Make a Movie')"Frank Carroll

13 Building a Command Post That Is MobileBill Tern'

16 An Evaluation of Foam as a Fire SuppressantPaul Scblobolun alld ROil Roc/mel

21 South Dakota Strike Teams Help Fight California FiresKen Terrill and Greg Krumbach

23 A Quick Method To Determine Northeastern Woody FuelWeights

Cary Rouse and Donna Paananen

25 Celebrating Research Accomplishments at the Forest FireLaboratory

Roberta M. Burzynski

26 An Overview of the 1987 Wallace Lake Fire. ManitobaKelvin Hirsch

28 Mapping Fires With the FIRE MOUSE TRAPDuane Dtpert and John R. Warren

31 Correcting an Error in the HP-7IB Fire Behavior CROMRobert E. Burgan and Ronald A. SUSOf{

33 New McCall Smokejumper Base Dedication PlannedGene Benedict

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Volume 49, No.21988

Fire Management Notes is published by theForest Service 01the United StalesDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.The Secretary of Agriculture has determinedthat the publication of this periodical isnecessaryin the transaction 01 the publicbI.Isiness requlroo by lawaI this De?anman\.

Subscriptions may be obtained from theSuperintendent of Documents, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington,D,C. 20402

NOTE-· The use of trade, firm, or corporationnames in this publication is lor theiniorma\ion and ccrwewerce o~ Ihe reacer.Such use does not constitute an officialendorsement of any product or service by theU.S. Department 01Agriculture.

Disclaimer: Individual authors areresponsible lor the technical accuracy 01themetenar presented in Fire ManagementNotes.

Send suggestions and articles to Chief,Forest Service (Attn: Fire ManagementNotes). P.O. 80x 96090, U.S. Department olAgriculture, Washington, DC 20090-6090.

Richard E. Lynq, SecretaryU.S. Department of Agriculture

F. Dale Robertson, Chia1Forest Service

L.A Amicarelia, DirectorFire and Aviation Management

Francis A. Russ,General Manager

Cover. Gene Benedict, Branch Chief. Fire Management and Recreation. stands before McCaJl Smokcjumpcr Base. on Payette NationalForest. ID. See story on p. 33. (Photo courtesy of Eric Bechtcl,Cel1lra) Idaho Star News.]

l 2 Fire Management Notes

Artificial IntelligenceApplications to FireDon J. Latham

Meteorologist/physicist. lntcnnountain Fire Science.'!' Laboratory.USDA Forest Service, Missoufa, MT

Just what is artificial intelligence(AI). and what could it possibly dofor (or to) fire science and management? Before getting into uses that ,as we shall sec. will be manifold andpervasive, Jet's dig into some of thecharacteristics and definitions ofartificial intelligence.

Many potential or actual users ofAI will insist that the term is anoxymoron. That is, anything artificial cannot be intelligent, and viceversa. There is a simple operationaldefinition that gets us around this difficulty: the Turing rest, named afterits inventor. Allan Turing. If you arecommunicating with someone orsomething. and you can't tellwhether thc someone or something ishuman or machine. then it is intetligcnt. We can expand this test just alittle to include more behavior thancommunication. and we have a prettygood working definition of artificialintelligence. along the lines of: if itwalks like a duck. quacks like aduck, and looks like a duck. then itis probably a duck,

I don't think there is any questionthat we can replicate human thinkingprocesses in machinery and uscmachinery to expand those processes.We've already done this. We willbuild machinery that thinks to matchthe job to be done. Imagine comingto work one morning and turning onyour desktop thinking machine. onlyto have it announce that it was calling in sick. So. we'd probably wantour desktop machines to be rathersubservient. On the other hand. suppose we send a machine to explorethe surface of Jupiter. We wouldwant this machine to have a great

1988 Volume 49, Number 2

deal of intelligence. including thecapability of refusing to carry out aself-destructive action (see Asirnov'slaws of robotics).

Where are we now in the realm ofAI" Currently. the field is brokeninto several overlapping categories.The most common divisions are:environmental sensing (vision. hearing). including pattern matching andrecognition of things: computer learning and analysis; "natural" languageand linguistics; and reasoning. orknowledge-based systems (. 'expertsystems"). Does this sound familiar?It should. because it is just what people do: input data from the senses (orfrom internal sources such as adream). filter and think about thedata. apply known processes andremembered data to the result. andact on the result. Some of our actionsare "hard-wired;" like reflexes,some "background" or metaprograms, like driving a car, andsome call for much active thought.like reading this paper.

Each of these divisions of AI isin its embryonic stage. Every stepforward seems to generate morequestions than answers. Robotics. forexample. a sort of melding of thesearbitrary divisions of Al• is movingfast. Both military and commercialinterests want robots to work forthem: robots don't talk back. theyobey orders, are dispensable, andcannot sue you. At present. however.robots are limited in capability. Arobot van has successfully negotiateda road, on its own, at about 3 milesper hour. Remotely piloted helicopters. using infrared scanners andknowledge-based systems, arc being

developed to recognize tanks. Doesthat sound like something desirablefor fire application?

At present. the most useful Altechnology is the' 'expert system" orknowledge-based system. These computer programs usc knowledge bases(composed of facts and rules). interpreters of the facts and rules (calledinference engines), input and outputroutines. and explanation routines.Most of these programs follow longand sometimes tortuous reasoningchains through to a conclusion. Theyare good at this. whereas people arcnot; it is not a survival characteristic.Engaging in long reasoning chainswhen threatened by a saber-toothtiger probably would get you eaten.

An expert at something has createda domain of knowledge about thesomething. Within that domain. theexpert has formed heuristics, orrules-of-thumb. to guide activitieswithin the domain. If the expert can.with the aid of a knowledge 'engineer, or without. codify his or herknowledge, an expert system can beconstructed to mimic the behavior ofthe expert in the domain. The codification and the knowledge base thatresult are knowledge representation,one of the major problems in expertsystems. This process is, of course,putting the expert's knowledge intomachine-understandable format.

3

Why not just teach the machine toaccept the knowledge and codify it.thus replacing the knowledge engineer with a program'? Attempts todo just that arc ongoing. It is one ofthe current hot topics in artificialintelligence.

Of course. the program. unlike theexpert. is not able to extend theknowledge base in other than an elementary deductive way. Once wehave started the program going and ithas deduced all the consequences ofthe knowledge it has in its knowledge base. it stops. We have not toldthe program how to extend its knowledge. The machine's extension of itsknowledge is. as you might expect.one aspect of machine learning. Theprogram has to know not only howto learn. or store data, but also toform and test new hypotheses aboutnew input. To do that. the programhas to know how to think aboutthinking. And so on.

If our understanding of how tohuild effective machines is so infantile, then what good. in a practicalsense, arc the simple programs thatarc available to us'! Right now wecan computerize any repetitive process or any closed operation for whicha knowledge representation can befound. We can also generate programs that add facts within therepresentation to their knowledgebases. and reason, using those newfacts. We can construct intelligentdatabases and inventory systems. Ifwe hac! started work 5 years ago, ina serious way, we could right now beusing:o An expert system that is the Forest

Service Manual.

4

o A scmi-auromntcd land-use planning system.

C!) An elementary, reasoning fire dispatch system.

o Prescribed burning plans that learn.e Interactive. self-correcting, geo

graphic information systems.Many of these would have been

availablc this year or during the nextcouple of years on cheap mass storage and running on advanced workstations, large desktop computers.We are, then at least 5 years behind.

Jf we run Iike heck to get caughtlip. how far could we get by the year2000:) We could be testing or have:e The first crude robots for forest

usc.o Completely automated fire dispatch

machinery that would be able touse the forest robots as smokechasers and forest plans for broadguidance.

o Interactive teaching tools withhighly realistic simulations.A robot for a forest or rangeland

vvould he programmed to roam agiven geographic area, monitoringfor fire and bug activity. and keeping

track of wildlife and the like. Itcould be programmed to do clcmcnwry thinking about its environmentand would call for help if needed. Ofcourse. it would know where it isand communicate by satellite.

Fire dispatch machinery such as Idescribe is already beginning to beused, except for the robotics. inOntario and Quebec. The packageand concept were developed by PeterKourtz at Pctawaw«. The machinedispatcher keeps track of fuels bysatellite, rainbll by radar. andweather and lightning occurrence byland-based sensors. It is at presentdependent on human input. but willbecome more and more intelligent astime goes on.

Do such machines and programsreplace people? Yes. of course. Theyreplace people who arc doing mundane, repetitive tasks. tasks thatalmost all people dislike and performpoorly. They free people to do whatthey do better than machines-thinkcreatively and with common sense.The machinery must be looked at asa tool. as an extension of the mind

Fire Management Notes

and body. Look-did the bulldozerreplace the Pulaski'? Sure. for someuses, hut each still has its place.

Aside from cost, which is a matterof commitment to a course of action.the things that hotd us back fromimplementation of this or other newtechnology arc simple human inertia.a reluctance to change. and a management system firmly rooted in the19th century.

Resistance to change is. however.a survival trait. New things must betested to assess their value. What Iam doing is proposing that application of new technology is more thanjust a better way of putting out a fireor even better planning tools. It nowincludes change in a chain of command. with information and policyimplementation passing throughmany layers. to a system two orthree -layers deep and with far moreautomated information passing. Weare seeing the beginnings of this withimplementation of the Forest Serviccwide computer system. It is startingas an aid within the old managementstructure. but will sooner or laterenable a far more efficient structure.releasing managers from much of thepaper shuffling necessary for passinginformation through a vertical structure. Geographic InformationSystems will tie information to theland. and make it available withoutbeing manually handled. Administrative information can be quicklydispersed without the need for manydiffering interpretations as it passesthrough a chain of people. And artificial intelligence programmingtechniques will be helping us all theway.•


The Webster's dream house took 26,000 board-feetof lumber, 13,146 hours and their entire savings to build.

It took one match to destroy.Remember, only you can prevent forest fires.

5

The Florida Division of ForestryHelicopter ProgramJohn Mason Glen

State {d' Florida aviation safesv officer. Taltnhnsscc, FL

11/ fore,l!,l"Oul1d. Bell UH-I E heli('opter Oil {(/(I/I to Florida Divisian or Forestry: ill rear, II{,lI'!." purc/lt/scd HI/giles 50()f).

. ,

Interagency cooperation and assistance has been highly visible since thcinception of the program. The U.S.Navy provided Division aircraftmechanics with training as well assome specialized tools. The Divisionis able (0 order helicopter parts fromthe Army on the same priority codeas a frontline military unit.

All three helicopters and pilotsare based in Tallahassee. Currentmanagement objectives call forrepositioning of a helicopter into theSouthern Region of the State whenthe weather build-up index reachesvery high or extreme. or fires haveoccurred, or a combination of thetwo. During our fire season, roughlyFebruary through June, an aircraftwill remain in the Southern Region,with the pilots rotating on a weeklybasis. A portable auxiliary powerunit. 240 gallon Bambi bucket. cargonet and lead line, tool box andhelmets, and Nomex night suits and

.... -":.. .~. ,:--~.

~~~.~-,,,:,,"._~.~,,~~,,,,'.,,,'--._"-'_-'- ~_-J

expire. King intercom, Nav-com.transponder. and Wulfsberg 9600channel radios replaced the 20-yearold military radio equipment. One"Hucy' was painted Division greenand white and had new soundproofinterior installed. The other paint jobwill be accomplished in fiscal year1988. Three "Hucy fuselages fornondynamic parts replacement werealso acquired, as well as an entirerebuilt spare Lycoming 1'-53-11engine.

Additionally. the Florida State legislaturc appropriated $200.000 forthe Division to purchase outright asmaller helicopter for seed orchardand nursery spraying, aerial ignition.fire management. and other forestryduties. Out of a list of 30 possiblecandidates, six helicopters werelooked at. A ! 979 Hughes soon with1.600 hours on it seemed to he thebest choice, and came on-line inFebruary 1987.

The 19H5 fire season was the worstin recent history for the State of Florida. One Division of Forestry firefighter and one local forest productsindustry firefighter were burned todeath battling a wildfire: over2.00 homes were destroyed and inexcess of 400,000 acres of timbermanagement area was ruined.

This conflagration did provide theimpetus for a concentrated effort onthe part or the Division of Forestry.in concert with the industry, SenatorPaula Hawkins' office. and theFlorida Forestry Association, toacquire helicopter assets to assist infire management. These efforts wererewarded by the U.S. Navy's releasingtwo Bell UH-1 E helicopters into theUSDA Forest Service Excess Property Program for loan to the FloridaDivision of Forestry. The helicoptersare operated within the strict guidelines of a-cooperative agreement withthe Forest Service requiring 90 percent of the flight time to be on firerelated activities.

The 1966 U1'I-IE models. withroughly 4.000 hours of flight timeeach. underwent comprehensivemaintenance inspections followingtheir arrival from the storage depot atDavis-Monthun Air Force Base nearTucson, AZ. All inspection panelswere opened; corroded areasrepaired: new rivets, tail rotor cablesand guides, drive shafts, thick-walledmasts, dynamic bearings, stabilizerbars and other miscellaneous itemsinstalled: and an engine "hot-end"inspection completed by factory tech-niciuns. Main and tail rotor bladeswere ordered to replace some that arehigh time and will be installed oncethese components' hour requirements

6 Fire Management Notes

gloves accompany the deployment ofa helicopter.

Aircraft maintenance is accomplished by the Division aircraftmechanic staff. which also maintains19 single-engine fixed wing and3 multi-engine fixed wing airplanes.The single-engine airplanes. used forfire patrol and some personnel transport. are not instrument flight ruleequipped nor do they fly at night.The multi-engine airplanes. usedalmost exclusively for administrativefire protection and travel. are forall-weather. day or night usage.Parts. Airworthiness Directives. andinformation are tracked through amicrofiche system. while all timecomponents arc on a computer spreadsheet updated monthly that alertsmaintenance to components with lessthan 25 hours useful life remaining.Although the three pilots fly any ofthe helicopters. each aircraft isassigned to one pilot who is responsible for ensuring that it is cosmetically maintained and that the maintenance staff is aware of write-ups ordiscrepancies. Personal protectiveequipment. required for Division


helicopter pilots during fire-relatedactivities. but optional for administrative flights. has been providedthrough the USDA Forest Serviceexcess property program.

The Division taught a helicoptermanagers course to familiarize ourown people with the capabilities ofthese new tools. and 1-374. theIncident Command System (ICS)Helicopter Coordinator course. whichincluded Division personnel as wellas participation by the National ParkService. Florida Fire College. andthe USDA Forest Service. Additionally. the Division will host theUSFS/OAS (USDI Office of AircraftServices) Southeast Regional Helicopter Manager workshop this year,the second week in February. ADivision UH-I E recently assisted atthe Florida Fire College in Ocala byrappelling firefighters onto a highrise building at the end of their training session. Ten Division employeesare also carded as Premo Mark IIIaerial ignition machines operatorsafter having had instruction fromeither the USDA Forest Service orthe National Park Service. The Division completed nearly 10.000 acresof prescribed burns during calendaryear 1987. in cooperation with USFSand the Florida Freshwater Fish andGame Commission. and has plans todo at least 15.000 together with theFreshwater Fish and Game Commission. USFS. and the U.S. Fish andGame Commission. All three helicopter pilots are USDA/USDIInteragency carded. One of the pilotswas recently sent as Air OperationsDirector for an Interagency IncidentCommand Team to east Tennesseeduring its extreme fire problem

period. The Hughes 5000 is interagency authorized for any sort offire management duties. while theUH-I E's are carded for water dropping only.

The pilots take proficiency checkrides on a 6-month renewal basis andare required to keep current and proficient at their unique type of flying.such as aerial delivery of water orretardant. aerial ignition. and nurseryspraying. One 'pilot divides his timebetween maintenance and flightduties. another handles both fixedwing trips and helicopter missions,while the third administers the helicopter program and acts as theDivision flight instructor and SafetyOfficer. We comply with the 7night-hour and 10 hours of uninterrupted rest requirements. as well asno night flights nor Instrument FlightRules.

Although the National Guard hasprovided valuable aviation assistancein the past. they could only be COIll

mitred in life threatening or firedisaster situations. The Divisionhopes to utilize its helicopters to prevent these types of situations fromoccurring. Further. the Fire ControlBureau has felt for some time thatDivision helicopters could arrivemore quickly and do more in firemanagement simply because theywere schooled in fire-related activities. Now. with our own helicopters.fire management objectives suchas increased seedling production anddecreased fuel loading through aerialignition can be better achieved. Also.the Division now has one more toolavailable during lightning busts' andpeak fire periods. when most otherassets arc committed.•

7

Prescribed Burning forCultural ResourcesJohn E. Hunter

Forestry technician, Orleans Ranger District . .r-;ix RiversNlI1ioJ/(/! Forest. USDA Forest Service, Orleans. CA

Gathering plants by Native Americalls Oil public lands is a widespreadpractice in some areas. Land managers concerned with fair multiplelise on these lands should facilitatethis legitimate resource use particularly when the administration ofthose lands has hampered traditionalpractices in the past. Fire suppressionand prevention programs, for example. have limited the ability of NativeAmericans to burn vegetation in conjunction with collecting and otheractivities. As a result. some specialresources collected only in burnedareas arc not readily available. Firemanagers thus find thcmsel ves in aunique position to utilize their expertise in the development of importantcultural resources.

The Orleans Ranger District of theSix Rivers National forest has a longhistory of gathering by Native Americans and a more recent history offire exclusion by the Forest Service.Located in northwestern California.the District is still frequently used bymembers of the Karuk , Yurok , andHupa tribes to collect plants for avariety of subsistence, ceremonial.and native arts purposes. Both beargrass (Xcrophy//u!1I lcnox) and hazeltCorvlus COrflltW var. cutifornica; arepreferentially collected in burnedareas around Orleans and are used inconstructing baskets and other items.Hazel sticks are collected early in thesecond or third spring following firewhen the new shoots are straighterand more Ilexible. But the majorityof requests for information on burnedareas for plant procurement in theOrleans area concern bear grassrather than hazel. This may bebecause hand pruning is an alternate

8

treatment that produces good resultsin hazel. Also. willow (Sulix spp.)can be used as a substitute whengood hazel is not available. Withbear grass. however, fire is the onlyeffective treatment and no other plantis considered a good substitute. Beargrass is collected during the springand summer of the first post-fireyear. The new bear grass leaves arcsuperior to older leaves since theyarc stronger. thinner. and morepliable.

To obtain information on correctburning procedures in order toprovide for bear grass users. threeexperimental burns and numerousinterviews with local collectors wereconducted on the Orleans Districtduring tbe 1987 field season. Tbeinformation gathered during thisperiod was used to assemble the following burning guidelines. Theseguidelines can be used in planningfire use on units interested in burningto enhance cultural resources.

Prescribed Fire Guidelines

Treatment Area Specifications.The two most important specifications to consider when selecting burnsites are accessibility and shading.Sites adjacent to maintained roads arcmore accessible to collectors. manyof whom are elderly. Bear grassstands beneath a canopy are preferredsince plants in the shade remain pliable tor a longer period of time.

Site selection criteria such as sizeor the burn, elevation, and fuel continuity arc less important. Burnacreage will depend on local resourceneeds. the number of planned burns.and size of bear grass stands in the

area. Burning higher elevation standsmay be preferred since bear grassgrowing there produces longer andstronger leaves (1). The continuitywithin hear grass stands will varyfrom site to site, and decidingwhether or not the fire can carry willhe the responsibility of the individualburn planner. Other treatment areaspecifications such as soil type andaspect are of no apparent importanceas far as the quality of the bear grassis concerned.

Specific Burn Objectives andDesired Results. By consumingbetween 90 and 100 percent of thedead bear grass foliage and about75 to 95 percent or the live beargrass foliage: the burn stimulatesnew growth and the young shootswill provide the preferred basket construction material.

Seasonal Timing. Various publications summarized by Lewis (2)indicate that burning to improve baskerry materials traditionally tookplace in the summer and early fall innorthwestern California. Burninglater in the fall is acceptable if conditions are within the prescription.Summer burning during periods oflow or normal wildfire occurrencewill produce good results at a timewhen fire management personnel arcavailable.

Desired Fire Behavior. Flamelengths between .'1~ of a foot and3 feet and a rate of spread between1 and 4 feet per minute have produced acceptable results. A specificfire behavior is not necessary to produce good results in bear grass aslong as the desired consumption isobtained and the fire is held withincontrol lines. But very high tempera-


tures and long residence timesassociated with heavy fuel concentrations will cause unwanted plantmortality.

Fire Behavior Prescription. Sincea highly specific fire behavior is notrequired to obtain good results, thefollowing fire behavior prescription isnot restrictive.

Maxi- Mini-Item mum mumDry bulb (OF) 85 40Relative

humidity (%) 25 70I-hr fuel

moisture (%) 6 IIIO-hr fuel

moisture (%) 8 17Midflame wind-

speed (mph) 10 0Live fuel

moisture (%) 75 150

On the Orleans District, live fuelmoistures for bear grass in July andAugust were consistently about 115percent, and this value was adequatefor fire behavior computations.

Firing Techniqnes and Equipment. Bear grass is similar to manyother live fuels in that burning willbe vigorous as long as enough heat isapplied initially. Hand-held driptorches easily supply the requiredheat. Any strip burning method isacceptable, although the minimumnumber of strips necessary to controlthe fire and to meet objectives isrecommended so as to simulate firebehavior as it must have been for theoriginal practitioners. Unlike broadcast burning, spot burning ofindividual plants with gelled gasolineor pressurized torches during periods

1988 Volume 49. Number 2

of high moisture does not producegood results.

Other Considerations. Experiencehas shown that a five-person enginemodule can successfully line, burn.and mop-up small beargrassplotsduring a normal work day. With thepossible exception of mileage, costsare minimal. Bear grass fuels presentno special mop-up problems andspotting is rare since very few firebrands are put up during combustion.The only smoke management strategyused at Orleans was to burn only ona specified "burn day." But surprisingly heavy smoke on even smallburns warrants the usual notificationof other agencies and the public. Iffuel accumulation is sufficient, biennial burning of a particular site isacceptable.

Current Burning Program

The favorable public response andthe success in meeting burn objectives during the first season ofburning prompted the Orleans RangerDistrict to plan a modest target of2 acres per year for cultural burning.The burns will be conducted duringthe regular fire season on 1/10 to 1/4

acre plots. At least one burn will alsobe conducted to enhance hazel.

Site preparation burns are commonly utilized for gathering beargrass (1). Prior to any planned burning for bear grass. these burns werethe only areas available. These locations are not optimal however, sincethey are usually un shaded and areoften difficult to access. But somesite preparation burns are good forcollecting. Those that are acceptableare identified on maps along with

suitable wildfires and the plannedburns. These maps are available to

interested persons during the springand summer gathering season. Inaddition to the maps. a small signdesignating each planned burn site asa "Cultural Burn Area" will improveaccess and increase public visibilityof the program. The combinedacreage of planned and unplannedburns should meet the needs of localcollectors, although obtaining dataon exactly what those needs are isdifficult.

A burning program to enhancecultural resources offers an excellentopportunity to improve relations withmembers of the community who playan important role in managing publiclands. By allowing collectors to participate in the program by identifyingpotential burn sites. the ranger district may obtain additional good willand cooperation. Seldom do resourcemanagers have such a good opportunity to provide resources andimprove public relations at the sametime.•

Literature Cited

I. Heffner. Kathy. Following the smoke: Contemporary plant procurement by the Indiansof Northwest California. Unpublished martuscript on file. Six Rivers National Forest.Eureka. CA; 1994. 94 p.

2. Lewis. Henry. Patterns of Indian burning inCalifornia: Ecology and cthnohixrory.Ramona. CA: Ballena Press: 1973. 101 p.

9

"So, Va Wanna Make a Movie?"Frank Carroll

Public affairs officer, Coconino National Forest,USDA Forest Service. Flagstaff. AZ

Firefighters are used to new technology on the fircline. The twofirefighters punching line near thehead of the Deardorff Fire on theMaIheur National Forest near JohnDay looked us over, decided who wewere, then went back to work. Aswe walked by I heard one tell theother that we were an infrared unitlooking for hot spots.

Close. We were looking for hotspots. And we were also looking fornumerous other dramatic or technically correct scenes that wouldeventually translate our storyboardinto the video movie called "Wildfire: Hand Tools," a training videosupplement to 5-J30, "BasicFirefighter. "

It's a phenomenon that has become more common as technologybecomes more accessible-videocameras on the fireline. at the veryhead of the fire. intermingled withthe leading clements of crack handcrews, camera lenses inches from thebright glow of fusees. Nor arc theseVHS 'h-inch camcorders. We're talking television. low-end industrialcameras, state-of-the-art chip cameras, network quality cameras!

What We Wanted

When Neil Paulson. Forest Supervisor and Chairperson for theNational Wildfire CoordinatingGroup's Training Working Team,came into my office in May of 1986and asked me if I thought we couldmake a national movie on using handtools. I said. "Yes!" And then!started to figure out how.

Video is an important and usefultool that. when used in conjunction

10

with hands-on training and actualexperience, can give a trainee a morethorough feel for how to accomplishsome objective such as how to use ashovel properly.

The NWCG had certified the skillscourse S-130 in 1983. The TrainingWorking Team identified u need fornew audio-visual materials to complete the course. Most of our trainingfilms were too old or not up to current standards.

The team decided it needed tobegin to get into producing nationallycertifiable training videos costeffectively. They assigned the projecta budget of $15,000. Neil volunreercd to make the video usingNational Forest resources which, inthis case. consisted of one fledglingvideographer with a minimum ofequipment, a maximum of enthusiasm and ideas, and lots of firelineexperience. Oh ... and a lot of helpfrom many interested firefightingfriends,

How We Did It

The techniques of firefighting withhand tools have not changed appreciably over the years. We decided tomake the video along the lines of itsmost recent predecessor, •.Handtoolsfor Wildfire," and in a format thatwould complement the new course.

We prepared a script and sent itout to members and advisors of theTraining Working Team for comment. "Great," they said. "Wheresthe storyboard?" J contacted thevideo experts at Northern ArizonaUniversity. They told me that astoryboard is a visualization of theproject in the form of drawings or

photos that tell the camera peoplewhat to shoot and show everyoneelse what you're trying to portray. Ihired a local artist at $10 an hour todraw the storyboard based on video falready had. pictures from textbooks,and from real life modeling providedby myself. II took her 2 days 10 drawover 90 frames and complete thestoryboard.

Next I added video instructionsthat I \carned about by reading threeor four pages of a university textbook-such things as "mediumshot" and "extreme close up."audio instructions in the form ofwhat narrative goes where, and,finally, transition instructions, how toget from one shot to another by"fading to black" or using a "cut."

Then we sent the whole packageback to the team and advisors andthey said, . 'Great. Now shoot it."

We wrapped the video equipmentin high impact foam and packed it instandard Forest Service red fire bagsto transport it. Then we waited, Asthe fire season progressed, I followedhand crews to fires in various partsof the country taking pictures tomatch the storyboard. We tried touse footage from as many differentparts of the country as possible toassure that it would be a nationalvideo.

When we finally got all the pictures we needed. I took the raw tapeto Bureau of Land Management editing bays in Santa Fe, NM, and to theForest Service bay in Albuquerque.NM, and edited the movie togetheraccording to the instructions providedin the storyboard. I ended up with amovie that had pictures. soundeffects, and narration.


STORYBOARD 11

Project: FIREFIGHTING HAND TOOLS

MCLEOD

Video:MCU of McLeod scraping fireline. The tool isturned to show the rakers rakin~ needles.The scraper edge is shown cutting grass andbrush. Freeze frame and title.

Audio:VQ: The shovel is sometimes followed by theMcLeod or kortick tool. The kortick has adetachable head for easy packing. TheMcLeod is used to clean and improve thefireline. The teeth easily rake debris. Thescrapingedge cu1s grassand brush.

Transition

Video:MCU of council tool building fireline in leaves.Freeze frame and title.

Audio:VO: The council rake is highly efficient forfireline building in deciduous leaves.

Transition

CU of side of McLeod overscraping betweenrocks.

VQ: The sides are useful in tight places.

MS/MCU of council tool being carried and itsuses in mop-up.

va: It should be carried with the cutlerspointed down. The council tool is used duringmop-up to scrape burning embers off treesand stumps, pull hot logs and stumps fromthe fire edge, and shovel soil onto hotmaterials.

Dale: 6/19/86

FrankCarroll

MS of McLeods building line.

va: In fuel types where the McLeod can beused, it is one of the fastest line building toolsavailable.

MS of McLeod and council tool buildingfireline.

va:The McLeod is preferredover thecouncil rake in open pine areas of the west.

1988 Volume 49, Number 2 11

Next. I took the "master composite," as it is called, to aproduction studio in Albuquerque tohave "final production" done. Thestudio put the titles. special effects.and final credits into the movie.Next. I presented the movie. nowofficially titled "Wildfire: HandTools." to the NWCG TrainingWorking Team at a meeting in Riverside. CA.

They recommended severalchanges in pictures and narrative.and agreed to certify the movie fornational use when the changes werecomplete. I made the changes andsent the final l7-minute-long masterto the Boise Interagency Fire Centerwhere the Publications ManagementSystem folks had it copied and puton the shelf. where it is availabletoday for $9.95 in YHS.

What We Learned

We started in mid-May andfinished in September. We could pro~

duce the same movie today in lessthan 2 months. It took much longerbecause we needed to learn as we didthe video. Here is some other advice:• A Forest Service or Bureau of

Land Management District Officeor National Park or State Forestercan make national training videos.The equipment is available or canbe bought for $12 to $15,000.

• Half-inch VHS camcorders willnot do the job. They are fine lorinternal project-oriented work. butthey do not produce a qualityimage for extensive internal orexternal use.

• Do not pick up a camera without acompleted storyboard in your .

12

The Russells' silverwaregot caught in a forest fire.

So did the Russells.lilJay, more and more r<-~'P!c ore living

closer and closer to !he forest"~ That'swhy,today,fores! fire, kill more than trees. P!caS<.' be careful

Only you can prevent f("es! fires

hand. Make sure that the peoplewho are ultimately responsible forthe production have signed theirname or names to the storyboard.

• It is usually cheaper to use outsidetalent to draw the storyboard thanto pay wages and travel to talentedpeople in the organization.

• For safety reasons when makingfire-oriented video. provide thecamera person with an experiencedfirefighter to help see that thecamera crew doesn't get caughtand to help haul equipment, whichis a hit bulky.

• The more people involved inmaking the movie. the more popular it will be. and the more useful.Invite those you want to use thefilm to help make it. If it's anational film. be sure it has anational perspective.

• Try not to show vchic Ic cabs andother things that will prematurelydate the movie.

• Do not usc simple computers togenerate titles for your movie. Itcosts only a few hundred dollars toput professional looking titles andcredits on the tape. "Homemade'titles look homemade.

• Do final production in a production studio but usc a friend's andcooperator's editing bays to domost of the work.

• Whenever possible. use actualsituations rather than stagcd situations. Combat photography looksreal because it is real.

• Hire a quality narrator. and makesure his or her voice fits theproject.You can do it! There are lots of

good people who can help withadvice and equipment. Video is notthe wave of the future. It is the hereand now. and land managers canthoughtfully and purposefully takeadvantage of this powerful communications tool to help care for the landand serve the people.

For more information. contact:Frank Carroll, Public Affairs Officer.Boise National Forest. Boise. ID~3702, 208-334-1854.

Neil R. Paulson. Forest Supervisor,Coconino National Forest. 2323 EastGreenlaw Lane, Flagstaff. AZ~6004, 602-527-7400.•


Building a Command PostThat is MobileBill Terry

Head. Training Section Fire Control Department,Texas Forest Service, Lufkin, TX

Figure I-Alohile COI/1/I/(///(jpost with 1001'er. a Icff'scopillg 5()~j(1(I/ allTelll/(/ ttiat contains (/ 11I01111I

(or a high-balld l/111f'I1lUl and {/ mobiie-phonc (//llellllll. Other (/I1!e////{/s call he nunnned (/.1' needed.Tower call he raised and (IJItC/lI1(/.1 connected and he operatio//al H'ithill j() minutes,

It was a typical cold front passingthrough Central Texas, which Texanslike to call a "norther." Thisone was more severe with highwinds, rain. and scattered tornados.Although November was a bit latefor this type of weather. it was notunprecedented. By mid-afternoon aseries of tornados had ravaged several small communities and ruralareas across Central Texas.

The tornados hit south of Palestine. moved into the Jacksonvillearea. and passed south of Tylerbefore dissipating. Within a few minutes telephone service and powerwere disrupted across. a wide area.and extensive damage was inflictedon mobile horne parks, scatteredcommercial properties, and about15,lJOO acres of timberland.

Texas Forest Service (TFS) personnel helped set up an emergencycommand post in the sheriff's dispatch station in Jacksonville andhelped to set up search and rescueteams. Emergency standby powergenerators were set up at the TFSArea II Headquarters in the Henderson Dispatch Center to ensurecommunications for the TFS units onthe scene as well as cross-channelcommunications with other emergency crews. Within a few hoursadditional personnel brought up aMobile Command Post from Lufkinto set up a similar operations centerin Palestine.

The Texas Forest Service providedlocal maps, portable radios, andresource locators for emergencycrews involved in search and rescue.The TFS crews cleared roadways toprovide access and later assisted timber owners with salvage operations.

The same TFS personnel hadresponded a few months earlier tohelp when a plastics factory in Jacksonville caught fire. When any typeof disaster strikes. communications isthe first priority. Without it, it isimpossible to get anything done. Buthow do you put together a functional, relatively inexpensive andtotally self-contained communicationsbase that can go anywhere at amoment's notice? The answer is notsimple, but the TFS has developedseveral units that can help others todesign a mobile communicationscenter.

The first step was to put it onwheels. TFS did it by using Federalexcess property travel trailers, whichhad previously been used for temporary housing (see fig. I). These were22~foot or 24-foot trailers equippedwith kitchens and baths. The trailers

were modified to provide room fordispatchers. storage, communications gear, and a work area. Whiletrailers have been used in Texas. alarge step van or motor home couldbe converted.

The unit was made self-containedby using only 12-voll equipment. Inaddition to a heavy storage battery, aspecial 12-volt generator was builtfrom a small gas engine and an automobile 60-amp alternator. With asmall amount of fuel. the unit canrun uninterrupted for days.

The layout of the communicationscenter. which we call a mobile command post. is shown in figures 2, 3,and 4. This concept has been bothfunctional and relatively incxpensive-$15.000 total cost. includingcommunications equipment (sec fig.2). We hope that others can adaptthis idea to their needs,

-?,~


r, ,I

Figure 2-lntaiof (d'lIIohile conunand post. Law-hand radios 011 {he righl. hip,li-h(lnd /"{Idios Oil

the feli. /:!-\"(I!I gellc/"(I{or ill the cenler. T!Ie RCIH'l"illor is set outsidejor 0pcfa/io/l.

oLB

ANTENNA

TO~

For more information contactCharles Barbier. Head. Communications Section. Fire ControlDepartment, Texas Forest Service.P.O. Box 310. Lufkin. TX75902·0130. (409) 639·RIOO.•

oHB

ANTENNA

o122 MHZ

FAA RADIOANTENNA

LBANTENNA

o

TRAILER TOP VIEW

liBANTENNA

o

t Igurc ~'l--I ulliel tOIl I'inl' . .1-ilOwing lll"rUI/RelliCI1l l!( IiiI' low-hand WIt! high-IJU/I{{ Uljinilili.l. Also.

il/e/I/ded is II 122 MHZ FAA radiojor ll/Iking ll'itll (lifemli. All (lnICII//(I,I' lire nununedfcn: transport

01/ (/1/ all/mini/III catwalt:[rume 11101 attows technicians to ll'Ofk 011 the roo!"o!"the unit without

damaging it. This Il'as dcsigncd hy the Texas Forest Service 10 prevent roo!"damugc und III S£'I"I'C

us (/ cradle III {'afry the tower,


@

fAN

COUCH [g~@f?'\1<t~ ~

COUCH

STORAGE

STORAGE

STORAGE

@ ®FLOOR

1. Mobile-phone transmitter, DC to120 VAC inverter-500-wattpublic address amplifier.

2. Mobile-phone control head.3. 120 VAC from inverter.4. Small copy machine-should lise

less than 400 watts.5. 120 VAC from external electri

cal hookup.6. Midland high-band 80 channel

radio.7. Midland high-hand 80 channel

radio.8. Midland high-band 80 channel

radio-mounted on slide-outbrackets.

9. 12-volt heavy duty storage battery. Can be connected to12-volr generator to maintaincharge.

10. Midland low-band radio.II. Midland low-band radio.12. Conference table.13. Outside 12-volt flood lamps to

shine over exterior removablecanopies.

14. Outside 12-volt flood lamps toshine under exterior removablecanopies.

Note: All radios can be programmedby a technician. All lights and fansarc 12 volt.

Figure 4--F/oor ptan (~l the Tevas Fore,ll Service mobile ('OIlIlIIWld post.


An Evaluation of Foam as aFire Suppressant'Paul Schlobohm and Ron Rochna

Fire tunnagcment specialists. Boise !1I1('mgcncy FireCenter, Bureau of Land Management. U.S. Dcpcmmem ojlntcrior, Solem, OR

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR8UReAU Of lA~D MANIIGEMeNT

The Bureau or Land Management(BLM) is evaluating the effectivenessof foam as a means of controllingfire. The impetus for this study canhe described by the reality of currentground-applied fire control efforts.Wildfire suppression capability islimited where water is scarce andreal property values arc threatened.Prescribed fires arc often difficult 10

contain. Time-consuming mop-upreduces further burning opportunities.

The Concept of Foam

The concept of foam is not new,but the limited use of foam in wildJanus warrants a review of itscapabilities. Foam extends the lifeand effectiveness of its water. Foamreduces the surface tension of watermolecules. enabling greater penetration of the water. Soap-based foamdissolves the waxy coating of greenvegetation. further enhancing wettingability. Foam inhibits water evaporation, allowing more of the waterapplied to be used for cooling andpenetration. As foam. water becomesa reflective. insulating blanket (I, 2).

Foaming Agents

As recently as 1985. roam systemsrelied on foam-making substances notspecifically designed for fire suppression. Pine soap or soap skim. popularized by the Texas Snow Job. is aderivative of the paper-making process. Household dish soap was alsoused because of its availability (3).

'Presented at the Symposium on Wildland fire2000. April 27-30. IYX7. South Lake Tahoe.CA

16

Since 1985. foaming agentsdesigned for wildland fire suppression have been available. Theseproducts combine relatively stablebubble structure. improved wettingability. and vapor suppressants. Theyprovide the capability of instantaneous extinguishment. constructionor an impenetrable barrier to fire.and reduced mop-up time.

Foam Generating Systems

Foaming agents can be utilized byu variety of means. Synthetic foaming agents have sparked new interestin the foam generating systems madepopular hy pine soap. Compressedair foam systems (CAFS) have beenmodified with centrifugal pumps andmetering devices and enlarged with40 or more cubic-teet-per-minute aircompressors. Air-aspirating and conventional water systems also haveapplications for foam.

Foam is produced in the CAFS bymixing compressed air and solutionat equal or nearly equal pressures andpumping the mixture through one ofthree forms of agitation. Hoselayslonger than 50 feet (I-inch diameter)provide enough space for air andwater to mix into foam. Scrub chambers. tubes filled with obstructions,force air and water into foam in I to2 feet. Specialized nozzles combinecompressed air and atomized solutionas they leave the nozzle. Hoselaysare the most common agitationmethod; this discussion will concentrate on their features.

Compressed air systems that pumpfoam through the hose flow water atless than normal rates. A l-inchnozzle may flow 12 gallons per min-

ute (gpm) of water as foam at 150pounds per square inch (psi). with adischarge distance or 85 feet. Wateris expanded about 10 times at agent!water ratios of 0.2-0.3 percent.CAFS has tbe unique ability tochange foam consistency by changingwater flow rather than mix ratio.

Extra equipment required for theCAFS include Lin air compressor andfull now ball valves. Compressorsize is dependent on need. Generally.2 cubic feet of air is necessary forevery gallon of water to createquality CAFS foam. The ball valvesare used as nozzles to shut off thefoam flow.

Foaming agents have also initiatedthe production of a wide range orair-aspirating or expansion noz-zles. Low- and medium-expansionnozzles produce quality foam. Lowexpansion nozzles arc most common.They flow I() to 30 gpm at 150 psi,discharging .30 to 70 feet. The airaspirating system pumps solutionthrough the hose and creates foam atthe nozzle. Air is drawn into thenozzle when the solution is atomizedand passed through a pressure gradient. Water is expanded 5 to 10times with agent mix ratios between0.3-0.4 percent.

The third system in which foamagents can be used is as a wetting.extinguishing solute in conventionalwater systems. Through all apparatusfrom turbo jet to sprinklers to bladderbags, bubbles will form froth due tolow agitation.' With the surfactant inthe water. wetting and extinguishingwill be greater than with straightwater.

Technology offers improvementsover conventional equipment for mix


Table l-Ho,\'{' dllll"(/c/cris!ic.\ impcntcun !(I./i/{/lIIj!ml'

Resistance Resistance Porosity ResistanceHose type to kinks to fire with foam to flow

Synthetic Poor Poor High High

Cotton Fair Fair Low Medium

Rubber Excellent Excellent None Low

methods. hose types. bosclays. andm)'[tJcs. The incJfi-.:\cm:ics of batchmixing concentrate and water arcovercome with cductors or proper

tinncrs. Eductors also make possiblethe lISC of foam when the sole motive

force is a water pump. A portablepump. for example. can draw concentrate into the hose as it pullswater out of a stream. Proportioncrs.which pump concentrate as desiredinto the water line. have the accuracyand dependability necessary to beintegral engine components.

Hose types arc important whenfoam is pumped through the hose(CAFS). Durable woven rubber hoseis used 10 avoid kinking. Any restric

tion in a hosclay will break downbubbles. thus significantly reducingfoam quality and discharge capability. Hose that is porous or has anirregular lining will disrupt foamnow and reduce discharge performance (table I).

llosclavs can be different for theCAFS. depending on application.Usually. roam barriers arc appliedwith one or two nozzles. Since foamis compressible. hoses arc easilyclamped and extended. Hoses filledwith foam do not exhibit all characteristics of hydraulics. Greatlyreduced head pressure enables foamto be pumped significantly fartherabove the pump than water (4).

Nozzles vary in performance foraspirated and compressed air systems. Low-expansion air-aspiratednozzles range in performance forI'/::~inch hose at ]SO psi from 7 gpm

and 25-foot discharge to 26 gpm and70-foot discharge. At 35 gpm and150 psi. a l-inch CAFS nozzle has amaximum discharge of 70 feet. a


sustained discharge or 55 feet; a]·Y.\-inch nozzle: 90 and 70 feel.respectively.

Applications

The applications phase of the project directly evaluated fire controlpotential of foam in the field. Wherepossible. comparisons were madewith water performance. Evaluationsoccurred on prescribed fires andwildfires throughout the West.

Direct Attack. Visual evaluationsof foam's extinguishing capabilitywere made. Flames burning in light.

flashy ground fuels. tall snags. pitchystumps. red slash concentrations.

and desert sage were treated. Extinguishment was instuntuncous. For

example. two light engines workedthe flank of a range fire. The engineusing air-aspirated foam never had toturn around for rekindled flame. Thisengine's pumping time was one-thirdgreater than the water cngincs. Theengine using water found some of itsflunk had started burning again (5).

The compressed air foam systemhas great extinguishing capability inpart because foam can be indefinitelycompressed in the hose. The hallvalve can be shut off without risk ofbursting hose. This creates back pressure in the hose which. whenreleased. produces a fine-bubbled

mist and long discharge distances(fig. I). The fine-bubbled mist isunique to the CAFS. When released.the mist puts on a cooling. suffocating performance that has been

compared to halon gas. Togetherwith initial discharge distances of upto ~5 feet with l-inch hose. the mistgives the firefighter a deluge initialattack capability. Many prescribedhurn spot fires have been extin

guished by merely opening andclosing the ball valve.

After the initial. fine-bubbledsurge. the foam produced becomesthicker. It forms large masses ofbubbles that cling together. Thisclinging property is also an importantextinguishing feature. Foam can belofted onto flames. the clinging bub

bles forming a vapor suppressingblanket that also separates oxygenfrom flame. Because it exhibits lowhead pressures, foam can he injectedinto the bottom of a burning snag toextinguish fire burning within. The

foam will fill any accessible cavity.suffocating fire.

Protective Barrier. Applicationsor foam for protection includeprescribed burn boundaries. fuelwood piles. snags (fig. 2). wildlife

trees. fragile sites. and backfire wetlines. Twenty firclincs adjacent toprescribed fire units have beenpretreated with foam. The foam-

17

'!

Figure 2-Sl/ag protection capabititv ofthe compressed air foam svstern,

Figure I-Fine-hllhhfcd mist dl/ring initial discharge [rom the CO/llf'rt'sscd oil' [oam sy.ltclI1.

treated areas adjacent to firelinesranged from 300 to 1.500 feet inlength. Width (25 to 100 feet) anddepth (0.25 to 2 inches) dependedon the foam generation system andsite conditions. The time hetweenapplication and ignition ranged fromo to 4S minutes. Spotting beyond thefoam lines occurred on occasion, butno foam line was crossed by movingfire.

Two examples of foam as a barrierto fire occurred on the Toad Creekunit in western Montana. Fuel loading was 100-tons per acre of fuelmodel 13 lodgepole pine/subalpine fir(Pinus contorto var. !1lllrruyana .

Engelm/Ahies lusiocarpav loggingslash. The prescription of 40-pereent

relative humidity, 70 of temperature,and light (I to 4 miles per hour).favorable winds was met at 2000hours. Nevertheless. running flamelengths were 3 to 20 feet high andthe fire crowned to 60 feet.

In the first example. a ISO-foot byIO-foot by I-inch foam line wasplaced across one Ih-acre corner ofthe unit. No tools were used. no fuelwas removed to construct this line.The unit's test fire was lit in the corner, The fire ran quickly to the polesstanding adjacent to the line. crowning and producing firewhirls. Whenthe fire reached the foam line, flamesleaned over the line, but the fire'sforward progress stopped. Timeelapsed from foaming to fire contactwas 2 minutes.

Lighting or the rest of the unitcontinued across the roam line. Theline was exposed to heating on bothflanks for about 5 hours. Inspectionthe following day showed the lineintact. with green vegetation and finefuels throughout. Two logs greaterthan 8 inches in diameter which hadburned through the line from bothends were the exceptions.

In the second example. a I AOOfool foam line was placed outside acut fire trail in an adjacent timberstand, Foam was applied 100 feetwide. 75 feet into the canopy. andI to 2 inches thick. Application was5 to 15 minutes prior to ignition ofthe adjacent portion of the unit. Twopeople created this line with onel-inch hose. Application time was


"

'r,

51h~ hours. Fire behavior remainedextreme. with long duration. highflame length fire tossing firebrandsinto the treated stand. Personnelfamiliar with burning under theseconditions expected the fire toescape. The width of the line prevented most firebrands from startingspot fires. One spot that did occurwas extinguished with foam from60 feet away.

Mop-up. Direct foam versus waterperformance ami cost comparisonswere made during mop-up operations. Personnel involved were notinformed of the comparison to avoidany changes from standard instructedprocedure. In each case. the foamcrew was mopping lip with foam forthe first time.

The first comparison occurred during mop-up of a wildfire in felledand bucked douglas fir (Pseudotsugamcnzicstiv timber. A a-person crewusing 2 nozzles completed 100-percent mop-up of 5 acres in 3 hourswith 7.700 gallons of water. Nearby.on 5 acres of the same fire. this producti vity was equaled by two 20person crews employing 24 nozzlesand approximately 55.000 gallons ofwater.

The foam crew used 15 gallons.or $225. of foaming agent based on0.2 percent mixture and a price of$15 per gallon. Assuming the average salaries for the foam and watercrews are $7 and $5.50 per hour.respectively, the foam operation cost$309 for labor and foaming agent:the water operation cost $660 forlabor.

The second comparison occurredduring mop-up of the Toad Creekunit. A 5-person foam crew mopped


up 100.000 square feet in 4 hours. A25-person water crew mopped up25.000 square feet in the same time.Both crews had an unlimited watersupply. Total water !low for thefoam crew was 30 gallons perminute.

Again. 15 gallons of foamingagent was mixed. Using the samewage assumption in the first comparison. the foam operation cost5365: the water operation cost $550.

Foam application technique forboth comparisons was designed to letthe foam do the work. Foam appliedwas wetter than the protective foamtype. Foam was spread out so that itpenetrated and cooled. while theoperator moved on. Extra attention tohot spots was given only when heatwas well below the surface.

Discussion

Foaming Agents. Of all the typesof foaming agents presented. the relatively new synthetic products madespecifically for Class A fuels are preferred. The 3.0 percent mix ratios ofpine soap arc 10 times greater thansynthetic. Preliminary laboratory testshave shown pine soap to be aninferior wetting agent. Common dishsoap lacks vapor suppressants anddurability. The price of the newagents has continued to drop as thedemand for them has increased.Some users have experienced 25percent reductions in suppressioncosts despite the $12- to S 15-pergallon prices (6. 7).

The notion that water is free is afallacy. The Bureau of Land Management rights most of its fireswhere water sources arc miles away.

Twelve dollars can make 500 gallonsor water into 5.000 gallons of effective water as foam.

Foam-generating Systems, Purchasing requirements vary significantly with the three generating systems presented. Foaming agent alonewill give one an improved wettingagent with conventional apparatus.

As the minimum initial equipmentinvestment. air-aspirating nozzleswill assure quality foam production.especially for protection and mop-LIp.Long-term use or this system isappropriate only if the consistenthigh usc of foam is more tolerablethan a high initial investment for thecompressed air system.

The CAFS generally requires thegreatest initial capital outlay. primarily the air compressor. as well asa retrofitting or new engine package.However. CAFS can be assembledon-site from inexpensive componentssuch as rented trailer air compressors. readily available plumbing.and an existing water pUlllp. Thehigh initial cost is quickly returnedby increased capability and performance and reduced volume offoaming agent required.

Applications. The success of roamin the examples given of performancecan be attributed to two factors.First. the combination of syntheticfoaming agents and the compressedair foam system creates a powerfultool for fire suppression.

Second. proper training is necessary to ensure success. Foam can failand if its properties and uses arc notunderstood. it will. Foam should notbe considered a cure for every firesituation. It is simply a very usefultool.

19

,

Foam must be of the appropriateconsistency: wet. dripping. or dry. itmust be applied for the appropriateeffect: lofted for intact. clinging,and smothering bubbles: pressureimpacted for broken. wetting bubbles.

Foam is a short-term suppressant when applied as a harrier.Its effective lifetime varies withfuel, weather, and fire conditions.Applications must he adjustedaccordingly.

Safety precautions should be followed when using foam. Foamingagents arc mildly corrosive to skinand eyes. Protective gear is recommended. The high-pressure lines ofthe CAFS should he operated withcaution. Valves must be openedslowly to prevent nozzle kickbackand hose whiplash.

The Future

Over the past 2 years foam hasdeveloped into a tool for the future.The full potential of foam has yet tobe realized. In fact, the technologyof Class A foam firefighting isexpanding beyond Class A fires.Cost-effective. successful applications have been demonstrated withhydrocarbon fires, vehicle fires. andstructure fires. Methods of deliveryare also expanding to fit differentneeds and resources.

The wildland-urban interface fireprotection program may have themost to gain from foam development. Research must increase ourunderstanding of foam processes.Training of application techniquesmust begin. The days of fighting firewith unrefined water are numbered.

20

Water has served well in fire suppression over the years. As we movetoward the 21st century, water willserve fire managers even better asfoam .•

Literature Cited

I. Godwin. D.P. Aerial and chemical aids.

Fire Control Notes. I ( I I: 5- [0: 11):16.

1. Everts. A.H. A dual purpose hazard reduction burner and foam unit. Fire ControlNotes. 8(2. 3): [0---11: 11)47

3 Ebarb. P. Texas snow .I0h. Fire Management Notes, 39(3): 3-5: IY7S.

4. U.S. Department of Interior. Bureau ofLund Management. Boise lntcragcncy l-ire

Center. Data on file. Boise. ID

5. Carriere. AI. Fire Management Officer.U,S. Department of Interior. BurC<JU of

Lund Management. Lakeview District. Personal communication with Ron Rochnu.

Ju[y 2U. 1986.

6. Moinbcr. Jerry. Forester. Simpson TimberCompany. Eureka. CA. Personal conunuru

calion with Ron Rochna. May 5.1987.

7. U.S. Department of Interior. Bureau ofLmJ Management. Salem District. Data onfile. Salem. OR.

INew Accident/Injury Reporting.~ofln

1 Boise Interagency Fire Center(BIFCl has a new form for reportingburn~relatcd accidents or injuries and,fire entrapments. If your unit experi~nced a fire entrapment or burnhccident this summer. follow up toensure that this form was completed.I The Missoula Technology andDevelopment Center (MTDCI, forineriy the Equipment Development,Center, played a major role inII

Preserve thewildlife.

Every year. more families arechoosing to make their home closerto the forest. They're choosing tokeep the home fires burning. Whichthey will. As long as you don't burndown their home. Remember. Onlyyou can prevent forest fires.

designing this form for the NationalWildlife Coordinating Group's FireEquipment Working Team. The form:will help identify where to concen- Itrare efforts to improve personalprotective equipment and training.All NWCG member units (State andFederal agencies) should order copies I

from the BIFC Warehouse and ibecome familiar with the reportinginstructions and information. Theform's PMS number is 405- L NFEScatalog number is 0869.


,\

•II

"

South Dakota Strike TeamsHelp Fight California FiresKen Terrill and Greg Krumbach

Respectively, fire managemellt specialist lind public information officer,Division ofForestrv, South Dolcota Department ofAgriculture. Pierre, SD

~...~Deportment of Agriculture

Division of Forestry

SUI/lh Dakola engines fowled/or transport 10California.

,.1

-'-

Firefighters from South Dakotahelped battle the fires that raged inCalifornia during the month of September. After receiving a request forassistance from the USDA ForestService in Denver. the State resourcecenter in Rapid City made sure SouthDakota could spare the personnel andequipment. Assured it would notimpair the local firefighting capabilities.5 fire trucks and 12 firefighterswere sent to do battle.

Of the five fire trucks--engines ifyou prefer-that went to California.two were from the State Division ofForestry, one from the Black Hawkvolunteer fire department. and oneeach from the Piedmont and Nemavolunteer fire departments.

Ken Terrill. fire management specialist for the South Dakota Department of Agriculture's Division ofForestry, said two of the engineswere rather unusual because at onetime they had been Federal militarytrucks that became Federal excessproperty before being converted tofire engines similar to engines builtby the State Division of Forestry'sfire equipment shop. Suppressing (heCalifornia fires gave the refurbishedengines, one a J/.1-ton Dodge and theother a II/.t-ton Jeep, the chance toagain help the Federal government.

Terril! said two scmi-rractors andlow-boy transports hauled the enginesto the West Coast.

The firefighting crew left RapidCity September 4 and, after travelingpractically nonstop, arrived in California 2 1/2 days later.

Their first assignment was theMendenhall fire ncar Willows, Cal-ifornia. in the northern part of the


State. After a week battling the Mendenhall blaze, the strike team wasdemobilized and reassigned to whatwas called the Salmon Complex ncarYreka, CA. a l-day trip furthernorth.

Dale Deeter. a mechanic, semidriver, firefighter. and full-timeemployee for the South Dakota Division of Forestry's Rapid City office,said they battled fires for 2 weeks inthe Yreka area, working mostly atnight. He said there was a total of16 separate fires to contend with."Our fire camp was almost completely surrounded," Deuter said."You could see fire in almost everydirection.' .

Denter. who first started fightingfires as an IS-year-old volunteer.said the sight of all the fires was"spectacular." He also had words ofpraise for how well firefighters from38 States, including State employeesand volunteers. and the USDA ForestService. worked together.

"You couldn't have asked for abetter, hard working crew," DCHte/'

said .. 'Everyone was workingtogether. II' they need to send usagain. I'd be ready to go."

Terry Chaplin. district ranger forthe USDA Forest Service in Spearfish and also the South Dakota striketeam leader. said there were someminor problems. but overall thingswent smoothly. "There is frequentlya coordination problem when you get2.500 people in a fire camp," Chaplin said... But you just have to takeit with a grain of salt and do the bestyou can.

Dave Fieroh. Ncmo, South Dakotafire chief. said that as if fighting fireswasn't enough, they also had twoother obstacles to contend with. Oneof those was the threat of bears. whoFicroh said' 'enjoyed very much oursecond choice of sandwich meatslab turkey on wheat bread!"

The second obstac Ie they encountered was running into illegal

21

marijuana fields that were protectedby mines and shotguns wired asbooby traps. "You just didn't walkup ancl down with a backpack onwithout looking twice," Ficroh said.

Nevertheless, those obstaclesdidn't deter Fieroh or any of the firefighters. "Our Black Hills enginestrike ream performed with a professional attitude and I believe we willgo again if the situation arises. Weall learned a lot." •

:Ivy Block Status II United Catalysts, Inc., has recalledlIvv Block. The recall concerns a dif- ,, ' ,ference in interpretation over product 1

tlussification with the Food and Drugl[Administration (FDA), not Ivy ,,Block's safety or effectiveness in Ipreventing dermatitis from poison ,bak, ivy, and sumac. University of \California at San Francisco lab tests I~howed Ivy Block to be highly effec- itive in preventing dermatitis from the I! .... ipoison plants. The Missoula Technol-:bgy and Development Center had~sked field units to evaluate IvyI _ ~

Block during the 1986 season. To,,help United Catalysts comply withthe FDA recall order, Forest Service~nits should send unused Ivy Block 1

to the company COD for a S4.80 IIrefund per can. The address is UnitedCatalysts, lnc., 1240 South 13thStreet, Louisville. KY 40210. If you'used Ivy Block, please complete and~eturn your evaluation form to

iI-HOC. . II A spokesman for United Catalysts, I~Inc .. has said that the firm is ncgo- I'tiating with a major company toImarket Ivy Block once FDA approv-Ibls arc obtained.I I

22

forest firesdestroy many homes.


A Quick Method To DetermineNortheastern Woody Fuel WeightsCary Rouse and Donna Paananen

Respectively, research forester and technical writer, North Central ForestExperiment Station. USDA Forest Service, East l.ansing, MI

-

FW = 11.65 x I x 5 x D

The usual formula for estimatingfuel weights (modified from reference 6) is:

To simplify computation by fieldpersonnel. Brown (3) multiplied theconstant 11.65 by the other fuelcharacteristics (S and D) to obtaincomposite factors (CF) for severalwestern fuels. In this report. weobtained CFs for three size classesof four hardwoods and six conifersfound in the Northeast (table I).(Values for Sand 0 arc extrapolatedfrom reference 5.)

I'f

"

",

'I

_1,__

Results of prescribed burns dependupon the quantity and arrangement ofthe materials that burn. When firemanagers know the weights ordowned. woody fuels of differentdiameters. they can L1SC this information to predict the behavior of theirplanned fires. After the prescribedhums. the)' can compare prcburn andposrbum fuel weights to assess howsuccessful the fire was. particularlywhen one or the main objectives isfuel reduction.

Currently. fire managers in theNortheast make a visual "guesstimate" of the amount of fuelloadings. or they spend long hourssampling and making calculationsusing the planar intersect method (3).

The planar intersect method is asampling technique that permits accurate estimation of downed. woodyfuel weights. The method requiresrelatively simple field procedures: theestimator tallies different-sized twigs.branches. and boles of a species orspecies group that intersect an imaginary vertical sampling plane. (In theNortheast. downed. woody fuels withdiameters of 3 inches or less are generally tallied because these are theones that burn during a prescribedfire.I Once the tallies are made. theestimator either uses a graph (I) toconvert the tallies to fuel weights orreturns to the office and mathematically computes the fuel weightsusing multi-variable formulas. Bothgraph conversions and mathematicalcomputations can require complexanalysis and a great deal of time.

We propose a method that allowsthe fire manager to make quick.accurate estimates in the field byusing the planar intersect techniqueand a . 'simplifying factor."


where: FW

11.65

5

D

fuel weight (tonsper acre).is a constant toconvert specificgravity (inpounds per cubicfeet) and fueldiameters (insquare inches) toFW (in tons peracre).average numberof intersectionsper foot in eachspecies!sizc-c Iasscategory.representativespecific gravityof fuels in eachspccics/size-cIasscategory inpounds per cubicfeet. andrepresentativesquared diameter(square inches)for fuels in eachsize-class category.

To use table I. proceed throughthe following steps:I. Sum the total number (N) or

intersects tallied for each sizeclass and species.

2. Sum the total length (L) of linessampled in feet.

3. Divide N by L to obtain the average number of intersects per foot(I): N .;- L ~ Land

4. Multiply I hy the appropriatecomposite factor (CF) in tableto obtain the fuel weight:I x CF ~ FW.

(\Vhen slopes exceed 30 percent.consult Brown (3) for slope correction factorx.}

For example. suppose you havejust completed a planar intersect lineof 200 feet on a jack pine clcarcutsite and have the tallies shown inraolc 2. Divide each tally iN) hy 200to yield the average number of intersects per foot (I). Then multiply eachI by its corresponding composite factor (CF) for jack pine in table I toget fuel weights (FW).

Using this method can help firemanagers determine light. medium.and heavily loaded plots at the site.shorten the time it takes to inputinformation into fire behavior prediction models such as BEHAVE (2. 4),and enhance the ability of these models to reflect true prescribed firebehavior in the Northeast.

Historical methods to determinefuel weights range from a quick. butinaccurate, method ("eyeballing") totime-consuming ones (using a graphical aid or multi-variable formulas).The method suggested here is a compromise in that it involves an easyto-usc formula that requires only theknow ledge of the northeastern species, the average number of

23

_ __ J

Table 2-Fi/e1 weight calculations [or Jack pine s/o.l'h

Table I-ColI/f!osit£' [actor (eF) for each (!lI/lrel' ,Ii:::e elIIS.IC.\' I!f' do-vncd, woody.filets (!f'selectednortheastern species

FuelTotal Intersections Composite weight

Size class number per foot factor (tons per acre)

I (0-'/4 in) 734 3.67 2.377 8.72

II (l/4-1 in) 412 2.06 9.011 18.56III (1-3 in) 50 .25 25.968 6.49

Total 33.77

Species

HardwoodsAspenBirchMapleOther

ConifersBalsam firBlack spruceJack pineNorthern white cedarRed pineWhite pine

intersections per foot in each species/size-class category, and a necessarycomposite factor.•

Literature Cited

I. Anderson. Hal E. Graphic aids for fieldcalculation of dead. down forest fuels.Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-45. Ogden. UT: U.S.Department of Agriculture. forest Service.lntermnun\ain Research Statil..m: 1979.

21 p.2. Andrews. Patricia L. BEHAVE: Fire

b..:havior prediction and fuel modeling system-BURN subsystem, Part I. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-194. Ogden, UT: U.S.Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Intermountain Research Station: 1986.

1.10 p.

24

Size class I Size class II Size class III(0-'/4 in) (1/4-1 in) (1-3 in)

2.584 6.613 20.1222.572 6.500 27.6683.211 6.798 27.3643.211 7.910 27.341

1.477 5.275 16.5121.594 9.384 21.2802.377 9.011 25.9681.324 6.830 18.7873.198 7.704 23.0101.780 6.327 23.199

3. Brown. James K. Handbook for inventorying downed woody material. Gen. Tech.Rep. INT-16. Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation: 1974. 24 p.

4. Burgan. Robert E.: Rothermel. Richard C.BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and fuelmodeling system-FUEL subsystem. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-167. Ogden. UT: U.S.Department of Agriculture. Forest Service.Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation: 19M. 126 p.

5. Roussopoulos. Peter J. An appraisal ofupland forest fuels and potential firebehavior for a portion of the BoundaryWaters Canoe Area. East Lansing: Michigan Slate University; 1971:!. 166 p.Dissertation.

6 Roussopoulos. Peter J.; Johnson. Von 1.Estimating slash fuel loading for severalLake States tree species. Res. Pap. NC-HS.St. Paul. MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. North Central ForestExperiment Station: 1973. g p.

Conference Announcement

The 1988 Interior West Fire Council (lWFC) Annual Meeting andWorkshop will be held October 2427 at the C.P. Mountain ResortAlpine Village in Kananaskis Valley,Alberta, Canada. The theme of themeeting/workshop is "The Art andScience of Fire Management" andwill feature four 'h-day technical ses-

tsions (fire management problems andopportunities; fire research programsin support of fire management decisions and solutions; role of newtechnologies, analytical systems, and\SUpport services in fire managementlactivities: and fire managementlactions and practices), luncheon andIbanquet with distinguished speakers,'and a '/o-day field trip in KananaskisIcountry or Banff National Park.I The IWFC represents an amal19amation of the former Intermountainbnd Rocky Mountain Fire Councils.r For more information contact:Gordon Bisgrove, Alberta ForestIService. Forest Protection Branch,iP.O. Box 7040, Edmonton, Alberta.ranada (Telephone: 403-427-6807)or Marty Alexander, Canadian For:estry Service. Northern Forestry

IC entre , 5320-122 Street, Edmonton,Alberta, Canada (Telephone: 403-r35-n lO).


Celebrating Research Accomplishmentsat the Forest Fire LaboratoryRoberta M. Burzynski

Puh/ie affairs oijicer, Pacific Southwest Forest andRallge Experiment Stenion, Berkeley, CA

'i·

'"

This year marks the 25th anniversary of the Forest Fire Laboratory inRiverside. CA. It is a field facility ofthe USDA Forest Service's PacificSouthwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. headquartered inBerkeley. CA. The laboratory willhost an anniversary celebration.including an open house. on June 16and 17. Scientists at the laboratory.with the cooperation of governmentagencies. universities. and fireorganizations. have made major contributions to various aspects of firemanagement.

What would fire management belike today without research conductedat the Forest Fire Laboratory? Toanswer this question, you would haveto imagine that operation FIRESTOPmay not have been as successful as it

was: that FIRESCOPE and the Incident Command System may not havebeen developed or used to benefitdisaster victims worldwide: that firesuppression methods and equipment-e-especially air attack, hclitack ,and use of chemical fire retardantsmight not exist at their current level:that prescribed fire might not be usedwith increasing precision as it istoday.

Although the laboratory was dedicated in 1963, Station scientistsbegan studying hydrologic effects offire as early as 1930. Recent researchemphasis has been on integrating firemanagement with other resourcemanagement problems: economicassessment of fire management alternatives among multiple resourceuses, effect of meteorology on forest

and brushland management practices.and the special problems caused bypeople moving into the wildlands andcreating a wildland-urban interface.

The research program is stillexpanding to include other topics ofregional. national. and internationalimportance. Because or its locationin the Los Angeles Basin, it is aprime site for studies underway onatmospheric deposition and impactsof heavy recreational usc in nearbyNational Forests.

For more information. contact EarlB. Anderson. Forest Fire Laboratory,Pacific Southwest Forest and RangeExperiment Station, USDA ForestService, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive.Riverside. CA 92507.•

USDA Forest Service Forest Fire Labonuorv. Riverside, CA.

_1,_.


An Overview of the 1987 WallaceLake Fire, ManitobaKelvin G. Hirsch

Fire research officer, Canadian Forestry Service,Manitoba District Office, winnepeg, Manitoba

.+ CanadianForestryService

Servicecanadien destorets

Figure I-The Wallace LlI!.:e Fire during the inilial s/lIgc,1 (around 1500 CIJn of its II/ojo/" 1"111I Oil

A101' 8, 1987 (nnoto ("o/lrlc.l.\" ofMalliloha NaT/m.11 Resown's).

Wallace Lake is located in easternManitoba approximately 160 kilometers (100 mil northeast of Winnipeg.The surrounding area is comprisedmainly of mature jack pine andblack spruce stands and is a popularlocation for summer cottage developments. Spring fires in this area arenot uncommon, but the 1987 WallaceLake Fire was one of the most devastating wildfires in modern times. Italso has special significance for twomain reasons. First. it was the firstcampaign fire in Manitoba duringwhich the Canadian Forest FireBehavior Prediction (FBP) System(1) was used operationally to forecastprobable fire behavior on a ncar realtime basis. Second. the fire producedone of the worst wildland/urbaninterface incidents in the province'srecent history.

The Wallace Lake Fire started onTuesday. May 5, and by May 13reached its final size of 20.850 hectares (51.520 acres). The winter ofI Y86--87 was unusually warm andmuch of the fire area experiencedbelow normal precipitation, Snowmelt occurred rather rapidly in earlyApril due to a strong and persistentupper ridge pattern over the area thatproduced record maximum temperatures on numerous days. Totalprecipitation following snow freecover was minimal. Four weatherstations in the general area reportedan average of only 3.4 miJJimeters(0.13 in) of rain. The combination ofthese factors contributed significantlyto the low moisture content of thedead forest fuels and in part to theextreme fire behavior that occurredduring the first half of May 1987.

The majority of the area burned bythe Wallace Lake Fire was the resultof three separate runs. which tookplace on May 5. 8 and 12 (fig. I).The primary cause of these major fireruns was the strong surface windsassociated with the passage of threesuccessive cold fronts. Average windspeeds were in excess of 30 kilometers per hour (19 mph) on each ofthese days. with gusts up to 60 kilometers per hour (38 mph) beingreported. Minimum relative humidities ranged from the high teens tolow thirties. and maximum air temperature varied from 23°C (73 OF) to32 °C (90 OF).

The FBP System was used to predict potential fire behavior (e.g ..spread rate and type of fire) andproved to be a valuable asset to theoverhead team assigned to the fire.

The fire spread projections were sufficiently accurate and reliable to be amajor factor in determining evacuation requirements. For example. onMay 8 the fire jumped the established control line and raced eastwardtowards the subdi vision on the westshore or Wallace Lake at a rate of3.9 kilometers per hour (2.4 mph). Alodge. campground. and 54 of 69cottages were either damaged ordestroyed by this fire (fig. 2). However. no lives were lost. because ofthe precautions taken by the overheadteam.

The extensive property losses atWallace Lake coupled with the $2.26million fire suppression costs madethe Wallace Lake Fire one of themost expensive wildfires to be foughtin Manitoba. This fire did. however.illustrate the value and usefulness of

1


}.

(~

-" .. ~-

, 'IL,

the FBP System on a going fire andshowed the potential consequencesthat many of the other cottage subdivisions in this general area couldpossibly face in tbe future .•

Literature Cited

l. Lawson, B.D.: Stocks. B.J.: Alexander.M.E.: Van Wagner. C.E. A system for predicting fire behavior in Canadian forests. In:Donoghue. Linda R.: Martin, R.E .. cds.Proceedings of the Eighth Conference onFire and Forest Meteorology: [9~5 April

29-May 2: Detroit. MI. Society of American Foresters Publication 85-04: 6-16Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters; [985

Figure 2-Afiennath of the Wallace Lake Fireat the shoreline cottage subdivision 011 May R.1987 around 1ROO CDr (photo counesv (d"Manitoba Natural Resources).

'\(t

A forest fire couldhityou rightwhere you l}.ve.., .


Mapping Fires Withthe FIRE MOUSE TRAPDuane Dipert and John R. Warren

With USDA Forest Service, respectively, soil scientist, Co/ville National Forest, Pacific Northwest Region,Colville, WA; and electronics engineer, Fire and Aviation Management, State and Private Forestry, Boise. ID

Introduction

The FIRE MOUSE TRAP' (FMT)method of mapping wildland fireswas conceived in 1984 (1). It wasfirst tried experimentally on wildfiresby the State of Alaska in 1985. usinga T-28 fixed-wing aircraft (2. 3).Alaska calls it the TROLL' and alsoused it in 1986 and 1987. TheAlaska conditions and TROLLdevelopment and use are described indetail in the doctoral dissertation ofRonald G. Hanks (4). The FMT wasbriefly tried. experimentally. inUSDA Forest Service Region 6 (R-6)in 1986. In 1987. R-6 crews weretrained, and the FMT was used infield trials on forest fires in both R·5and R-6. The plotting capability wasnot used extensively by the R-6crews because of some Loran equipment problems. The balance of thesystem performed very successfully.In addition to the system developedfor R-6, a similar system wasdeveloped for R-5. The R-5 system.including the plotting capability. wasused successfully. Both systems wereused in contractor-supplied Bell 206helicopters with FUR. Inc .• Model2000. forward looking infrared(FUR) units installed. The ForestService provided the balance of theFMT system. The experience of oneof the R-6 crews on an R-5 fire isdescribed. followed by a briefdescription of the FMT concept.

'Flying InfraRed Enhanced ManeuverableOperational User Simple Electronic TacticalReconnaissance And Patrol. Alaska calls itTROLL for Thermal Recorded Observationand Loran Locating.

28

Belt 206 with attached FUR unit,

.-IRE MOUSE TRAP Use on theYellow Fire

The Yellow Fire in California wasan "ideal" situation for the use ofthe FMT. This fire was locatedadjacent to the Marble MountainWilderness on the Klamath NationalForest in northern California.

During October 1987. a denselayer of smoke blanketed the YellowFire to an altitude of about 4.000 feetin the morning, rising to about 8,000feet in the afternoon. The high altitude infrared line scanner had beenmaking nightly flights of this andother fires for at least a month priorto our arrival with the FMT. Theinfrared interpreter was located inYreka, at least a 3-hour drive fromfire camp at Forks of the Salmon.

Because of the dense smoke, novisual aerial reconnaissance could bedone. and even the people on theground had difficulty locating the fire

from hour to hour. The turnaroundtime on the line scanner informationcould be 10 hours or more from thetime of the flight to the time it wasdelivered on site.

We did not use the FMT's plottersystem on the Yellow Fire, but.instead. relied on the FLIR videoimagery and VCR tapes to map thefire. Several well-defined drainagesserved as landmarks. The helicoptercould follow the fire line or hoverseveral hundred feet from the fire.panning the terrain to get a goodview of the terrain and the fire edge.

In spite of a complete smoke'cover, the FMT's infrared systemconfirmed that the fire had notcrossed the northern control line,Wooley Creek. On several occasions,the infrared camera zoomed In onquestionable hot spots adjacent toWooley Creek to determine if theywere on the right side of the creekor not.

One planned control line wasHancock Creek, a tributary toWooley Creek, on the northeast partof the fire. In the second week inOctober. the high altitude infraredline scanner spotted a "possible"spot on the opposite side of HancockCreek. The FMT independentlylocated the spot and confirmed that itwas on the opposite side of the creekand that it was a burning log that hadfallen across the creek. After the firstone or two FMT flights. the overhead team cancelled the line scannerand requested two nights per daywith the FMT instead.

The next planned control line andburnout was along Big MeadowsCreek. another tributary to WooleyCreek. Using both infrared and color


i

Marble Mountain witdemess. Klamath National Forest, slu)\\'iIlM terrain tvpica! of that C'lIcoun

tered 011 the YeI/OII' Fire.

I

IT

',)

video equipment. the FMT flewbeyond the smoke to give the overhead team information about terrainfeatures. fuel types. and possiblefirelinc locations. During the nextweek or so, FMT new two flightsper day-one in the morning and onein the afternoon. The helicopterlanded at the fire camp after eachflight. Using the infrared VCR tape.we could accurately map the fireabout 'I, hour after the flight-trulyup-to-date, immediate information.

As the time for the planned burnout along Big Meadows Creek grewcloser. the dense smoke layer stillprohibited any visual aerial reconnaissance, and the FMT wasscheduled to make four flights duringthe burnout to monitor the progress.Fortunately. rains during the nightsquelched the fire, and the plannedburnout was cancelled.


Other Uses of the FIRE MOUSETRAP

Another use of the FMT developedwhile it was attached to the SalmonComplex (Yellow Fire). Apparently,local residents along the Salmon andNorth Fork Salmon Rivers were concerned that the USDA Forest Servicewas not adequately protecting theirhomes, Even though smoke filledmany of the canyons, the FMT, in Ito 2-hours flying time, recorded eachhouse on video tape and confirmedwith the infrared system that therewere no hot spots near the houses. Inone case where a reburn occurrednear residences, the FMT monitoredthe progress of the fire twice perday, until it was controlled.

The infrared VCR tapes from theFMT were used by the overheadteam to map the fire. and they were

shown to fire fighters and newsreporters to provide updated information about the progress and intensityof the fire,

A common use of the FMT duringthe 19R7 fire season was to fly alongthe firclines to map hot spots within300 feet of the fire perimeter. Handlines may have been difficult to follow along a cold fireline edge. buttractor lines. roads, and streams wereusually easy to follow. On severalfires where crews had been removedbecause the fire was essentially out,the FMT located hot spots adjacentto the fircline. The overhead teamcould then determine if additionalactions were necessary.

The FMT was also used in a nonfire application earlier in the year for"mapping" bug-kill areas. The pilotflew the helicopter visually aroundthe damaged area while the latitudeand longitude position points werestored in a lap-sized personal computer (PC), The position points weresubsequently plotted on a map toshow the total perimeter and otherpoints of interest or damage.

Since the infrared unit can detectheat sources as low as body temperatures. another possible usc of thesystem that has been used but nottested extensively is making wildlifeinventories. Cows in a pasture ordeer in brush show up as hot spotson a cool or cold background. Aslong as the animals are not obscuredby trees or a dense canopy. they canbe seen by the infrared system andrecorded on video tape for review inthe office. Search and rescue operations Can also be conducted usinginfrared to detect campfires. otherheat sources. or people.

29

FIRE MOUSE TRAP Description

The FMT approach to fire mapping uses a small. forward-lookinginfrared unit mounted on a helicopteror small fixed-wing aircraft. A colorvideo camera can be mounted besidethe FUR. The color or FUR video isselected for display on the monitorsin the aircraft and for recording on acommon VHS portable VCR. Thepilot flies around the fire perimeterusing the FUR where needed to seethrough smoke or to identify the hotfire perimeter. A LORAN-C navigation unit with an RS-232C outputprovides an update of the aircraftposition every 2 seconds. These position points are stored in a lap-sizedPc. Upon completion of the flight,the PC is connected to a plotter. andthe fire perimeter and any hot spotsare plotted directly and to scale on amap or transparent overlay up to thesize of a quad sheet. The plot isavailable within a few minutes of thestart of the plotting operation. Thevideo is also available for playbackand a good look at any area of special concern or interest. When colorvideo and high resolution FLIR unitsarc used. the amount of detail isenough to see even an individualfallen log as described in the YcllowFire narrative above. Trained andexperienced crews for the FMT are

30

invaluable in the use of the FMT andselection of best viewing angles,heights. and type of video.

Conclusion

The FMT has proven its value asan operational tool for fire management. It is adaptable to a variety offire sizes and conditions as well asmany non fire uses. It is a quick andreadily available means under thecontrol of the fire staff to gather fireinformation around the total fireperimeter or in selected critical areasin a timely manner.

For more information on costs,availability. training, and capabilitiesof the FMT. contact John Warren,FTS 554-1439.•

References

1. Warren, John R. FIRE MOUSE TRAP.Boise. ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture.Forest Service: unnumbered report: Oct1984.

') Warren. John R.: Hanks. Ronald G. FIREMOUSE TRAP/TROLL Prototype Test andOperations Report. U.S. Department orAgriculture. Forest Service: unnumberedreport: Jan. 1%6.

3. Hanks. Ronald G.: Warren. John R.: Pendleton. Dennis. Alaska Division of Forestrygoes TROLLing. Fire Management Notes47( I): 32-36: 1986.

4. Hanks. Ronald G. The TROLL system.Columbia University. Ph.D. dissertation:1986.

HOWTHIS RAKECAN SAVE

YOUR LIFE.This simple garden tool is

a firefighter. It can help you clearaway brush and leaves that actlike kindling around your home.And you,

So if you live near the forest,do a little taking. And that's notall. Landscape your home with afire retardant plant like ivy. Usespark arrester screens on yourchimney and vents. And put fireretardant material on your roofand underneath your housewhere it is exposed.

Because a forest fire burnsmore than trees,


II

Correcting an Error in the HP-71BFire Behavior CROMRober! E. Burgan and Ronald A. Susott

Research forester and research chemist, respectively, lntcnnonntuin FireSciences Laboratorv, USDA Forest Service, Missoula, MT

something. Just hit the ENDLINE130 and wait for you to input

5. Quit the fuel model module bytyping Q and go to the direct (DI)

module.6. Type I. then input the following

data:

MODEL 22IH 1010H 10100H 10HERB 80MFWS 10SLP 40WDIR 0

PREDICT AT MAX (YIN) Y

key without entering anything.That will get you out of theeditor.

Some of the characters in the program might give you trouble:• The single quotation mark is

obtained by pressing the blue g key.then the number 7.

• The : character is obtained bypressing the g key. then the *.

• Pusb the SPC key for a space.• Note the zero is slashed (0) but the

letter a is not.• There are no spaces between the

left and right parentheses that haveno characters between them.Here is the actual program. Please

remember the instructions in number3. above.

10 SUB RDIRECT(MO,EO,OO.Z9(.)

20 LI=M(I) «v L4=M(4)30IFM(12)=0THENGOTO

'STATIC ELSE GOTO'DYNAM'

40 'DYNAM':50 F= -.0111*E(5)+1.3360 F= MAX(MIN(l,F).0)70 01 =PM(4)80 M(I)=M(I)+OI ((I

M(4)=M(4)= -0190 ·STATIC:100 CALL RDIRECT(MO,EO,

OO,Z9(.) IN RUNALL7II~) M(4)=L4 «I. M(l)=L1120 ENDYou can check the program by

typing EDIT LOADFIX again andusing the .. and. keys to look ateach line. Hit ENDLINE to get outof the editor. If you have trouble fixing an incorrect line. use the .. and.keys to scroll to the erroneous line.position the cursor over the first

113431890

10.23127lOA

o

ROSH/AFLIFLRIEWSMAXD

To enter the program:I. Type in EDIT LOADFIX and

press the ENDLINE key to getinto the editor. The display willshow LOADFIX BASIC 0.

2. Type in AUTO to get automaticline numhering. Press ENDLINE.A i0 will be displayed.

3. Type in the program given belowexactly, including spaces. Thecalculator will give you the linenumbers. The characters willappear in the display as you typethem. Press the ENDLINE key asyou complete each line. After youtype in the last line (120) the caiculator will display line number

7. Type R to get the followingresults:

The difficulty of writing an errorfree computer program has beendemonstrated once again. An errorhas been found in the program usedto produce the fire behavior custom.read-only memory (CROM) for theHP-71 B. Fortunately. this error canreadily be remedied.

The problem occurs when using adynamic fuel model. The fuel load isnot being transferred between liveherbaceous and I-hour fuel classes.In other words. dynamic fuel modelsarc erroneously being treated as staticfuel models. The problem can befixed by entering the program givenlater in this paper. Once this programis typed in. the fire behavior programis run in routine fashion. But if thecalculator suffers a memory lossfrom dead batteries or any othercause. you must enter the programagain.

The following exercise will demonstrate the problem. Once you haveentered the program, you can repeatthis exercise as .1 means of checkingthat you have correctly fixed theproblem.I. Turn on the HP-71 B and type in

RUN BEHAVIOR.2. Go to the fuel model (FM) module

and get fuel model 2 by typingG2.

3. Change the fuel model number to22 by typing I for input, 22 formodel number, and just press theENDLINE key when a modelname is requested. Then type /14and, when STATIC-DYNAMIC(f)--I) appears, type a I. Just pressENDLINE when the wind factor isrequested.

4. Save the model by typing S.

""


L ~ _

Run the direct module and youshould get the following results:

character in the line. type the wholeline in again. and then press theENDLINE key.

To check that your programgives correct results. type in RUNBEHAVIOR. go to the Direct or IDI)module and input the data providedin step 6 of the previous exercise.

ROSH/AFLIFLRIEWSMAXD

12841497110.6

3088104

o

The difference between the two runsreflects the fact that herbaceous fuelload was not being transferred to thel-hour fuel class in the first run. butwas being transferred in the secondrun.

We hope that no more errors willbe found. We are fortunate this onecan be repaired so easily .•

!


New McCall Smokejumper BaseDedication PlannedGene Benedict

Brunch chh:t: Fire Munugcment lind Recreation, PuveucNational Forest, USDA Forest Service. McCall, If)

Place a matchbetween the arrowsand read to yourself.

ONLY:CANPREVENTf<)RESrfiRES

When you cutdown a tree,don't bumdownsforest.

and static displays. Following theceremony, there will be an openhouse With tours untiJ 7:00 p.m. Theopen house and tours will continueon Sunday from 9:00 a.m, through4:00 p.rn. Invitations and specificsconcerning the dedication ceremonywill he mailed by May I.

This is the newest such facility inthe National Forest System and IS anextremely impressive structure. It hasan aesthetically pleasing appearance,with its mixture of cedar siding,shake roof. and native rock from theSalmon River.

We hope to see you all inJune! •

• Please make•••• sure your chain

Q( ':1:'.. saw has a sparkarrester that works

After all. if you burn downthe forest, you won't need the saw.

Planning is underway for a dcdication ceremony for the new McCallSmokcjumpcr Complex. The complex is located in the IntermountainRegion (RA) on the Payette NationalForest in McCall. /D. The dedicationis planned for June 25-26. 1988.During the last 2 years. constructionhas been underway for the $2.9 million dollar facility. Included in thecomplex is a new paralof't. airtankerbase and off-site housing with barracks for 40 single jumpers. andmarried jumper facilities for 10 families. The new paraloit has thenormal loft features: warehouse/storage and fire pack assembly area.large drying tower. sewing room,packing room. ready room, first-aid!whirlpool roOI11, weight rOOl11, 80person classroom, conference roomand administrative offices. Alsolocated in the para/oft is the PayetteForest Dispatch Office. The facilityis located on the west side of theMcCall City Airport and has a largerump urea for smokcjumpcr. airtankerand Icadplane aircraft parking and atraining unit area to be completed by1989. A mixmaster office, tankerpilots rcadyroorn. aircraft maintcnance building, and hclibase roundout the other features. The complexhas its own parallel taxiway foraccess to the runway.

The dedication ceremony willbegin at 1:00 p.m. (mdt) on Saturday. June 25 and will last forapproximately 2 hours. It willinclude speeches, special recognitions, and both aerial demonstrations

l)

»

IA r.t:' A Puhfir Service I)fT"i~ .M·w~p(lllPrV ~ & The Advertising Council


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