general agriculture notes for icar and ars

2010-11General AgricultureFor ICAR’s EXAMS, JRF, SRF, ARS & IARI Ph. D. Exams(Based on Authorized and Current information)

Compiled by :Roop Singh Maitry

(Ph.D. Scholar, WST, I.A.R.I.)Special thanks to

Ajit Uchoi (Ph.D. Scholar, PGR, I.A.R.I.)

Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi-110012

CONTENTS

1. Indian Agriculture: At A Glance2. Horticulture 3. Biochemistry4. Microbiology5. Crop Physiology6. Entomology7. Agronomy8. Agricultural Economics9. Plant Pathology10. Genetics and Plant Breeding11. Statistics12. Soil Science13. Agricultural Extension14. Crop Biotechnology15. Environmental Science 16. Seed Technology17. Agricultural Engineering18. Agricultural Physics19. History of Agricultural Research

in India20. Agricultural Points

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), [email protected]

PREFACEAgriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. In India,

the competition in agricultural education is increasing day by day. The competitive examination is an only routine procedure of admission in Agricultural Universities, viz. Central Agriculture University (CAU), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The competitive examination is also an only routine procedure of recruitment in agricultural job/posts, viz. Agricultural Research Services, State PSC and UPSC. Thus, one has to prepare him/herself very strongly for these competition exams and for the success, need to read authentic and authorised reading materials. The knowledge of general agriculture is very essential for every competition exams related to agriculture. Many authors are attempted to compile the notes/books of general agriculture, in which, TNAU notes is well famous. Other books were also made impact on the readers. But still no book is there with authentic and authorised information. Therefore, I and my friends feel need to write this book. This book has been so as to serve, as best as possible to aim of writing this book.

Here, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the person who prepared the TNAU notes with his /her hard work. I am highly thankful to Mr. Ajit Uchoi who helped me for material collection and typing. Finally, I wish to thank all the friends, who encouraged me to compile this book, Deepak Gupta, Gopal Mahajan, Somnath Holkar. And also thanks to other friends for there, cooperation, Ramnna, Datta, Imtiyaj.

References:1. Handbook of Agriculture- ICAR (new edition)2. General Agriculture- Muni raj Singh (new edition)3. Economic Survey of India- Govt. of India (2009-10)4. India-20105. ICAR websites6. TNAU notes7. Fundamentals of Soil Science-ISSS


1. INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AT A GLANCE (2010-11)

Indian Agriculture-2010: A record production of 233.88 Million tons of food grains in 2008-09 Contribution to Growth rate in GDP – 4.7% (2007-08), 1.6% (2008-09) Contribution to GDP –16.4 % (2007-08), 15.7% (2008-09) Share to total imports– 2.95% (2007-08), 2.74% (2008-09) Share to total exports – 12.05% (2007-08), 10.23% (2008-09) Contribution to total Employment- 52% (2008-09) MSP increase in 2008-09 over last year:

Wheat-8% (lowest) Ragi-58% (highest)

India supports(of world’s): Total geographical area-2% population- 18% Livestock-15% Forest-1.5%

Total Geographical Area (TGA) - 329 M.H Potential for Biological Production - 265 M.H Per Capita land availability-0.37ha (1991-92) Per Capita Agri. land availability -0.16 ha(1991-92) Net cultivated area- 143 Mha Irrigated area-56.3 Mha National Commission on Farmers-2004 (Chairman- M.S. Swaminathan) National Horticulture Mission-started 2005 National Bamboo Mission-started 2006-07 NRAA- National Rain fed Area Authority, since 03/11/2006 National food security mission-started Rabi, 2007 RADP- Rain fed Area Development Programme, Since 20 March, 2008 All India avg. fertilizer consumption- 128.8 Kg/ha (2008-09) Highest avg. fertilizer consumption- Punjab (212Kg/ha) Lowest avg. fertilizer consumption – Arunachal Pradesh (5 kg/ha) Nutrient consumption ration (NPK), 2007-08)- 5.5:2.1:1 NPMSF- National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertilizer, 2008-09 ISOPOM-Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm & Maize, started since 1st

April, 2004 Kisan Call Centre(KCC),started since 21st Jan 2004 (toll free No. 1551) DMRI- Directorate of Marketing Research and Inspection, Nagpur , Maharashtra First livestock census conducted in India: 1919 Rank of India in Silk production-2nd (1st-China), - 18,320 MT Provides about 65% of the livelihood Contributes 21% of Total Exports, and Supplies Raw materials to Industries Growth Rate in production - 5.8% About 75% people are living in rural areas and are still dependent on Agriculture. About 43% of India’s geographical area is used for agricultural activity.

Organizational Setup of ICAR: (Present scenarios-2009-10) Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex-officio President of the ICAR Society.

(Present- Sharad Pawar)


1/122

Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India & Director-General, ICAR – the Principal Executive Officer of the Council. (Present- Dr. S. Ayyappan)

Agricultural Scientists' Recruitment Board, Chairman-Dr. C. D. Mayee (Plant Pathlosist)

Deputy Directors-General (8) Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR) Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor Assistant Directors-General (24) Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi Directorates/Project Directorates - 25 (with upgradation of 12 NRCs) National Bureaux – 6 (New-NBAII, Bengaluru and NBAIM, Mau, UP) Deemed Universities status -6(New- NAARM, Hydrabad and NIASM, Malegaon,

Maharastra) National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) [formerly Project

Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC)] is a nodal Institute at national level for research and development on all aspects of work on harnessing resources of insects including biological control of crop pests and weeds, training, information repository, technology dissemination and national/international cooperation.(2009)

National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganism(NBAIM), Mau, UP (2005)

There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) established under ICAR institutes.

ICAR Introduced revised curricula and syllabi for 95 disciplines in Master’s and 80 disciplines in Doctoral programmes.

The Handbook of Agriculture updated as 6th edition (2009). NIASM (National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management), Malegaon,

Maharastra,2008 Established a network of over 568 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK).(upto Dec.2009) Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management): Dr. A.K. Singh, Union Minister for Agriculture: Shri. Sharad Pawar Minister of State for Agriculture: Prof. K.V. Thomas. New Director-General of ICAR: Dr. S. Ayyappan

Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010): Father of Hybrid rice in India- Dr. E.A. Siddiqe Milk production in India (Highest over World)-108 Mt.(2009) and 1st rank in world. Milk Availability (g./person/day)- 245 (2007-08), 258 (2008-9) Food grain production (Mt.)-233 Mt Fruit production - 63 Mt (2007-08) 2nd rank Vegetable production -125 Mt (2007-08) 2nd rank Agriculture accounts …….% of National work force-52 Project Directorates-25 (upgrated NRCs-12) SAUs-45 National Research Centres (NRCs)-17 AICRPs-61 National Institutes-6 (very Imp.) Central Institutes-49 Directorate of Women in Agriculutre-Bhuwneshwar, Orissa Directorate of Floricultural Research- New Delhi Directorate of Information and Publication in Agriculture- New Delhi AICRP, NSP-crops, New Delhi AICRP, Arid Zone fruit-Bikaner


2/122

AICRP, NSP-vegetable,Varanasi AICRP, Pestiside residue, New Delhi AICRP, Agrometeorrology, Hydrabad

General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites): Sahbhagi Dhan - new varieties of rice capable of withstanding drought. Water submergence variety of rice- Swarna-Sub 1, can survive for 14 days under

water. To ward off threat to wheat production from the globally spreading menace of

resistant varieties of wheat stem rust- Ug99,DBW 17, PBW 550, Lok 1, and Turja identified.

In potato, dry matter-rich variety Kufri Frysona developed for making French Fries. Cloned and surviving buffalo calf, GARIMA, produced for faster multiplication of

selected highly productive animals. For Bird Flu diagnosis, High Security Animal Disease Laboratory, Bhopal, conferred

OIE-international recognition. Devised drip and sprinkler irrigation systems saving water (30-50%), labour (50%),

fertilizer (30-40%) and increasing yields (12-76%). Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), a simple device for nitrogen management saves 15 kg N/ha

in rice. Tractor-mounted cumin planter saves 30% seed. Motorized aril extractor developed for pomegranate. The first systematic work on SRI began at TNAU, Tamil Nadu in 1993. Golden rice: Produced by combining genetic material from daffodils, Ervinia

vredivora, Agrobacterium tumifacience and Japonica rice. by Professor Ingo Potrykus and Dr. Peter Beyer (Germany,1999)

Purpose of golden rice- to provide a new, alternative intervention to combat Vitamin A Deficiency.

General Agriculture by Muniraj Singh (New Entry): National Biodiversity Board-New Delhi Camel crop-Sorgum Natural Genetic enginner-Agrobacterium tumefacience Pashmina (Winter cloth) obtained from- Goats Law of Tolerance –Sheford Oleresine- Chilli Keshar(sefforon) belongs family-Iridaceae World Food Prize,1987 (1st Indian)-M.S. Swaminathan for Green revolution World Food Prize,1989 (2nd Indian)-Vergese Kurien for Milk revolution World Food Prize,2000 (5th Indian)-S. K. Khus for Quality Protein Maize World Food Prize, 2009- Gebisa Ejeta (Ethiopia) for 1st sorghum hybrid for drought

and srtiga weed. Mychoryza increase availability of – Phosphorus Water Requirement of irrigated wetland rice-1500 mm Nurient mobility concepts-Bray PUFA conent is highest in –Sunflower Pseudocereal-Buckwheat First Agri. Chemist of ICAR-J W Leather Pulse crop doesn’t fix N-Rajma Avg Milling recovery of Rice-60%


3/122

Informatics in Agriculture: IT Plan for Agriculture Sector (AGRISNET) was submitted to Ministry of Agriculture

in 1997 to establish “Indian Agriculture on-line” and revised in 2000. AGMARKNET-Agricultural Marketing Information Network NADAMS-National Agricultural Drought Advisory and Management Systems AgRIS-Resources Information System APHNET-Animal Production and Health Informatics Network ARISNET-Agricultural Research and Information System ACINET: Agricultural Credit Informatics Network E-chaupal estabilished by Indian Tobacco Comp. (ITC) for M.P. VERCON (Vitrual Extension, Research and Communication Network) developed by-

FAO,2001 Soya-Chaupal is for weather, farming practice and Market price of Soybean in M.P. ICT- Information and Communication Technology ARIS- Agricultural Research Information System, est. by ICAR, 1995

Nanotechnology in Agriculture: coined by-Nario Taniguichi (1974), at Univ. of Tokyo, Japan Nanotechnology is Understanding and control of matter at dimension of 1-100 nm Example of Nano based Smart Delivery System-Halloysite Nano Pesticide-Nano Particles(NPs) of ZnO, Sio2 and TiO2 used for Bacteria & Green

Algea Nano Particles used for reclamation of heavy Particles-Amphiphylic

Polyurethane,Zeravalent Iron (nZVI), and Nano sized Zeolite.Crop Biotechnology.

First transgenic plant-Flavr SavrTM tomato for delayted ripining was realeasd for commercial cultivation in 1994 by Calgene (Compony).

Final Approval Committee for release of transgenic crops in India- GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee)

Area under transgenic plant in World (2008)-125 Mha, 139 Mha (2009) Rank of India for transgenic plant -4th ( 1st-USA, 2nd-Mexico, 3rd- Argentina) Crops having highest transgenic plant cultivation area- Soyabean> Corn>Cotton Area under Bt-cotton: 7.5 Mha(2008), 8.4 Mha (2009)(86% of cotton area) First genetic engineering compony est. 1976, Genentech First transgenic crop- tobacco

Irrigation in India-2010: National water awards (2007)-Hiware Bazar Gram Panchayat, Ahmadnagar,

Mharastra Area under micro irrigation system in india (2008-09): 3.88 Mha Area under Drip in India (2008-09): 1.42 Mha (highest area-Maharashtra) Area under Sprinkler in India (2008-09): 2.45 Mha (highest area-Haryana) Water year-2007 Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Advisory Council (ARGWC)- constituted in

2006 National Institute of Hydrology- Roorkee, Uttarakhand World Congress on conservation Agriculture, 2009- held at New Delhi

ITK in Agriculture: Bael fruit can be used to contol –rice blast Cow urin used for – wheat termite control , sorghum smut control

India’s position in world Agriculture Rank Total Area :Seventh Irrigated Area : First Population :Second


4/122

Economically Active population : Second Total Cereals : Third Wheat :Second Rice :Second Coarse grains : Fourth Total Pulses : First Oil Seeds : Second Fruits and Vegetables : Second (first-China) Implements (Tractors) :Third Milk : First Live Stock (castles, Buffaloes) :First

WORLD AGRICULTURAL SCENARIO Rice : China > India > Indonesia Maize : USA >China >Brazil Wheat : China > India >Usa Groundnut : China > India Sugarcane : Brazil > India Total Cereals : China > USA > India Coarse Cereals: Usa > China > Brazil > India Total Pulses : India -1st

Mustard & Rapeseed: China > Canada > India Fruits & Veg : China > India Cotton : CHINA > USA > India Tobacco : China > Brazil > India Tea, Jute & Allied Fibres: India -1st

Coffee :India-6th

Cattle Population: 1st (16.5%) Buffalo Population: 1st (56.7%) Milk Production: 1st (15%) Egg Production: China>USA>Japan>India Total Area of India-329 m ha-2.4% of world-7th position Total Arable Land-162 m ha-2nd after USA Total Irrigated Area-58 m ha-21% of world-1st position Human Population-102.5 Crore-17% of world-2nd after China

INDIANS WHO SECURED WORLD FOOD PRIZES: 1987 - Dr MS Swaminathan- architect of India’s “green revolution” 1989 -Dr Verghese Kurien – Milk cooperatives 1996 - Dr Gurudev S Kush – improved yield potential of rice 1998 – Mr B R Barwale – Founder of MAHYCO 2000 – Dr Surinder K Vassal – Developed quality protein maize 2005 – Modaduga v Gupta – For Aquaculture

SOME IMPORTANT YEARS: 2004-International year of rice 2005-International year of micro credit 2006-International year of desert and desertification 2007-International year of water (theme-more crop per drop) 2008-International year of potato 2009-International year of fibre 2010- International year of Biodiversity

PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY (2009-10)


5/122

Cereals – 409.9 gm/day Pulse -29 gm/day Milk - 245 gm /day. Minimum requirement of milk – 240 gm/day

World Green Revolution: Increasing the wheat production that began in Mexico in 1945. The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director

William Gaud. CIMMYT , Mexico - the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars. HYVs or “high-yielding varieties - A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat)

which yield 10 times more than that of traditional rice. Father of the Green Revolution- Norman Ernest Borlaug (Birth-March 25, 1914 and

Death - September 12, 2009 (aged 95) Dallas, Texas (USA). An American agronomistand Nobel laureate who has been deemed the. He received his Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics.)

Father of the Green Revolution in India- M. S. Swaminathan (Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan, born August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu.)

Father of the Ever Green Revolution in India (1995) - M. S. Swaminathan. Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops

for Green Revolution. The land Mark of Indian Green Revolution- IARI, New Delhi "Miracle Rice"-IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by IRRI. Crossed between

an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety named “Dee-geo-woo-gen.”

CROP PRODUCTION SCENARIOS IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2008-09): Total foodgrains production in 2008-09 was estimated at 233.88 million tonnes as

against 230.78 million tonnes in 2007-08.Current trends in Indian agriculture:

10th largest economy in terms of GDP 10th in world plant biodiversity (4th in Asia) India is in 4th position in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

Leading state in production and area of crops: Rice – WB> UP, Punjab (Productivity) Wheat – UP> Punjab, Haryana (productivity) Pulse s– MP (production), Haryana (productivity) Oilseed – MP>AP, TN (productivity) Groundnut – Gujarat (production), TN (productivity) Mustard – Rajasthan Cotton – Maharashtra Jute – West Bengal Coffee – Karnataka Tea – Assam Rubber – Kerala> Tripura Potato – UP Onion – Maharashtra Sugarcane – Uttar Pradesh (production), Tamil Nadu (productivity) Maize – Karnataka Soybean – MP(production), AP (productivity)


6/122

PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS:CROPS 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Rice 93.43 96.69 99.15

Wheat 75.80 78.57 80.58Coarse cereals 30.66 40.76 39.48Cereals 199.89 216.02 219.21Total pulses 14.20 14.76 14.66Total food grains 214.09 230.78 233.88

Total oilseeds 24.29 29.75 28.15

Sugarcane 355.52 258.84 231.56Cotton 226.3 lakh bales 246.84 lakh bales 231.56 Lakh bales

CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate) Kharif foodgrains production - 98.83 Mt Kharif rice production - 71.65 Mt., a decrease of about 15 per cent over 2008-09 Total kharif production of coarse cereals- 22.76 Mt. Total production of Kharif pulses- 4.42 Mt. Total kharif production of the nine Oilseeds- 15.233 Mt. Sugarcane production- 249.48 million tones Cotton production- 23.66 Million bales (of 170 kg each) Production of jute and mesta- 10.243 Million bales (of 180 kg each)

Highest/Lowest production year-Crop Year (highest) Year (lowest)Food grain 2008-09 2002-03wheat 2008-09 2002-03Rice 2008-09 2002-03Pulse 2003-04 2002-03Nine Oilseed 2007-08 2002-03Sugarcane 2006-07 2003-04Cotton 2007-08 2002-03

AREA COVERAGE 2009-10(Based on Advance Estimate) Kharif total foodgrains -66.78 Mha India ranks first in world milk production. Production of sugar in 2008-09 sugar season declined by about 11.62 Mt.

Allied sector Production figure in 2008-09: Milk - 108.5 million tonnes Eggs- 55.6 Billion, Wool - 42.7 Million kg Meat-3.8 Million tones Fish production- 7.6 million tones Silk production -18, 324 Kg

MSP-2009-10 (Rs.per Quintal) Paddy- Rs.1000/- Jwar- Rs.860/- Arhar- Rs.2300/- Cotton - Rs.2500/- Wheat- Rs.1100/- Gram- Rs.1760/- Sugarcane -Rs. 129.8/-


7/122

Barley- Rs.750/-

LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09Crops Prod.

(Mt)Leading Prod. state

Area (Mha)

Productivity(Kg/Ha)

Rice 99.15 WB>AP>UP 45.35 2186Wheat 80.58 UP>PNJ>HR 27.88 2891Maize 19.29 AP>KN>RJ 28.19 2355Jwar 7.31 MH>KN>MP 7.68 -Bajra 8.83 RJ>UP>GJ 8.74 -C. Cereal 39.48 RJ>MH 27.62 -Cereal 219.21 - 22.37 -T. Pulses 14.86 MH>MP>AP 7.97 655Chickpea 7.0 MP>MH>AP 7.97 -Lentil 0.81 UP>MP 1.31 -Pig.pea 2.3 MH>KN 3.4 -T. Food Grain

233.8 UP>PNJ>AP 123.22 -

T.oilseed 28.16 MP>MH>GJ 27.46 -Soyabean 9.9 MP>MH 9.52 -G. nut 7.34 GJ>AP 6.22 -Mustard 7.37 RJ>UP 6.19 -Sunflowe 1.25 KN>AP 1.83 -Sugarcane 273.93 UP>MH 4.4 -Potato 28.43 UP>WB - -Cotton* 23.6 GJ>MH 9.41 419Jute* 10.41 WB>BHR 0.91 -Coffee - KN - -Tea - Assam - -Rubber - Kerla - -Onion - MH - -*Million Bales

POINTS NEED TO REMEMBER India’s rank in fertilizer consumption- 3rd

Per ha NPK consumption-128 kg CV of South west Monsoon in 2009- 10% MSP given by CACP CACP stands for - Commission on Agriculture cost and Prices FCI Buffer stock, Oct 2009- 16.2 Mt Swaljaldhara is – drinking water project, 2002 Hariyali- watershed development program est. 2003 NAREGA changes to MAREGA (Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guaranty

Act) 2005 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Authority,

established in Nov., 2005 at New Delhi (Chairaman- S. Nagrajan) National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertility (NPMSF), has been

introduced in 2008-09 Total No. of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs)in India-750 (2008-09) Total irrigation potential in India- 102.77 million ha by March 2007


8/122

Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97 NAFED -National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited CCI- Cotton Corporation of India The Macro Management of Agriculture Scheme (MMA) was formulated in 2000-01 National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has been launched from the rabi 2007-08 to

enhancing the production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2 million tonnes respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan

Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCC) was introduced in August 1998 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) - launched in August 2007 National Bamboo Mission (NBM)- commenced in 2006-07 National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH) Chairman, Planning Commissions- M. S. Ahuliwalia Chairman of National Commission for Farmers - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan India’s Rank 1st– Milk, Coconut, Tea, Banana, Mango, Cashew nut (export, import and processing)

and Pulses 2nd – Rice , Wheat, Cotton, Fruit and vegetable 3rd – Tobacco, rubber, Egg and fertilizer Consumption of Pesticide is maximum

o Imported Pesticide: Carbaryl followed by cholorpyriphoso Indigenous Pesticide: BHC followed by Monocrotophos & Endosulfan

Export of Agro chemicalso Maximum (in terms of rupees): Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfan,

Phosphide & Lindane The top Agrobusiness company: Novartis (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy & Sandoz) Total production of pesticides in India : 95,000 tones (2007-08) Number of pesticides registered in India: L55-(as on 31/12/99) Number of technical grade pesticides manufactured in India: Plant Protection adviser to GOL: Dr. R. L. RAJAK. Insecticides Act: 1968 (Thakur committee recommendation) Insecticides rules : 1971 Brown revolution - Promotion of Agro Industries Dvt. Pink revolution - Promotion of onion production Yellow revolution - Promision of oilseeds production The word green revolution was coined by “William Gadd” Father of Green revolution Norman E. Borlaoug. Father of Green revolution in India Dr. M.S. Swaminathan Father of hybrid rice production: yuvan long ping First laureate of the “world food’ prize: Dr. Swaminathan World Food prize – 1986 Rice breeders: Dr. H. M. Beachell

o Dr. Gurdev singh khush NCIPM – National Centre for Integrated Pest Management – IARI, New Delhi CPPPTI – Central Plant Protection Training Institute – Hyderabad The largest per hectare pesticide consuming country – Taiwan Total number of pesticides banned in India = 29 Recently banned - Phosphamidon Highest consumption – cotton 54% followed by paddy 22%

RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009) Number of insecticide included in insecticide schedule- 787


9/122

Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27 Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but their manufacture is allowed for

export - 2 Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use - 4 Pesticide Withdrawn - 7 No. of pesticides refused registration - 18 Pesticides restricted for use in India – 13 Insecticides approved by the registration committee for protecting buildings from

termites : Chlorpyriphos 50% EC, Ethion 50% EC, Imidacloprid 30.50% SC, Lindane 20% EC.

Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control termites in agricultural crops under the insecticides act, 1968 : Chlorpyriphos 20 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC, Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL.

No. of Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control household pests in houses under the insecticides act, 1968 - 39.

RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10) %Share of Hoti. Crops in Production– Vegt. (60%) < fruits (31%) < Plantation crops

(5%) %Share of Hoti. Crops in Area – Vegt. (40%) < fruits (30%) < Plantation (15%) Fruits: leading crops

o Area: Mango>citrus>Bananao Production: Banana> Mango>citruso Productivity: Papaya> Banana>Grape

Fruits: leading Stateo Area: MH>AP>UPo Production: AP>MH>TN

Vegetable: leading cropso Area: Potato>Onion>Tomatoo Production: Potato>Onion>Tomatoo Productivity: Tapioca> Cabbage >Potato

Vegetable: leading Stateo Area: WB>UP>Bhro Production: WB>UP>Bhr

India’s rank in the fruits production – 2nd (1st - Brazil) India’s rank in the vegetables production - 2nd (1st -China) India is the largest producer of 1. Mango, 2. Banana, 3. Sapota, 4. Acid Lime, 5.

Cauliflower India is the 2nd largest producer of 1. Onion, 2. Potato Per capita fruit –Recommended : 120 gm/day/person Per capita fruit –Availability : 70-80 gm/day/person Per capita vegetables- Recommended : 275 gm/day/person Per capita vegetables- Availability : 120 gm/day/person

IARI Ph.D. General Agriculture 2009-10 (Answer based on given MCQs) Highest procurement of wheat in 2009 was-17.8 Mt

Contribution of agriculture to GDP is- 22

IVLP stands for- Institute Village Linkage Programme

Which one of these is major constituent of poultry feed? – Maize

In binomial distribution Mean > variance


10/122

Bordeaux mixture is Fungicide

Which of the following is used to turn over the soil? Mould bould plough

NBFGR-National Bureau for Fish Genetic Resource is situated at- Lucknow Which of the following is not bio-control agent? Xanthomonas

Which of the following is complex fertilizer? Urea ammonium Phosphate

Soil having ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) greater than 15 are Alkali soil

Rain, mist, fog and cloud all these phenomena occurs in

Troposphere

Farming system is All agril. Inputs and commodities

Which nutrient helps in Biological Nitrogen Fixation?Mo

Silt is intermediate between

Sand and clay

First CO2 acceptor in C-3 pathway -RuBP carboxylase

From 1960’s onward which of the following operation is in effect for milk?-Operation flood

CIMMYT works on-Maize and wheat

Which of the following is highly salt tolerant fruit crop? Date palm

Price fixed by government recently for agricultural products Minimum support price

If farmer has only one irrigation is available for wheat crop, at which stage it is recommended CRI

Disease occurring regularly in the same area is called as Endemic

Which of the following is essential component of nucleic acid and protein? N

Widely cultivated wheat species in India after T. diococcum

Banana is Auto triploid

Which crop in India has maximum area under irrigation? Rice Which of the following is not found in plant cell? Glycogen

Family of cotton is Malvaceae

Certified seed is produced from Foundation seed

In prophase which is correct Elongated threads like chromosome

Indian Agriculture: General ViewLAND RESOURCES IN INDIA

Total Geographic area- 328.74 million Hectare (2.4% of world area) Average annual Rainfall- 1195 mm Total cultivated area – 142.6 mha (46.6% of total area) Gross cultivated area – 192.62 m ha Total irrigated area – 57 m ha Gross irrigated area – 79.5 m ha Total area under forest -68.97 m ha (22.5%) The generated rainfall volume – 400 mha m Per capita availability of agricultural use land – 0.30 hectare Cropping intensity – 135.1 % Area sown more than once – 50.02 mha The generated runoff volume – 185 mha m Total area under horticultural crops – 12 mha Maximum area under irrigation- Ganga Basin


11/122

Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76% Area under pasture cum grazing land – 11.30 mha (4%) Area under cultivable wastelands- 14.63 (5%) Area under tree crops and graves – 3.6 mha (1.2%) Area under fruit cultivation - 4 mha Area under vegetable cultivation – 6.09 mha Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha) – 98 Percentage of arable land under irrigation – 34.8 Contribution of agriculture to GDP – 16-18 % Contribution of Horticulture to GDP – 28-30 % Number of agro climactic zones in India (Planning commission)- 15 Number of agro-ecological regions (NBSS and LUP) – 21 (now 20) No of Hot spots of Biodiversity in India – 3 (Western ghat, the NEH region and the

Himalayas

WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA Catchment area of the rivers in India is – 252.8 M ha The Ministry of water Resources, Govt. of India has divided the country into 20 river

basine Total volume of precipitation – 400 M ha.m Percolation is 215 Mha.m, immediate evaporation 70Mham and surface run off is

155Mham. Usage of ground on full dev –42.3Mha m Usage of surface water on full dev – 80Mham Storage reservoirs and tanks – 73Mha m Diversion works & direct pumping – 15Mha m Water flowing back to sea-92Mha m Out of 42.3Mha m ground water receives – 11.5Mha m is used for irrigation The yearly average stream flow in our country is 1869Km cube A total of 1050 Km cube of unhzable quantum of surface & ground water is available for

irrigation. A surface water storage of 1.4Km cube has been created and another 72Km cube will be

available after completion of on going projects an another 132Km cube will be available from projects under constructions, making the total available water to 378Km cube in the country.


12/122

2. HORTICUTURE

Cultivation/Production of Mango B. N. : Mangifera indica Origin : Indo-Burma Fruits type : Drupe Edible part : Mesocarp Main Nutrient: Vit. -A (46660 I U) Main varieties: Remarks

1. Mallika :2. Ainrapali : HDP, Dwarfing, developed by IARI 3. Lal Sundari :Coloured variety, developed by IARI 4. Niranjan : Off season bearer5. Mandhulika : Off season bearer6. MDCH-2 : Off season bearer7. Arka Aruna : Free from spongy tissue8. Arka Puneet : Free from spongy tissue 9. Arka Anmol : Free from spongy tissue10. Arka Neelkiran :11. Sindhu : Seedless12. Dashehari : Best North Indian cultivar13. Chausa : Sweeten, Very late varieties14. Neehun :Best combiner, Very late varieties15. Kalepadi : Dwarfing16. Totapuri : Red small, Dwarfing

Propagation : Veneer Grafting Intercrops : Papaya, Phalsa, Onion, Tomato Sex forms : Male & Female (Andromonoceious) Pollinator : Housefly Maturity indices : 1. Specific gravity (1.01-1. 02) Flowering to Harvest : 90-120 days Major pest : Hoppers Physiological Disorders:

1. Malformation:o Due to low temperatureo Control by … 1. Deblossoming, 2. Spray of NAA @ 200 ppm, 3. Resistant

cultivars- Bahaduran, Aliff, Haichi, Manjeera.2. Black tip:o Due to gases from brick kilns (SO2, NO2 and Acetylene)o Cultivars with more lenticels/ unit are susceptibleo Control : Borax spray

3. Alternate bearing : Control: Paclobutrazol @300 ppm (or) Kutar @ 5 gm/ tree by, Soil as well as foliar spray

4. Spongy tissue: Convection heats5. Internal Fruit necrosis: ‘B’ deficiency.

Cultivation/Production of Tomato:

Tomato : Lycorpersicon esculentunn, Famous as :Wolf Apple Family : Solanacae Origin : Peru


13/122

Fruit type : Bery Main Nutrient :(rich in Vit.- A) Main Varieties:

1. Pusa ruby 6. Pusa Gaurav Processing2. Pusa Early Dwarf 7. Arka Vikas3. Sioux 8. Arka Saurab4. Marglobe 9. Arka Ahuti5. Supreme (Seln-120) 10. Arka Ashish

Hybrids :1. Arka vishal,2. Arka vardan (Registant to nematode), 3. Vaishali (Indo-American Hybrids), 4. Rupail (Indo-American Hybrids) 5. Naveen (Indo-American Hybrids)

Seed rate : Normal: 300-350 gm/ha, and (Hybrid: 70-90 gm/ ha) Spacing : 60x60 cm and 90 x 90 cm Maturity : Colour development Major pest : Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armijera) Major Disease : Tomato Spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Damping off, (Vector

Thrips) BER : Blosoom-End-Rot (due to Calcium deficiency.) Cold set : eg. Pusa sheetal, Pusa Hybrid-2 Hot set : eg: Pusa Hybrid-1

Cultivation/Production of Rose: B. N. : Rosa hybrid Family : Rosaceae Propagation :T- budding Type : 1. Hybrid Tea: Hybrid perpetual ×Tea Rose-(Large solitary flowers)

2. Floribunda: Hybrid tea × Olyanthes – Medium flower on clusters. Export Varieties: First Red Golden Times, Mercedes, Belinda, Sonia, Milan, Red

Success, B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Chitra.

Cultivation/Production of Cauliflower: Edible part :curd (Prefloral apical meristem) Operation : Blanching in cauliflower Disorders : Whiptail- Mo deficiency

Browning – Boron deficiency Varieties : Pusa snowball, Pusa katki, Pusa deepali, Early Kunwari.

General Horticulture: Fruit types:

Type Example1. Berries : Grapes, Guava, Phalsa, Tomato, Brinjal, Chitiles2. Drupe : Mango, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apricot3. Hesperidum : Citrus4. Amphisarca : Wood apple, Bael5. Balusta : Pomegranate6. Pome (false fruit) : Apple, Pear7. Pepo : Cuarbits8. Single seeded berry : Dates


14/122

9. Single seeded nuts : Litchi10. Sorosis : Jack, Mulberry, Pineapple11. Syconium : Fig12. Efaerio of better : Annona sp13. Ekaerro of Drupe lets : Strawberry

Commercial Method of Propagation:Fruits Method1. Mango : Venner Grafiting2. Banana : Sword suckers3. Citrus : ‘T’/ shield budding4. Grapes : Hard wood cutting5. Guar : Stooling/ Mound layering6. Litchi. Programme to : Air Layering7. Acid lime, Phalsa, Mangosrein : Seed8. Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum : ‘T’ budding9. Anola : Patch budding10. Strawberry : Runner11. Pineapples : sucker, slips

Nutrients, Deficiency symptoms and Sources:

Type Deficiency Source1. Vitamin-a Night blindness Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Japanese (Retinal) (xerophthalmia) Persimmon2. Vit B-1 (Thiamin) Beri-beri Almond, Apricot, Cashew3. Vit B-2 (Riboflavin) Dry Skin Bael, Passion Fruit, Jack4. Vit C (Ascorbic acid) Survey F: Barbados Cherry, Orange,

GuavaV: Chitlies, Bittergourd Amla

5. Vit – D (Calciferol) Rickets V: Greens6. Iron - Dates, Currants, Caronda, Green 7. Calcium - Litchi, Banana, Carols, Tomato8. Potassium - Banana, Greens9. Phosphorus - Carrot, Tomato, Spinack10. Iodine Goatee Onion Okra


15/122

3. BIOCHEMISTRY

Major group of compounds found in a cell are carbohydrates and their derivatives, fats and their derivatives proteins and their derivatives, nucleic acids.

1. CARBOHYDRATES Organic compounds with a general formula (CH2O)n

Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 categories,(a) Monosaccharides(b) Oligosaccharides(c) Polysaccharides

(a) Monosaccharides Trioses: Trioses are simple sugars derived from hydrolysis of oligopolysaccharides

have ‘C’ atom ranging from 3-9 (eg.) They are of two types (a) Aldoses, (b) Ketoses Aldoses: Sugars with terminal CHO aldehyde group aldotriose- Glyceraldehyde

(simplest sugar)o Aldoterose- Erythrose, thresoseo Aldopentose – Arabiose ribose deoxyriboseo Aldohexose – Glucose, galactose, mannose

Ketoses: Having >C=O group Ketotriose: Dihydroxy acetone – simplest keto sugar Ketohexose: Fructose – It is the sweetest among all the sugars.(b) Oligosaccharides All derived from combination of two or more monosaccharides units Depending upon

the number of monosaccharides presence they can be classified as (I) Disaccharides: eg. Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, cellobiose(II) Trisaccharides: eg. Raffinose(III) Teirasaccharides: eg. Stachyose

Sucrose: Produced from alpha glucose beta fructose by alpha. –1.2. glycosidic linkage. It is a Non- reducing sugar.

Maltose: Consists of 2 units of glucose linked together by alpha 1.4 linkage reducing sugar found in germinating seeds largely.

Cellobiose: Consists of 2 units of glucose but the bond involved is beta, 1.4 linkage. It is a reducing sugar.

Lactose: Consists of one molecule of beta D glucose and one molecule of beta D galactose linked together by beta 1.4 linkages.

Stachyose: It is a tetra saccharide consists of one glucose and one fructose and 2 galactose.

(C) Polysaccharides Molecular weight in kilo Daltons (kd)(a) Storage polysaccharides: In plant consists of amylase, amylopectin. (It is polymer of glucose). Amylase is un-branched chains of glucose units joined by alpha – 1.4 linkages. The

chain is nonlinear, but it is helical one. Amylopectin: Highly branched, Bond types: Alpha-1.4 linkage but at the branching

points alpha 1.6 linkage is present. Glycogen: It is present only in animal cells. It is just like starch, but heavily branched

and compact and it contains both alpha 1.4 and alpha 1.6 linkages.(b) Structural Polysaccharides Cellulose: Polymer of glucose joined together by beta 1.4 linkage


16/122

Hemicellulose: Polymer consisting of L-arabinose. D-glucose, D-galactose, D-Xylose, along with uranic acid (galacturonic acids)

Pectin: Polymer of galacturonic acid. Normally present in cell walls as calcium Pectate

2. PROTEINS The name was suggested by Berzelius This name is derived from Greek Proteins means ‘first rank’ Proteins are polymer of amino acids. Each amino acid is linked with another one by peptide -C=O-NH2 bond. Different structural levels: Primary structure- it is the linear arrangement of amino acids. Secondary structure- It is the structure found by linear Polypeptide chain which folds

in a regular fashion. This may be of two kinds (1) alpha helix (2) beta pleated sheet. These secondary structures are produced by interaction between neighboring amino

acids of same chain. Quaternary structure: The structure produced by association of more than one polypeptide Examples for some commonly occurring proteins Structural proteins :

o Collagen: Muscle proteino Keratin: In hair and wool and nailo Fibroin: In silko Elastin: Found in insect wingso Regulatory proteins : Enzymeso Transport proteins : Myoglobin, Haemoglobins

Another classification of proteins: Simple proteins – Contains only ordinary amino acids Conjugated proteins – Proteins that contain non amino acid Components in addition to amino acids these additional factors are called prosthetic

groups. Examples:

o Nucleic proteins – Nucleic acid and protein – chromosomeso Glycoprotein – Protein and sugar unitso Lipoproteins –Protein and lipidso Metalloproteins - metals and proteins haemoglobin

3. ENZYMES These are special classes of proteins. Enzymatic activity was first discovered by

BUCHNER (Zymase was the first found initially from Yeast) The term enzyme was coined by W. KUHNS Terminology’s Holoenzymes – Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group Apo-enzyme =Without prosthetic group Legend = Any substrata that binds with an enzyme Active site = The site responsible for analytic molecule Regulatory site = the site other than catalytic use where the regulatory. Characteristics of an enzyme:

* Specific, Protinacious, colloidal nature, sensitive to temperature.* Enzymes do not change the equilibrium level. But quickens it.


17/122

Mechanism of action of enzymes:o The lock and key model was proposed by Fisher o It lowers down the activation energy.

Some special classes of enzymes. Allosteric enzymes: are regulatory enzymes which have more than one polypeptide

o This type of enzymes have a well developed regulatory mechanism o They produce a sigmoidal curve (instead of classical parabolic curve)

Isozymes: They are different enzymes which catalyze the same reaction in different tissues. They are different in molecular weight and exercised from different genes.

Ribozymes: They are catalytic RNA with enzymatic property (non protein) Factors affecting activity of enzymes are Temperature. PH. Ionic strength. Water

content.

4. VITAMINS The term vitamins was introduced by FUNK Classification:

1. Water soluble: – Vit. B complex (B1, B2, B12) C2. Niacin: (nicotinic acid)3. Fat soluble: Vit: A. D. E. K.

Vitamins and their deficiency symptomsVitamins Deficiency symptomsA (Retinal) :Xerophthalmia or dry Deonatosis (dry scaly skin)

,Night: blindness because of reduction in red cone cellsB1 (thiamine) :BERI-BERI (Extreme weakness, pain in joints)B2 (Riboflavin) :Ariboflavinosis (Blurred vision, cracks on skin at

angle of mouth)B12 (Cyanocobalamin) :Pemiocin anemia (Reduction in RBCs)B6 NIACIN (Nicotinic :Pellagra (Black Tongue) acid (Peridoxin)C (Ascorbic acid) :ScurvyD (Calciferol) :Rickets (Pigeon chest in children), Osteomalacia

(adults)E (Alpha Tocopherol) :Sterility

Vitamins mainly act as “cofactors” for enzymatic activity.

5. NUCLEIC ACIDS CLASSES DNA – Deoxyribose RNA – Ribose Nucleoside = Sugar (Ribose/ Deoxyribose) + Nitrogenous base Nucleotide = Nucleoside + phosphate group Types of Bases

o Adenineo Thymine/ uracil (RNA)o Guanineo Cytosine

Nucleic acid: Frederick Mischer: Waston & crick – B DNA 9right handed helix) Bacteriophages – single stranded DNA Non-genetic RNAS


18/122

t-RNA- Transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to Ribosome m-RNA- 5% carries the message from genes (DNA) r- RNA – Ribosomal RNA- Part of Ribosome (work benches of protein synthesis.


19/122

4. MICRO BIOLOGY

History Anton van Leeuwenhoek : invented the simple (single biconvex lens) in 1674,

Discovered Bacteria/microbial world Louis Pasteur : Postulated the ‘germ theory’ of disease, Pasteurization Spallanzani : First to provide evidence that micro-organisms do not arise

spontaneously in organic in fusions Robert Hooke : Discovered compound microscope Robert Koch : Koch postulates for test of disease Alexander Fleming (1929) : Discovered antibiotic ‘penicillium’ Iwanowsky (1892) : Discovered Virus working with an extract from tobacco plants

infected with mosaic disease Beijerinck (1898) : Named ‘virus’ (infectious poison agent) Brefeld : Developed pure culture techniques for isolation of micro-organisms Hesse : First introduced agar as a solidifying agent in culture media Petri : Designed and developed glass dishes known today as petridishes Edward Jenner : Developed vaccine for Small pox ROBERT HOOK – used the word CELL ROBERT BROWN – used the word NUCLEUS M. SCHLEIDEN & SCHWANN – Cell Theory Haeckel proposed PROTISTA Whittaker 5 kingdom classification

1. Monera – Prokaryotes2. Protista – Unicellular Eukaryotes3. Plantae (Photo syn.) – Multicellular plants and higher algae.4. Fungi (adsorption) – Multinucleate higher fungi.5. Animalia (ingestion)

BERGY’s manual of systematic bacteriology – is the standard for taxonomy Eukaryotic: Protozoa, fungi Prokaryotic : Bacteria, actinomycetes, BGA SIZE (approx.):

o Bacteria – 0.5-3.0 micro mo Fungi – 1.5-10 micro mo Protozoa – 2-200 micro mo Viruses – 100-600 nano in MLO –0.1-0.3 micro mo Algae – 0.1 micro m (BGA) to ‘x’ feet (higher algae)o First living cell – e800 million year ago.o First prokayotic cell – 1400 million years ago (achaean cra)

Sterilization:o A Physical agent: High Temp. – dry heat; 1800 C; 1.5 HOURS – 2 HOUR

- Moist heat; 15-20 min (121.6c)- 15 pounds / inch pressure

Pasteurization (with milk)o Low temp High time 62.8c (30 min)o High temp Low time 71,7c (15 second)o L. T. – Microbistatic (-4 to –7c)o H. T. Desiccationo Osmotic Pressureo Radiation U. V. (2650 A- Lambda)o Gamma rays. (Co 60)


20/122

o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads)o Chemical agents

1) Phenol compound – cell wall; cyto. Membrane: protein denaturation2) Alcohol’s – Protein, cytoplasmic membrane3) Iodine, chlorine, - Enzyme destruction. Amino acids4) Aldehyde- amino acids + enzymes5) Ethylene oxide (Gas) – Enzyme + Amino acids

o Chemotheraputic agents:1) Arsenic- for Syphilis (by Ehrlich)2) Sulfonamide – for bacterial infection (by Domagk)

Antibiotics:-o Penicillin – Penicillium sp – G + ve; cellwall synthesiso Tetracycline - S. aureofacines – G + ve, G-ve; Protein synthesiso Bacitracin – Bacillus subtilis – G + ve, cell wall synthesiso Chloramphenicol – S. venezuelae G + ve; G-ve, Protein synthesiso Cycloheximide – S. venezuelae, protein synthesis, Eukaryoteo Nystain – S. nouresii Eukaryote membraneo Erythromycin – S. nouresii – fungi – Prokaryoteo Erythromyci – S. erythreus G + ve, G-ve, Protein synthesiso Neomycin – S. fradiae G + ve, G-ve, protein synthesis

Non legumes – Alnus, casurna, Myrica – Frankia Associative Symbiosis – Azpospirillum Symbiosis – Rhizobium Stem and root nodules – Sesbania, Azorbizobium caulonodans, Azospirillum and Azotobacter- Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, horticulture

- Seed treatment : 200g/ 10-12 kg seeds- Seedling treatment : 1-2 kg/ ha- Setts treatment : 2-3 kg/q- Soil treatment : 4-5 kg/ha

Microscopy:1. Dark field microscope:

Specimens are unstained, appear bright in a dark background Applications- For gross morphology in the living specimen

2. Phase contrast microscope: Unstained live microbial cells can be studied through this microscope Applications – For revealing cellular structures in living cells Enables to view living cells more clearly Causes a slight loss of resolution

3. Bright field: Specimen is stained or unstained Used for studying gross morphology of yeasts, molds, algae etc.

4. U V microscope: Appearance of specimen – Fluorescent Application – For differentiating cellular components

5. Fluorescence microscopy: Used for detecting specific types of antigens using an antibody tagged with

fluorescent dye6. Electron microscope:

Uses electromagnetic lenses and an electron beam Resolving power and magnification is much higher than any light

microscope Viewed on fluorescent screen


21/122

7. Transmission electron microscope: Contrast results from differential scattering of electrons by the specimen Staining is done with salts of heavy metals as uranium. Tungsten

8. Scanning electron microscope: Provide three dimensional image of the object The surface topography of a specimen can be determined with a clarity and

depth which is not possible by any other methodThe Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen constitutes about 78% of the earth’s atmosphere The nitrate form of nitrogen is mostly used by plantsa) Nitrification

Process of conversion of ammonia into nitrate Examples – Nitrosomonas(ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacteria(nitrite to

nitrate), Aspergillus, Penicilliumb) Denitrification

Reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide Occurs in waterlogged anaerobic soils Examples – Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas

Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Fixation of the inert atmospheric elemental nitrogen by micro-organisms through a

reductive process Accounts for about 70% of the total nitrogen fixed in the biosphere Restricted to Bacteria onlya) A symbiotic / Free living Nitrogen fixation:

Aerobic – Azotobacter, Blue green algae (BGA) Anaerobic – Clostridium, Chlorobium, Rhodospirillum etc.

b) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixation: Example – Rhizobium, Bacillus etc.

Important points: Nitrogen fixing enzyme – Nitrogenase (First discovered in 1960 from Clostridium

pasteurianum) Nitrogen fixing gene – Nif genes Elements involved in nitrogen fixation – Molybdenum Co-factor needed for nitrogen fixation – Cobalt (Co) Non legumes – Alnus, Casuarina, Myrica, Frankia sp Stem and root nodules – Sesbania, Azorhizobium cauloncians Leguminous crop not fixing nitrogen – Rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris) Phosphorus cycle – Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium,

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium Sulphur cycle – Thiobacillus, Arthrobacter, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Red pigment in the root nodules is known as Leg haemoglobin Bacteria not responsible for N-fixation- E.coli Nif gene is associated with – Rhizobium bacteriod Nitrogen fixation in rice field occurs due to presence of – Anabaena (BGA)


22/122

5. CROP PHYSIOLOGY

RESPIRATION Respiration in plants consists of Glycolysis & Krebs Cycle and ETC (Electron

Transport Chain) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm & Krebs cycle and ETC in the mitochondria Glycolysis is anaerobic. Total ATP synthesis from on molecule of glucose in respiration is 36 ATP (Net gain)

Gross production is 38 ATP Total ATP synthesis in glycolysis is 4 / glucose (Net gain – 2 ATP) Krebs cycle is also called as citric acid cycle or TCA (tricarboxylic acid cycle) Final product of glycolysis is pyruyate. Anaerobic respiration pathway products are ethanol and lactic acid. CO2 molecules are released from the mitochondria during respiration. Krebs cycle starts with acetyl coA and oxaloacetate Election transport chain is present in the cristae of mitochondria where: ATP is

synthesized in respiration. The high energy compound synthesized during respiration is by oxidative

phosphorylation of ADP with P (inorganic phosphate) Cytochromes are electron carriers involved in the respiratory election transport chain Energy content of molecule of glucose is 686 KCAL or 2870 KJ 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL The energy currency of the cell is ATP Occurs in all living organisms except virus Catabolic process and oxidation-reduction reaction Raw materials used are glucose and oxygen During the breakdown of glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed Respiratory Quotient – ratio of Co2 evolved to ratio of O2 evolved, normal in plants –

0.97-1.17 36 ATP molecules are formed on complete oxidation of a glucose molecule through

hexose monophosphate shunt cycle The net gain of energy by anaerobic respiration is 2 ATP molecules 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL The no of Co2 molecule released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is zero The ratio of energy released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is 1:18a) Glycolysis: Called as EMP pathway (Embden Meyerof paranas pathway) refers to degradation of

glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules Occurs in cytosol of cytoplasm Common for aerobic and aerobic respiration Pyruvic acid is the end product of Glycolysis Total ATP synthesis in Glycolysis is 4 glucose (Net gain – 2 ATP)

b) Krebs cycle: Also called TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, organic acid cycle, mitochondrial respiration The first stable product is citric Kreb’s cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria-aerobic condition Krebs cycle starts with acetyl COA and oxaloacetate In Krebs cycle, the mineral activator required for enzyme aconitase is Fe


23/122

The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is α- Ketoglutaric acidc) Electron transport chain: Also called as respiratory chain or oxidative phosphorylation In general, it is found inside the mitochondria The process occurs on the inner membrane of cristae

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 × 1012

Total carbon fixed by ocean per year =273 × 1011

Blackmann – Explained the law of limiting factors Calvin (1954) – Traced the path of carbon in photosynthesis and gave the C3 cycle Hatch and Slack (1965) – Reported C3 pathway for carbon dioxide fixation in certain

tropical grasses The reduction of Co2 to carbohydrate level needs assimilatory products such as ATP

and NADPH + H+

Reduction of Co2 occurs in dark but the production of assimilatory powers is light dependent

Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b Important accessory pigments in plants are carotenoids and xanthophylls Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in thylakoids or Grana Dark reaction of photosynthesis take place in stroma Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process

a) Calvin cycle (C3 plants): The Co2 acceptor is Ribulose 1, 5- diphosphate The first stable product of photosynthesis is a 3 carbon compound Phosphoglyceric

acid (PGA) For synthesis of one glucose molecule 18 ATP are required Photorespiration is present and easily detectable Bundle sheaths cells are unspecialised The enzyme RUBP carboxylase or Rubisco is found in chloroplast stroma and is the

most abundant protein on earth Examples of C3 plants – Wheat, Barley, Oat, Rye, Rice, Pea, Soybean

b) Hatch and slack cycle (C4 PLANTS): The Co2 acceptor is phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) Oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) is the first stable product Photorespiration is present only to a slight degree or absent 30 ATP are required for the synthesis of one glucose molecule The most distinguishable anatomical feature of the leaves of C4 plants is the presence

of bundle sheath cells containing chloroplasts The bundle sheath cells lack Grana in their chloroplast Leaves of C4 plants show Kranz type of anatomy PEPCO enzymes are present in C4 plants C4 cycle is found only in certain tropical plants C4 plants are about twice as efficient as C3 plants in converting solar energy into the

production of dry matter Example of C4 plants – sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, Cyperus rotundus etc.

c) Crassulacean acid metabolism cycle (CAM cycle): Occurs in mesophyll cells Most (not all) CAM plants possess the succulent habit Examples – Bryophyllum, Opuntia, Agave, Pineapple etc. Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 x1012


24/122

Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011 Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) = 400to 700 nm Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b Important accessory pigments is plants are carotenoids – (1) caroteins, (2)

xanthophylls Co2 concentration in the atmosphere is 350 ppm Photosynthesis reaction : Co2 + 2H2o + light =C6 H12 O6 + H2O + O2 Two parts of photosynthesis: Light it action or hill reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast dark reaction of

Calvin Cycle takes place in stroma of chloroplast The products of the light reaction are ATP and NADPH2

Three types of Photosynthesis Mechanisms C3 pathway or reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction (Calvin cycle): Rice,

Wheat, Pea, Soyabean, Barley. C4 pathway (Hatch – sack pathway or Dicarboxylic acid pathway): Sorghum, Maize,

Sugarcane or B-carboxylation cycle or cooperative Photo synthesis CAM pathway (Crassulacean acid metabolism) (Pineapple, opuntia, Agave) The most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2 fixation is Rubisco

(Ribulose-bi phosphate carboxylase). Rubisco is also the most abundant protein in the world. C3 plant first enzyme in CO2 fixation: Rubisco C4 Plants first enzyme in CO2 fixation: PEP carboxylase Water use efficiency: CAM>C4>C3

In photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy Light reaction takes place in the Thylakojds and dark reaction takes place in the

stroma of the chloroplast Higher productive plants: C4 (Maize, S. Cane, sorghum) High productive plants: C3 (Wheat, Rice Pulses) Low Productive plants: CAM (Pineapple) C4 plants two types of photosynthesis cells; Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells

(Kranz type leaf anatomy) Photorespiration occurs in C3 plants in light only. Normal respiration/ Dark respiration occurs in all cells all the time in all the plants. Calvin cycle & Hatch – Slack pathway occurs in chloroplast Chlorophyll molecule contains Mg3+ion in its structure Photosynthetic rate is the highest in C4 plants The processes of formation of ATP in chloroplast with the help of light is called as photophosrylation or photosynthetic phosporylation. First product of photosynthesis – 3 PGA in C3 One NADH2 will prpoduce 3 ATP One FADH2 will produce 2 ATP

PHOTORESPIRATION Refers to production of Co2 in respiration from 2 C compounds in presence of light Reported only in green cells such as Beta, Phaseolus, glycine, Oryzae, Pisum,

Gossypium, Capsicum, Helianthus etc Discovered by DECKER in tobacco plants Substrate for photorespiration is glycolic acid (2 c) and hence called as C2 cycle or

glycolate metabolism It occurs in between chloroplast, cytosol, peroxisome and mitochondria


25/122

It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants The presence of photorespiration process decreases the photosynthetic efficiency of

plants Photorespiration is said to be highest in Rice Serine amino acid is produced in photorespiration Photorespiration involves more than one organelle In photorespiration, NAD is reduced to NADH2

MINERAL NUTRITION Essential element – (criteria proposed by Arnon and stout)

(1) In the absence of that element, plants is not able to complete its life cycle(2) The element should not be substituted by other element(3) Element should form a part of any molecule or constituent of the plant.

Beneficial element –They do not form the constituent of plant can grow without it but if present it is advantageous to the plant

Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, S, Ca, Mg, K, P (>100 µg/g dry matter) Micronutrients : Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo (100 µg/ g dry mater) Mobile elements: N,P,K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Cl, Zn and Na Immobile elements: Bo, Fe, Ca, Cu, S Beneficial elements: Co, Sl, Selenium, Na, Ni Cobalt: Legumes Silicon: Rice, Maize Nickel: Legumes Criteria of the essentiality of mineral elements propose by Arnon and stout Atleast 60 elements are present in plants out of which only 16 are essential Carbon: (46% dry weight basis)

o Source: Co2 from the airo Function: Most of the compounds in the living cells are C-containing.

Oxygen: (50%)o Source: O2, Co2, H2oo Function: The most abundain elements by weight in plants Required for all

compounds in plants. Hydrogen: (6%)

o Source: H2Oo Function: Most abundant elements by number of atoms Present in all the

compounds in the living cell component of H2O Nitrogen: 1.5%

o Source: NO3, NH4 in the soil solution, Legumes through N2 fixation.o Function: All the crops prefer No3-(Nitrate) except Rice which prefers NH4 +

(ammonium)o Components of nucleic acid. Chlorophyll molecule, Proteinso Deficiency: Pale yellow leaves & reduced growth redleaves in cereals o Red colour develops in Apple due to the anthocyanin production o Root lengthening in wheato Excess Nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, delay in flowering

Phosphorus: (0.2-0.8%)o Source : H3PO4 & Hpo4 from the soil solutiono Function: Component of nucleic acid, Phospholipids (Membranes), ATPo Deficiency: variable colour development in leaves (Dark green) reduced

tillering & leaf fall. Anthocyanin produced give pink colour.

Potassium:


26/122

o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components o Function: Stomatal closing & openingo Disease resistanceo Osmotic adjustment, needed for cell elongationo Deficiency: rosette, die back in plants

Chlorosis:o Stunted growth & Thin shootso Tip burns & leaf scorch in older leaves

Magnesiumo Constitutent of chlorophyllo Activates many enzymeso Deficiency: Older leaves affected Cholorosis. Sand drown disease in tobacco

Sulphur: 0.1%o Source: Soluble sulphateso Functions: Aminoacids (Cystein and Methonene)o Coenzyme Ao Volatile Oilso Deficiency: Downward cupping of leaves e.g. tobacco, Torr, Tea, o Tea yellow diseaseo Chlorosis

Calcium:o Functions: Calcium pectate is present in the middle lamella of the cell wall o ATPase activatoro Counteract metal toxicityo Deficiency: Young leaves are mostly affected o Hooked tips & distort leaves

Irono Component of cytochromes, Catalase, peroxidaseo Deficiency: Lo Intervienal Chlorosis (iron Chlorosis)o Leaf bleaching (S. Cane)

Deficiency symptoms of Elements: N: general starvation Fe: Intervienal chlorosis e.g. S. Cane Mn: Grey speck Disease of oats, pahla blight of sugarcane, marsh spot of pea Copper: Die back disease of citrus or exanthema, Reclamation, white tip disease Zinc: Mottled leaf of citrus, drenching of citrus Little leaf/ Rosette as in Apple, Pine, Peach walnut, citrus etc, white tip of maize Khaira disease of rice Molybdenum: Whip tail of cauliflower and brassicae, scald of legumes Boron: Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold Canker of table beet Browning & Hallow stem of cauliflower Cracked stem of alfa-alfa Hard fruits of Citrus Top sickness of Tobacco Water core of turnip Phosphorus: Sickle leaf disease Calcium: blossom End Rot (BER) in tomato and Tip hooking in cauliflower

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:


27/122

Thiamann – suggested the use of term “Phytohormone” in plants Phytohormone are organic substances which are naturally produced in plants

AUXINS (weakly acidic growth hormone): Auxin was named by KOGL. It is a Greek word derived from ‘Auxein’ which means

to grow Naturally occurring Auxin – IAA Synthetically produced auxins are – NAA, IBA, 2, 4 – D, MCPA Anti-auxins – Naphthythalamic acid (NTA) , Ethylene chlorohydrins Active sites of auxins – shoot tip region, coleoptiles and developing embryos etc. The Auxin synthesis occurs rapidly in green leaves in presence of light than the in the

dark Tryptophan is the precursor of IAA and zinc is required for its synthesis Translocation of auxins is polar The site of Auxin transport is located on the plasma lemma Avena curvature test and split pea stem curvature test are the bioassays that are

generally used for auxins Role of auxins:

1. Promotes apical dominance2. Increases cell division in cambium3. Promote the elongation of cells4. Auxin increase in shoot and decrease in root5. Induces uniform flowering in pineapple6. IBA promotes rooting of cutting

GIBBERELLINS: Second important growth hormone found in plants Discovered by KUROSAWA (1926) First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi, the causal organism of “foolish seedling of

rice” or commonly called Bakanae disease of rice. Gibberellins are CYCLIC DITERPENES with gibbane skeleton Gibberellins moves in both xylem and phloem Chemically gibberellins are related to terpenoids and its precursor is N- Kaurene Anti- gibberellins: phosphon D, Cycocel (CCC), Maleic hydrazide, paclobutrazol Role of gibberellins:

1. Breaking of dormancy2. Induction of flowering in long day plants3. Promotes male flowers production4. Enhances seed germination5. The most important effect of GA is the stem elongation i.e. GA induces internode

elongation or sub apical elongationCYTOKININS:

Plays a key role in higher plants and moves through xylem Miller and Skoog – identified kinetin Term cytokinin proposed by Letham (1963) The first naturally occurring hormone identified – Zeatin Root tip is an important site of cytokinin synthesis Precursor of cytokinin is either adenine or adenosine i.e. purine bases Mobility is polar and basipetal Role of cytokinin:

1. Initiation of cell division2. Delay of senescence3. Induce flowering in short day plants


28/122

4. Promotes stomatal opening5. Promote femaleness in male flowers

ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA): Naturally occurring growth regulator It acts as stress hormone ABA first identified by WAREING (1965) Lunalaric acid found in algae and liverworts acts similar to abscissic acid Violoxanthin serves as a precursor for biosynthesis of ABA Biosynthesis of ABA also takes place through mevalonic acid It is a terpenoids Bioassays are – rice seedling growth inhibition test and inhibition of α amylase in

barley endosperm Role of ABA:

1. Induces bud dormancy and enhances the process of abscission2. Senescence of leaf is promoted by ABA3. Stimulates the release of ethylene4. Brings the closure of stomata during water stress5. ABA is called ANTI- GIBBERELLIN.

ETHYLENE: It is known as RIPENING HORMONE Production increased with increase in respiration rate Auxin increases ethylene level in plants Naturally occurring volatile hormone BURG (1962) established that ethylene is the only gaseous growth regulator Maximum ethylene is formed in ripening fruits and senescing tissues Biosynthesis of ethylene occurs from methionine which is a sulphur containing amino

acid Inhibitors of ethylene synthesis are amino-ethoxyvinylglcine Bioassays for ethylene are triple pea test and pea stem swelling test Role of ethylene:

1. Responsible for fruit ripening with increase in respiration2. Induces uniform flowering and ripening in pineapple3. Inhibits stem elongation and cause abscission of leaves4. Induces fruiting in ornamental plants5. ETHEPHON- increase latex flow in rubber

OTHERS: Glysophosine – used to ripen sugarcane Florigen (flowering hormone) – initiation of flowering in plants Traumatic acid (wound hormone) – found in injured portions of a plant Xanthoxin – destruction product of Violoxanthin and forms ABA Brassins – steroid, isolated from pollen grains of Brassica Jasmonic acid – Methyl ester in jasmine, inhibits growth and promote senescence

Important points: Potassium ions (K+) play an important role in the opening and closing of stomata Plant transpirants – colourless plastics, silicone ols, phenyl mercuric acetate, Absiccic

acid, Co2 etc. Porometer is used for measuring transpiration The growth is maximum during exponential phase Transpiration takes place through stomata, lenticels or cuticle Guttation refers to exudation of water from plants in the form of liquids


29/122

Short day plants – soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco, rice, onion, upland cotton, strawberry, datura etc

Long day plants – spinach, lettuce, radish, alfalfa, sugar beet, opium, poppy, oats, wheat etc.

Day neutral plants –tomato, cucumber, cotton, pea, sunflower, maize etc. Vernalisation – refers to method on inducing early flowering in plants by pre-

treatment of their seeds at very low temperature Hormone responsible for vernalisation is vernalin Water use efficiency is highest in CAM plants followed by C4 and C3 plants Photosynthetic efficiency is highest in C4 plants To make one molecule of glucose, 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required The efficiency of photosynthesis is 40 % The ratio of photosynthesis to respiration during day time is 10:1 In most succulent plants, Co2 is fixed by the activity of PEP carboxylase The ratio of Co2 reduced and oxygen released during photosynthesis is 1:1 DCMU is an example of photosynthetic inhibitor The products of light reaction are ATP and NADPH2 Major form of carbon transfer in plants is by sucrose For photosynthesis, the visible range of spectrum between 250 to 750 nm is essential


30/122

6. ENTOMOLOGY

PESTS OF SUGARCANE1) Shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (crambidae) or early shoot borer

Number of feeding punctures near the base of shoot. Rotten portion of straw colored dead heart emits offensive odour. It can be pulled out eastly.

Control: Earthing up during early stage.- Trash mulching- Trichogramma Chilonis

Soil application of Gammas HCH emulsion @ 1 kg a.i./ha over the cane sets in famous at the time of planting

Granulosis Virus can also be used2) Top borer: Scirphophaga excerptalis (Pryalidae)

Midrib tunnelling. Shot – holes on axial bud growth leaves, dead heart and can be pulled out easily and given bunchy top appearance, Acrial root formation.

Control:i. Avoiding of frequent irrigation

ii. Carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./ha synchronizing with brood emergence iii. Trichogramma japonicumiv. Pre-pupal parasitoid Isotima Javensisv. Resistant var: COJ67, CO 1007

3) Internode borer: Chilo sacchaviphagus indicus (crambidac) Attack starts from 4th months onwards. Internodes constricted and shortened with

many bore holes: fresh bore holes with wet frass, stunted growth. Major pests in peninsular India. Hardening of internodes.

Control: Detrashing at 5.7 & 9th months-T- chilonis @ 3.5 cc/ha/fortnight from 4th month until a month before harvest.

4) Gurdaspur borer: (Crambidae) Acigone steniellea Two phases: Gegarious phase – feed on first internode from to & may larvae enter

into the core through single hole. Solitary phase – dispersed to other came by silhen treads.5) White grub: Holotrichia consanguinea: H. Serrata. (Meloionthidae Anomula

begglensis (Rutelinae) Drying of crops : Yellowing & nibbling of leaves: roots eaten away. Control: Netarhizium onisopliae

o Pudding & crop rotation o B. Popillae milky disease

6) Termites: Odentotermes spp: Microtermes obesi Older leaves dry up first & cane falls down if disturbed. Filled with moist soil inside the papery rind.

7) Sugarcane scale: Melanaspis glomerate: (diaspridiadae) Grayish block appearance of stem. Reduced yield, juice quality of Jaggery production Control: Detrashing & Trash burning.

8) Leaf hopper: Pyrilla perpusilla (Lophopidae) Yellowish white spots on leaves; sooty mould on later stages. Control: Externel parasitoid: Epiricarlia melanoleuca (Ephpyropidae) Green muscardine fungus: Aceria sacchari (Eriophyidae) Forming a circular Ereneum gall in the inner side of the leaf sheath


31/122

PESTS OF WHEAT The rabi crops which are seriously damaged by white grub beetle are wheat and

potato. Wheat shootfly: Atherigona naquii Ghujia weevil: Taenymecus indicus is a pest of wheat, barley gram and mustard. The

adult weevils cut to germinating seedlings grub feed on soil humus. Wheat aphid: Macrosiphum miscanthi Wheat gall nematode or ear cockle nematode: Anguina triticl Bacterium associated:

Corynebacterium tritici Seed galls/ Thundu disease/ yellow ear rot (Bacterium+Nematode)

o Mgt. Hot water treatment of seeds at 500C for 2 hrs. Wheat stems borer: Sesamia inferens (Noctuidae).

PESTS OF RICE Yellow stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas (Pyraustidae)

- Deed heat in young seedlings- White earhead in panicle stage. No grain formation.- Monophagous pestControl:

Parasitiods: Tetrastichus Schoenobii; egg parasitiod Trichogramma Japonicum o Destruction of stubbleso Host plant resistance: TKM 6 resistant variety contains Penta deconal &

silica.o Pheromone Oviposition deterants in rice for stem borer

Gall fly or gall midge: Orseoeoa oryzae (Cecidomyiidae)o Silver shoot or onion leaf which is a modified leaf sheathcaused by maggot.o Bio control agent: Playigaster oryzae

Leaf folder: cnapholocrocis medinalis (Pyraustidae) o Longitadial folding of leaves & drying of leaves by larva.o Control: Avoid use of excess nitrogeno Parasitoids: Trichogramma Japomcum

Green leaf hopper: Nephotettix virescens (Cicadellidae)o yellowing of leaveso Vector of rice Tungro, Yellow dwarf, Transitory yellowing

Brown planthopper: Nilaparvata lugens (Delphacidae)o Hopper burn drying burning symptom in young plants. Circular patches of

drying. Vector of grassy stunt. Ragged stunt and wilted stunt.o Avoid use of excess nitrogeno Resistant varieties: Py3, CO42, Mudgo (low aspargine content)o Resurgence causing pesticides: Acephate, Fenthion, Phosphamidon,

synthetic Pyrethriods, Methyl demetono Predators: Cyrtorhimus lividipennis Lycosa sp. Microvetia sp.

Ear head bug: Leptocorisa acuta: L. oratorius (Gundhi bug) (Alydidae): chaffy grains with black spot. Feeds on tender stem. Peduncle and milky grains leads to chaffy ear head.

o Control: Fenthion 100 EC 200 mlo Malathion 5% dust @ 10 kg/ha.o Clean cultivation- removal of weeds & grasses.

Rice root nematode: Hirschmaiviella oryzae (Mentck disease) White up rematode or spring dwarf nematode: Aphelexhcopdes besseyi hot water

treatment of seeds at 520C for to min.


32/122

Rice stem nematode: ditylenchus angustus Larva disease in rice.

Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis Larva with in tubular cases. Floating on water.

PESTS OF COTTON: consuming 54% of total inscticide in India though the area under cotton is only 5%

1) Cotton jassid or leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (A.biguttula biguttula cicadellidae) Hopper burn yellowing, curling, bronzing & drying.

2) Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae) Shedding of leaves, stunting of plants, bud boll opening and poor quality lint.,

contamination of lint with honey dew and sooty mould appearance. Vector of cotton leaf curl virus disease in Punjab. Whitefly outbreak on cotton in AP during 1985-86. Outbreak was due to indiscriminate use of insecticides particularly synthetic

pyrethroids against Heliothis.3) Spotted bollworm: Earias vitella

Spiny bollworm: Earias insulana (Noctuidae) Symptom: Boring of terminal shoots of young, plants “Flaring of squares” and

boring of young bolls frass at the entrance hole. Moths are green in colour.

4) Pink bollworm: Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelichidae) Symptom: Rosetting of flowers Eating of seeds Double seed formation, Locular burrowing Diapause during winter

5) American bollworm: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae) Large, circular bore holes with faecal pellets. Larvae feed by thrusting their heads

alone inside.6) Red cotton bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Pyrrhocoridae)

Roting of bolls: water soaked spots Lay eggs in soil Bacterim associated: Nematospora gossypii – staining of hint. Control measures: All pests Crop rotation with cereal: i) Bhendi should not be grown in rotation

o ii) Yellow sticky trap for monitoring whiteflyo iii) Whitefly tolerant var. LPS 141 and Supriyao iv) Pheromone trap for PBW (Gossyplure)

Pheromone trap for Helicopiveria (Helilure) Biological control:

o Trichogramma chilonis against bollwormso Spodoptera NPV 250-500 LE/ha (1 LE=6x109 POB= 3 larvae)o Helicoverpa NPVo B.t. Formulation against early instars of bollwormso Synthetic pyrethriods should be used only during peak flowering and boll

formation stages.7) Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis

Stem gall near the base of the plant MCU 3 – resistant variety Control – soil application of granular insecticide/Neem cake


33/122

PESTS OF CHICK PEA (BENGAL GRAM) Helicoverpa armigera – Gram pod borer or gram caterpillar consume foliage and

developing pods. Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon (Noctuidae)

Cut the stems at ground level

TERMINOLOGY: Regular pest: Occur most frequently on cultivated crops

Eg.: cotton bollworms, Brinjal fruit borer Occasional pest: Occurring less frequently

Eg.: case worm on rice Seasonal pests: Occurs in a particular season of year

Eg.: red hairy caterpillar on groundnut Persistent pest: Occurs throughout the year on crops

Eg.: chilli thrips, Rose thrips Sporadic pests: Occurs in a few isolated localities

Eg.: Gall midge on rice in Madurai area Endemic pests: Occurs in same Agril. Area year after year

Eg.: nematode on potato in Nilgris Migratory pests: Moves from one area to others and causes damage

Eg.: Locust Epidemic pests: Occur in particular area/season in severe form Pandemic pests: Occur in a large geographical area/entire country or continent

Eg.: locust outbreak

Pesticide calculation:1) Apply 0.75 kg a.i./ ha of 3% carbofuran granules

Formula: Rec. Dose of ai./ha x 100 % al. of formulation

0.75x100 =25kg granules/ha 32) Quantity of Malathion 50 EC required spraying 1 ha of field, o.5% strength

Pesticide V1 x N1 = V2 x N2 (Spray fluid)

V1 = V2 x N2 (500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha) N2

500x0.5 = = 5 liters

50


34/122

7. AGRONOMY

PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY:1. CLIMATE AND ITS INFULENCE ON CROPS Weather is a condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time Climate is a weather condition over a given region during a longest period. Structure of atmosphere Troposphere- statosphere- Mesosphere – lonosphere par All weather phenomous like rain, fag, above mist occur in Troposphere zone found in

stratosphere. Solar constant: Energy falling in one minute is a surface area of one square cm at the

outer boundary of atmosphere. It is equivalent to 1.94 cal/cm2 /min. Photosyntheticaly Active Radiation Photoperiodic effect – influence of crop growth by the relative length of day and night

especially for floral inition Long day plant – plants require long day (>14 hrs.) for floral inifiation (eg. Wheat,

Barley, Oat) Short day plant – Plants require shorkerday (less than 10 hrs) ( eg. Rice, Sorghum

Maize) Neutral plants – cotton, sunflower, buck wheat Average rainfall in India – (120 cm) Rain bearing clouds – cumulonimbus, cumulus. Rainy day – if the rainfall received is more than 2.5 mm on a particular day it is called

as rainy day. Instruments

o Radiation: Pyranometer: Pressure : Barographo Photosynthetically active radition: quantum sensoro Temperature: Thermograph: Humidity-Psychrometer (or) hygrometero Dew: Darosometer: water table: Pizometer rain –Raingaugeo Soil moisture : Tensiometer

Chemical used for cloud seeding – Silver iodide for cold clouds sodium chloride for warm cloud

Indian Meteorological organization situated in PUNE Isotherm – Lines of equal temperature Isobar – Lines of equal pressure Isohyets- Lineo of equal rainfall Isotach – Lines of equal wind speed Kharif season crop- June to September crops (sorghum, maize, rice, cotton, pegion

pea, other pulses, ground nut) Rabi season crops – crop grown during winter (October March) eg. wheat, chickpea,

oat, barley, sun flower.2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

C3 plant – eg. Rice, wheat , cotton, soybean Enzyme- ribulose 1.5-bisphosphate carboxylate photorespiration is high in C3 plants

(Rubisco) C4 Plants- sugarcane, maize, sorgham pearl millet enzyme PEP Carboxylase CAM- Pine apple; sisal, ogave Plant growth regulators (commercial use) in Agriculture. Abscisic acid- Cotton defoliatant; 2.4, -D- herbicide


35/122

Glyphosate – Sugarcane ripener: gabbroic acid – seed less grape NAA- fruits thinner, flower initiation MH – Succur control in tobacco, Ethelene – ripening of fruits

3. SOIL & FERTILIZER Soil fertility – Inherent capacity of soil to supply adequated nutrients Soil Productivity – Capacity of soil to produce in terms of yields. Soil texture – relative proportion of soil particles i.e. clay silt. And sand Soil structure – arrangement of soil particles Particle dimension: Sand 0.2 to 0.02, silt 0.02 to 0.002 Clay < 0.002, gravel> 2mm Crumby structure is better for crop cultivation Pore space occupied by water and rain Total pore space is more in clay soil Bull density – weight of soil per unit volume- 1.5g/cm3

Particle density – weight of solid portion of soil per unit volume – 2.6g/cm3

% pore space – Particle density – bulkdensity------------------------------------ x 100

particle density Soil air- Co2 concentration over 0.3% Well decomposed organic matter is called as humus Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration for organic matter – 12:1

o Legume – 23:1 cereals –90% FYM : 100 Soil water: Field capacity – the soil moisture held by the soil against gravitation Force: energy status - -0.1 to 0.33 bar Available soil moisture: -0.33 bar to –15 bar =1569 g Annual fertilizer consumption: 16:18 MT Per ha fertilizer consumption = 76:8 kg/ha Fertilizer : Organic fertilizer – urea; Neutral fertilizer – CAN 9calcium ammonium nitrate) Recommended ratio of NPK for crops 4:2:1 NPK At present India to consumption ratio: 9:3:1 NPK Per area fertilizer consumption more in Punjab union feretory Pondichery. Total pesticide consumption Deficiency disorders: Mn. Gray speck in oat, Marsh spot in pea, pahala blight in sugarcane Cu. Reclamation disease in cereals Zn. Kharif in rice, white (bud) in maize, Frenching on citrus Mo. Whiptail is cauliflower Mg. Is a constituent of chlorophyll Bo. Browning of cauliflower Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium Gene responsible for N fixation – Nif genes Micro element needed for N fixation Molybdenum Free living N fixing bacteria Azotobactor, clostridium Micro organism associated with casuavina frankia Conversion of ammonia to nitrite – Nitrosomonas, Conversion of nitrite of Nitrate- Nitrobacter


36/122

4. TILLAGE Tilth physical condition of soil resulting from Tillage Implements used for primary tillage: country plough , Mouldboard, Plough, Bose

plough Implements used for secondary tillage –( blade harrow, disc harrows tractor drawan

ultivator) Breeding sub soil – chisel plough Pudding – Wet land puddler, tractor drawn cage wheel Sowing – Mechanical seed drill Weeding – Japanese rotary weeder Net sown = 143 mha (1998) and 142.22 mha 1999 Rainfed = 92 mha (1998) Irrigated = 50 mha, 25 mha (37.6%)

5. IRRIGATION Potential area under irrigation 89.44 mha Major irrigation project – Project covering more than 10,000 ha of command area Medium – 2000- 10,000ha Minor irrigation project – less than 2000 ha 1 ha cm = 1 lakh liter of water 1 cubic metre – 1000 litre of water 1 cu feet – 28.32 liters Duty of water – Number of hectare irrigated by constant flow of one current of water Delta – Total depth of water irrigated by one ha. Transpiration – gaseous loss of water from the surface leaf Evapotranspiration – Evaporation + Transpiration Water use efficiency – Ratio between yield and Evapotranspiration or WUE = Y/ ET Consumptive use Irrigation efficiency more in clay soil. less the sandy soil Type of irrigation Flooding – rice, check basins wheat finger millo (ground pit) Basin method – Fruit, crops: furrow irrigation, cotton, sugarcane tobacco, vegetables;

sprinkler undulated areas Important river project:Rive Name of the project states benefited1. Damodar Damodar valley project West Bengal2. Sutlet Bhakra; nangal Punjab, H. P Rajasthan

(Indira Gandhi)3. Kosi Kosi Dam Bihar/Nepal4. Mahanadi Hirakund (largest dam Orrisa

in the world)5. Krishna Nagaarjuna sagar Andra, Karnataka6. Tungabhadra Tunga bhadra project KN, AP7. Chambal Gandhi sagar, Kota Borrage MP. Rajasthan

(Ranna pratap sagar) Water requirement of crops: Rice – 1250 mm wheat 300-400 mm groundnut 550-600. sugar cane 2250-2500mm

6. DRY FARMING The practice of crop production entirely with rainwater received during the crop

season in low rainfall (<800mm) areas is called as dry or dryland farming.


37/122

Arid climate: Extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation usually less than 250 mm.

Seed hardening: Process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate cycle of wetting and drying to induce tolerance to drought.

Proline: Chemicals, K2H2SO4, KCL 0.5 is an amino acid which is increased in plants during drought.

Water harvesting – Collecting and storage water on the surface of soil for subsequent use.

Antitrans pirants – Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing water loss.

Types:o Stomatal closing type- Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA)o Film forming type – Mobileaf, Silicone oilo Reflectant- Kaoline sprayo Growth retartent – cycocel

7. HERBICIDES Selective herbicide – Kills only targeted plants on weeds while crops are ont affected

Eg. Siomazine, atrazine, 2,4-D butachlor, alachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalum MCPA, Glyphosate, Propanil

Non Selective herbicide – Kill all vegetation that they come in confact.Eg. Paraquat, Diquat.

Systemic herbicide: Systemic herbicide move within the plantEg: Atrayine, simayibne, propanil, 2.4-D MCPA, Glypthocte Butachlor, Fluchloralin. etc.

Contact herbicide – Kills plants when they come in contact with plantsEg. Diquat, Paraquat.

Pre-emergence application – application of herbicide before the emergence of weeds.(c4) Paraquat, Diguat, 2.4-D, Propanil, Isoproturon, Glyphosate .

Pre Planting incorporation – application of herbicide before sowing of crops eg. Fluchloralin.

Soil sterilenths – (eg.) Diuron, Atrazine, Methyl bromide Effective herbicides on Monocotylidous weeds –eg. Delapon, Fluchloalin.

Herbicides which have low residual toxicity- Diquat paraquat Herbicides which have high residual toxicity – Diuron, Atrazine. Parasitic weeds - Weds which derives foods directly from the host plant Total stem parasite - Cuscuta associated with lucorn crop Partial stem parasite - Loranthus associated with tree crops Total root parasite - Orabanche associated with Tobacco Partial root parasite - Striga associated with sorghum Aquative weeds - Weeds growing in water bodies eg. Water hyacinth,

hydrilla, Salvania, cattail weeds. Allelopathy – One plant having detrimental effect on other plants by releasing root

chemical through roots.

8 . CROPPING SYSTEM Mono Cropping – Growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year Multive cropping – Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one

calender year. Inter cropping – Growing 2 or more crops simultaneously with definite row

arrangement.


38/122

Sequential cropping- Growing at low or more crops in sequate on the same piece of land in a farming year.

Cropping Intensity – Ratio between grass sown area and Net sown area is Gross Sown Area X 100Net sown ares =131.2%

Zaid cropping – Growing of crops in between Kharif and rabbi season Jham/ shifting cultivation – The slash and burn type of cultivation in the hill treats of

North Eastern Region. Catch crop – Quick growing crop incidentally planted and harvested in between two

major crops, mainly to utilize residual fertilizer Cover crop – Crops which are grown primarily to cover the soil and to reduce the loss

of moisture and eroion Multy storey cropping- system of growing together crops of different heights at the

same time on the same piece of land (eg.) coconut + Pepper + cocoa + Pineapple

9. WEED MANAGEMENT Weed : is an unwanted plants, a plant out of place Classification of weeds

1. Based on duration: (a) Annuals – Complete their life eyclein one year eg. Phaloris monr, Echinocloa colonum, Amaranthus (Pig weed family)(b) Binneal weeds – complete their life cycle in five years (eg.)Alternanithra echinata; Eichorrutim intybus© Perennial weeds – More than 2 years (eg.) cynodam dactylon, cyperus rotundus2) Based on Morphological Characters:(a) Grasses – weeds belong to the family of graminance


39/122

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION:

1. SUGARCANE The sugarcane flowering in called as Arrowing, Sacharum Spontoneum – wild type cane S. officinarium - Called as Noble can used for chewing purpose Adsali sugarcane - Sugarcane which takes 18 months for harvesting usually

planted in June/July (kharif) Eksali sugarcane - It takes 12 months for maturity. Usually planted in

December/ January is south India Feb/Apri in North India (Due to late harvest of Rice)

Brix Meter - is the instrument used to the maturity of sugarcane Brix meter madding of 18-22% is ideal time before harvest sugar or sucrose content of cane 10 %

Largest area and Production

- U.P 957% area, 47% products )

Highest productivity - Tamil Nadu Seed rate - 3 budged set 25-30000 sets 2 bud – 45-50000 sets and single

budded : 1.25000 Spacing - 90 cm between the rows Fertilizer - – 270:150:120 kg kg a.i./ha Sugarcane ripener - Glyphosine 5 kg / ha Weeds - Sorghum halapense, Cynodan dectylon cypones Herbicides - Atrazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha Post emergence - 2,4-D Varieties - Red rot resistant var – Co 1148, co 19,B17 Smut resistant var - co 52-7, 449 Wonder cane - COC 671 (highest sugar %) Yield - North India –60-100 t/ha South India (Tn) - 120-140 t/ha

2. Wheat – Triticum aestivum – Are 7 mha. Production 70.8 mt. Highest production- UP; Highest

productivity – Punjab, protein – 11%, Protein of wheat is called as glutelin. Three groups of wheat are (1) Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat) 87% of area (2) T.

durum (Macroni wheat) 12% of area (3) T. dicoccum (Emmer wheat) 1% area. Varieties – Normal sown- Kalyansona, Sonora 64; Lermaroja Sabarmathi sonora (Mutant var), Arjun, Heera Late Sown – Sonalika Season – Normal sown – 1 fortnight of November Late sown – II fortnight of November Seed rate- 100 Kg. Spacing 22.5 cm between rows, No spacing between plants, depth

of sowing, depth – 5 cm dwarf varieties, Critical period for irrigation – Crows not initiation stage (20-25 DAS) Weeds – phalaris minor, wild oat, Herbicides- Isoproturon, 2.4 D (post emergence) Fertilizer – 80: 40: 40 kg NPK/ha Yield - Average 2500 kg/ ha Gene responsible for dwarf in wheat – Norin –10

3. Rice


40/122

Oryza sativa – Area 40 mha, production 86 mt. Highest production and productivity west bengal protein content –7% Gene responsible for dwarf varieties – DEE-gee-woo-gen

Three types- 1) Indica (long stem which had lodging tendency) 2) Japanica (short stem which has no Lodging Tendency) 3) Japanica ( wild type) Three types of rice culture – Upland, Low and Deep water rice Upland – Seeds are sown directly of the main field. 60% of area is under upland. Seed

rate 100 kg. Wet or transplanting system- Nursery area 1/10 area of main field Dapog method of Nursery – Originated from philippines, 30-40 m2 is enough for

planting one hectare Seed rate – 40-50 kg/ha, spacing short duration var – 20x10. medium duration var –

20x15 Fertilizer – 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha. Zn – 25 kg/ha Season human rice – May -June harvested in Oct./Dec. AUS rice- sown in March/ April harvested in July/August Boro rice- December/ January harvested in April/ May Weeds – Echinocloa colonum, E.gresgali Herbicides – Pre emergence – Butachlor (machete) Varieties – Taichung Native (TNI) is first developed dwarf variety in rice Drought tolerant variety- Bala, Bhavani Blast resistant var. –Jaya. Rasi, CO-14 BLB resistant – TKM-6 Salt resistant – Jaya, Ratna Super rice- Lunisree is a variety developed by CPRI Deep water rice- Pankaj, Jaganath Yield National average 1750 kg/ha

4. Bengal gram (Chickpea) – Cicer arietinum Area 7.87 mha. Production 4.5 mt. It occupies an are 33% of area under pulses and

40% of pulse production Leaf contains Malic acid which is used for during stomach disorder Season-II fortnight of October/ Spacing 30x10. seed rate 100kg fertilizer –20 kg N, 60

Kg P/ha: depth of sowing 7-10 cm Nipping – Plucking of apical buds on 30 DAS to encourage lateral branching

Harvest- duration 150 days, average yield irrigated – 1500 kgs, rainfed 400-500 kg

5. Redgram/Arhar/Pigeonpea- Cajanus cajan Season-June/July, Seed rate-15 kg/ha, spacing- Extra early var – 50 x30, Early var –

75x30, Long duraation-90x30 Varieties- Pusa Ageti, prabhat, Mukhta (Wilt resistant) Ground nut, Arachis hypogea – Origin – Brazil Largest producer- Gujarat; Oil – 40-50%, Soil – Sandy loam Season –June/July 9kharif), Seed rate – 120 kg for spreading type, 110 for bunch

type, Spacing- 45x1- (Spreading), 30x10 (Bunch) Fertilizer –20-40; 40-90; 20-40 kg NPK/ha, Gypsum- 400kg/ha spreading type has

Dormancy, to beat dormancy GA3 is used Bunch type tends to germinate in the field itself

before harvest to arrest this M(malic hydraouide) is used. NAA @ 40 ppm on 40 DAS for floral initiation


41/122

Aspergillus flavus is the fungi which affect kernal during shortage, Afalotoxin is produced by this fungi so the kernal be comes bitter in taste.


42/122

8. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

Australia has the maximum arable land per person The Indian Food grains storage management and Research Institute is located at

HAPUR, UP The world first agricultural census was conducted in 1930 The headquarters of Directorate of marketing and Inspection (DMI) established in

1935 is located at – Faridabad, Haryana The Agricultural produce (Grading and Marking) Act was passed in – 1937 Agriculture Price Commission (presently, CACP) declared prices every year on –

Minimum support price The most limiting factor of production in Indian agriculture is – capital The govt. Determines the support prices of crop products on the recommendation of

Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices The demand for agricultural products in general is Inelastic The apex body for institution finance for agriculture in India is National Bank For

agriculture and Rural Development The earlier name of WTO was GATT AGMARK is an indicator of – Purity. Established in 1937 The govt. Of India set up planning commission in march, 1950 The price below which the producers are not ready to sell is known as – Reserve price NABARD was set up in – July 1982 The highest per capita income of farmers is in – Punjab The scheme of Regional Rural banks (RRBs) was launched in India on – 2nd October,

1975 The Reserve Bank of India Act for its establishment was passed in the year – 1934 The Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCCS) was introduced in 1998-99 The national Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) was introduced in the country

from : Rabi 1999-2000 The net capital ratio is given by : Total assets / Total liabilities The minimum wages act was enacted by the govt. Of India on 1948 Farm machinery and equipments are an example of Working assets NABARD was established on 12th July, 1982 on the recommendation of Shivaraman

Committee Cooperative movement in India was started in – 1904 The headquarters of Asian Development Bank (ADB) is at manila The National Agriculture Policy (NAP) was announced on – 28th July, 2000 The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the

minimum Support Prices for 24 important crops. The period of 11th five year plan in India is 2007-2012 The chairman of National Development Council (NDC) is prime minister Value added tax (VAT) is a direct and Indirect tax The governor of Reserve Bank of India is D Subba Rao

RATIO METHODS A. Capital Ratios:

1. Net capital Ratio = Total assets

Total liabilities


43/122

Working assets + Current assets2. Working capital Ratio=

intermediary liabilities + current liabilities

Current assets3. Current ratio =

Current liabilities

Deferred liabilities4. Debt equity ratio =

Net Worth

B. Income Ration: Gross income

1. Rate of turn over = Total assets

Total returns to fixed farm resources2. Net income per acre=

Total acres

C. Cost Ratios: Total expenses

1. Gross ratio= Gross income

Fixed expenses2. Fixed ratio=

Gross income

Operating expenses3. operating ratio=

Gross income

D.1. Adjusted crop yield = Crop yield index X Cropping intensity on the farm

Cropping intensity in the area

Potential net income per hectare on the farm2. System index = X 100

Average net income per hectare in the area


44/122

Cost concepts in farm Management1. Cost A1 = Value of casual labour + attached labour + hired bullock labour + imputed value of owned bullock labour + hired machine labour + imputed value of owned machine labour + seed + manure and fertilizers + plant protection chemicals + irrigation charges + interest on working capital + depreciation + land revenue.

2. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in land, if any 3. Cost B = Cost A1 + imputed rental value of owned land + interest on owned land capital4. Cost C = cost B + imputed value of family labour Cost c is also called gross ocost or total cost of cultivation. All cost that paid out for the factors of production.

AGGREGATE MEASURESA. 1. Net operation income = Gross income – (Operating expenses + depreciation on working

assets)

2. Net farm income = Net operating income – (fixed expenses + depreciation on lixed assets).

B. Income measures in relation to different cost concepts1. Farm business income = Gross income – cost A1

2. owned farm business income = Gross income – cost A2

3. Family labour income = Gross income – Cost B4. Net income = Gross income – cost C5. Farm investment income = Net income + rental value of owned land + interest on owned Fixed capital.

FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS

A. Test Ratios:Total current assets

1. Current ratio = Total current liabilities

Total current assets + intermediate assets2. Intermediate ration =

Total current liabilities + intermediate liabilities

Total assets3. Net capital ratio =

Total liabilities

Cash receipt accounts receivable +Securities in more than one year

4. Acid ratio = Total current liabilities

Current liability5. Current liability ratio =

Owner’s equity


45/122

Total debts.6. Debt equity ratio =

or Leverage ratio Owner’s equityOwner’s equity

7. Equity to asset value ratio = Total asses value

FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS

A. Input-Output ratios:

Operating expenses1. Operating ratio =

Gross income

Fixed expenses2. fixed ratio =

Gross income

Total expenses3. Gross ratio =

Gross income

B. Investment to income ratio:

Gross income1. Capital turn-over ratio =

Average capital investment

Net return to capital2. Rate of return on investment =

Average capital investment

C.Annual fixed cost

1. Break-even point (BEP) = Selling cost per unit – variable cost per unit

2. Margin of safety = Total output – output at break even point = Total revenue – revenue at break even point

Break even point out put3. Percentage of margin of safety = X 100

Volume of output


46/122

INVESTMENT ANALYSIS (CAPITAL BUDGETING)

A. Time value of money:

1. Future value of present money, A = P(1 +I)1

Where. A = future value of present sum invested in the project P = Principal amount invested in the project i = rate on interest

t = no. of years of life of the project

A2. Present value of future money . PW =

(1 + I)1

(1 +I)1 - 13. Future value of annuity, A = F

i Where, P = annual investment

1 + (1+I)1

4. Present value of annuity. PW = P I

PROJECT APPRAISAL

A. Undiscounted measures:

1. Ranking by inspection

2. Pay back period, P = 1/F Where, 1 = investment amount E = annual net cash revenue

3. Proceeds per rupee of outlay

4. average annual proceeds per rupee of outlay

B. Discounted measures:N B1

Σt=1 (1-i)n

1. Benefit/Cost ratio = (BCR) n C1

Σ t=1 (1-i)n

Where1 B1= benefit in yearC1= cost in yearN= total no. of years of project’s lifeI= discount rate


47/122

N (B1 – C1

2. Net present value/worth, NPV/NPW = Σ t=1 (1 + I)1

3. Internal rate of return, IRR =

NPV4. Profitability index, PI =

co1

= co

1 n cr = Σ

co t=0 (1+I)t

Where, cr = total capital requiredCo = initial capital expenditure


48/122

9. PATHOLOGY

Plant Pathology Father of Plant pathology- Anton De Bary Father of Indian Plant Pathology- E. J. Butler An Indian whose name is associated with wheat rust- K. C. Mehta Irish Famine(1845)- Due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans) Bengal Famine(1943)- Due to brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae) Father of plant virology- Beijerinck Father of plant Bacteriology- E. f. smith Most imp disease of rice- Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) controlled by Hinosan, Kitazin,

Blasticidin, Beam. Kresek phase- Bacterial leaf blight of rice (Xanthomonas oryzae) Bakanae disease of rice (Foot rot)- Gibberella fujikuroi (Also known as Foolish

seedling disease-symptom: plant become very tall) Sheath rot of rice- Sclerotium oryzae Rice Tungro- A virus transmitted by Nephottetix virescens Ufra disease of rice- By nematode (Ditylenchus angustus) Most pathogenic bacteria are gram negative and rod shaped Gram positive plant pathogenic bacteria: Corynebacterium/ Clavibacter (tundu

disease of wheat) Tundu disease caused by- Bacteria and nematode (Anguina tritici) association, a

complex disease Plant viruses are mostly single stranded RNA Virus contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, never both Virus contain nucleic acid 5 % and protein (nucleoprotein)- 95 % (TMV) Tobacco mosaic virus is single stranded RNA- Rod shaped transmitted by sap or

mechanically Single stranded DNA plant virus- Gemini virus Double stranded RNA virus- Reovirus Double stranded DNA virus- Caulimovirus Total stem parasite- Cascuta (Dodder) Partial stem parasite- Loranthus Total root parasite- Orobanche Partial root parasite- Striga Bacterial cell wall is made up of – Murein/peptidiglycan Karnal bunt of wheat discovered by- Mitra et al., in 1931 A disease affecting wheat export from India- Karnal Bunt (Neovossia indica /

Tilletia indica) Wheat: a. Stem Rust (Black) - Puccinia graminis tritici- Alternate host: Berberi

(Berberis vulgaris) b. Leaf rust (Brown) - P. recondita, Alternate host: Thalictrum sp. c) Stripe rust (Yellow)- P. striiformis

Rust disease is controlled by Plantvax- a systemic fungicide Smut disease is controlled by- Vitavax (a systemic fungicide) Wheat rust in India survive in the southern hill (Nilgiri) and in Northern hill

(Himalaya) in the form of Uredospore Loose smut of wheat- Ustilago nuda tritici (Internally seed borne, controlled by

Vitavax, solar Heat Treatment) Molya disease of wheat- Nematode- Heterodora avanae Black arm of cotton- Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum


49/122

Red rot of sugarcane- Collectrichum fulcatum Grassy shoot- Phytoplasma Sporadic- Occurs irregularly in a place at low level Endemic- Occurs every year in a confined area at some level Pandemic- Occurs over a few countries or few continents Epidemic- Occurs over a large geographic area in short time at a devastative level Viroid- a plant pathogen made up of only RNA (single stranded). No protein is there Prions- Infectious protein molecule Potato- 1. Spindle tuber disease (1st discovered Viroid disease) Other Viroid disease- Coconut cadang cadang, Citrus exocartis Disease caused by Phytoplasma(MLO)- a. sandal spike b. sugarcane grassy shoot c.

Brinjal little leaf d. Sesamum Phyllody e. coconut root wilt Disease caused by Spiro plasma (Phyllody)- Citrus stubborn Viral disease- Bunchy top of banana- Pentalonia nigronervosa Crown gall of stone fruit- Agrobacterium tumefaciens Fire blight- First bacterial disease discovered- Erwinia amylovora Ergot of Bajra- Claviceps microcephala (purpurea) Green ear disease of Bajra- Sclerospora graminicola Wart of potato and Golden nematode- Endemic pest, domestic quarantine Bunt- Tilletia foetida. T. caries Fungicide- Bordeaux mixture discovered by Millerdat Systemic fungicide- Van Schmelling & Marshal Kulka Pomegranate blight- Xanthomonas campestris pv. punica. Recently epidemic in

Maharashtra Panama wilt of banana- fungal disease Moko disease of banana- Bacterial disease Soft rot of potato- Erwinia carotovora Kalisena- Bio formulation of Aspergillus niger N27 to control soil borne disease,

developed in IARI Gene deployment for control of Rust- by Nagarajan Seed gall wheat- Nematode, Molya disease, Anguina tritici Destructive insect pest act- 1914 Cyanobacteria-BGA-prokaryotic Powdery mildew- controlled by sulphur fungicide Apple scab caused by- Venturia inequalis (perfect) Spilocaea pomi (fungi) Scab of potato caused by- Steptomyces scabies (Actinomycetes) Electron Microscope discovered by – Knoll and Ruska (1932) Crystallization of Virus – Stanley (1935) First book on plant pathology written by – Julius Kuhn (1858) Wart disease of Potato is endemic to Darjeeling only Plasmid – extra chromosomal fragments found in bacterial cells Gene to gene Hypothesis proposed by – Flor (1955) in linseed rust

PLANT PATHOLOGY IN INDIA: K. R Kirtikar was the first Indian scientist who collected many Fungi and identified

them E. J Butler (1910) did detailed studies of Fungi and diseases caused by them. He

wrote a book ‘Fungi and Diseases in Plants’ E. J Butler is called the ‘ Father of Modern Plant Pathology’ in India J. F Dastur (1886-1971) was the first Indian plant pathologist to study in detail on

fungi and plant diseases


50/122

B. B Mundkar identified and classified the smut fungi found in India The Indian Phytopathological society is founded by B. B Mundkar in 1948 Dr Karam chand Mehta (K. C Mehta) of Agra college discovered disease cycle of

cereal rust in India Prof. Jaichand Luthra and Sattar developed solar heat treatment technique of seeds

to control loose smut in wheat M. J Thirumalachar performed extensive studies on rusts and smuts in India.

Developed antibiotics like Oreofungin and Streptocyclin

INTRODUCED DISEASE INTO INDIA:Name of disease Introduced from Year

Leaf rust of coffee (Hemileia vastatrix) Srilanka 1876

Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora) England 1940

Flag smut of wheat (Urocystis tritici) Australia - Bunchy Top of Banana (viral disease) Srilanka 1940 Wart disease of Potato (Synchytrium

endobioticum)Holland 1952

Onion smut (Urocystis cepulae) - - Golden nematode of potato Europe 1960s Groundnut rust U.S.A 1970s Citrus canker U.S.A -

Mycoplasma: Larger than viruses but smaller than Bacteria Devoid of cell wall and cytoplasm Enveloped by a lipo-protein plasma membrane Highly resistant against the antibiotic Penicillin but is sensitive to Tetracycline

antibiotic Tetracycline used to control Mycoplasma First isolated from sheep infected by Pleuro pneumonia and therefore called PPLO

(Pleuro pneumonia like organisms) Most of the yellow diseases of plants are caused by Mycoplasma E.g. Witches broom of Potato, Mulberry dwarf and Aester yellows etc.

Miscellaneous: Virus = Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) + Protein (outer cover) Lipo-virus = Nucleic acid + protein + lipid e.g. Influenza virus Animal virus (Bacteriophage) = DNA + Protein Plant virus = RNA + protein Viroid = nucleic acid only Plant Viroid = RNA only

BACTERIOPHAGES: Discovered by F. W. Twort (1915) and Felix de Herelle (1917) Contains nucleic acid (double stranded DNA) It has two parts viz tail and head The tail is composed of protein only. The head has outer coat of protein and inner

core as DNAVIRIOD:

Term ‘viriod’ used by T.O Diener Naked nucleic acids without protein coat Consists of only RNA


51/122

These ‘miniviruses’ are the smallest known agents of infectious disease Potato spindle was the first disease reported to have been caused by a viriod Infectious in plants only Examples – Citrus excortis viriod, chrysanthemum stunt and chlorotic mottle viriod

Virions: Individual, completed and infectious nucleoprotein particles of a virus In short, virus particles are called Virions Also called nucleocapsids

Prions or slow viruses: Smallest proteinaceous infectious Contains protein only Example – Mad cow disease, Alzheimer’s disease Nanometre is the unit for measurement of viruses

DISEASES OF RICE/ WHEAT/ COTTON/ SUGARCANE/ PIGEON PEA Diseases of Rice:

1) Blast - Pyricularia oryzae: air borne: edifenphos/ Hisoses 0.05% Magnaparthe grisea)

2) Brown spot - Helmininosporium oryzae; Seed borne; common fungicide Bipoloris oryzae (Cochlioboltus miyabeanus)

3) Bacterial blight - Xanthomonas campestris pv.- orzyaeSeed and any antibiotic infected debris streptomycin + tertacyclinSymptom : Kresek in seedling stage

4) Foot rot (or) - Gibberella fujikorai; seed lime; common fungicideFoolish seedling disease (or) (Fusarium Moniliforme)Bakanae disease

5) Sheath blight (or) - Rhizoctonia solani; Soil borne; Cultural practice + fungicides

Leaf smut - Enteloma oryzae6) Stem rot - Sarocladium oryzae (Leptosphaeria salrini) 7) Udabatta disease - Ephelis oryzae (Balansia oryzal) Hot water 8) False smut or Green smut - Ustilaginoidea virens 9) Bunt - Tilletia barcleyana (Neovosia horrida)10) Rice tungro virus - Vector Nephotetti cinticeps: N. virescens (GLH) reduced

tillering and orange discoloration 11) Rice yellow dwarf - Phytoplasma starting, leaves remains green in colour 12) Ufra disease - Ditcylanchus angustus13) Pan sukh (dry physiological leaf disease)14) Kaira disease - Zinc deficiency.

Diseases of Wheat 1) Stem rust - Puccinia graminis tritici2) Leaf rust -

(Brown, rust)P. graminis recondita

3) Yellow rust - P. graminis striiformis (stripe rust) (air borne)

Controli. Sulphur dustii. Plant vax (oxy corboxin)iii. Loose smut Ustilago tritici - internally seed borne solar heat

Treatment. Hot water treatment (vitavax, carboxin)


52/122

iv. Hill buntT. caroues

Tilletia foetiaa - Externally seed brone

v. Kornal bunt - Neovossia indica Soil & air bronevi. Flag smut - Urouystis gramininis-Seed & soil borne Control for smut & bunts

Seed treatment with Agresan 2g/kg. Benomyl spray for bunts

(1) Exerlite - Angiuna tritici(2) Tundu (Yellow ear rot) -

Anguna triticiCorynebacterium tritici

(3) Molya (or) cereal -root-eel worm

Heterodera avemae

Diseases of cotton :1) Wilt - Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum2) Wilt - Verticillium dahliae3) Root rot - Macrophomina phaseoline4) Blackarm -

--

Xanthomonas compesttris Pv. Maliacearum (x, axnopodis new name) Spray 500 ppm streptomycin sulphate

5) Stenosis or smail leaf MLO (mycoplasma like organisms) vector-jassid6) Anthrocanose -

--

Colletotrichum capsiciPhysalospora tucumanensisSpread through setts 0.1% Carbendaym- sett treatment

7) Grey or Areolate mildew - Ramularia areola Common control Acid delinting

Diseases of Sugarcane:1) Red rot - Colletotrichum falcatum

Physalospora tucumanensisSpread through setts 0.1% carbendays sett treatment.

2) Smut - Ustilago scitaminea remove infected – clump & dip in hot water avoid ratooning

3) Sett rot (or) Pineapple - Ceratocystis paradoxa4) Gummosis or gumming disease - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vascularum5) Red stripe - Pseudomonas rubrilineans6) Mosaic - Virus vector - Rhopalosiphum maidis 7) Grassy shoot - MLO (Myoplasma Like organisms) vector – Proveista

moesta Hot water treatment 52% c 1/hr. Aerated steam therapy 54%C for 8/hr.

8) Root knot nematode - Meloidogyne sp.

Bengal gram:(1) Wilt - Fusarium Oxysperium j. sp. ciceri(2) Root rot - Macrophamina phasoline(3) Blight - Asehochyta rabei seed borne


53/122

10. GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

IMPORTANT POINTS: 1717: Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid popularly known as

Fairchild’s mule by crossing carnation with sweet William Dwarfing gene in rice – Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen (Japonica rice, Taiwan) Dwarfing gene in wheat – Norin 10 (Japanese variety) Tift 23 A – source of Cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet Kafir 60 – source of CMS in sorghum Non-traditional area of wheat cultivation – West Bengal Non-traditional area of Rice cultivation – Punjab Gregg 399 is an important source of genetic male sterility in cotton Exotic varieties of wheat – Sonara 64 and Lerma Rojo Wheat variety resistant to all the three rust – sparrow Wheat variety susceptible to all the three rust – Agra Local Exotic varieties of Rice – Taichung Native 1 (TN1), IR 8 introduced in India in 1966 Autotriploid (3x) – E.g. banana Triploid – Apples, Watermelons, sugar beets Autotetraploid – potato Autopolyploid – ornamental plants, sweet potato, oat, alfalfa Allopolyploids – wheat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, rapeseed etc Allohexaploid – common bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) Allotetraploids – cotton and tobacco Man made cereal – Triticale (rye ×wheat) Maize is called the ‘Drosophila of crop plants’ Examples of secondary introduction – wheat: kalyan Sona and Sonalika selected

from introductions from CIMMYT

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL ORGANELLES

Organelles Structure The chief function* Cell wall * Found between middle lamella and

plasmalemmas* Have primary cell wall, secondary cell wall (3 layers)* Made up of cellulose microfibrills

Shape: strength and Rigidity

* Plasmamembrane * Lipid – bilayer model of Davson Danieli, (1935) where protein molecule arranged outside

To regulate the movement of various molecules into & out of cyloplasm

* Neucleus (1993, Robert Brown)Nuclear membrane

* Double membrane with pores * contains genetic material* Communteat with Cyptoplasm (ER)

* Chromatin* Nueleolus* Nucleoplasm

*Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein)* Globular synthesis

*DNA-genetic material * Site of RNA* With material for building DNA + MRNA

Cytoplasm


54/122

* Ribosome - 80s size (Animal & Plant)- 70s size (cukaryotic organelles) & prosktuyotes

Site of protein Synthesis

* Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Porter, 1948)

-Network like in cytoplasm rough (ER) with RibosomeSmooth (ER)-without Ribosome

* Protein Syn; aid in protein modification* Lipid synthesis site

* Mitochondria (Benda.) (Power house of cell)

* Cylindrical body dia: 0.2-1p length 3-10p* Inner folded membrane (Cristae)* Matrix inside

* Production of ATP through the kreb’s cycle & electron transport chain* β-exudation of long chain fatty acids

* Plastid when Differentiated Chloroplast (With chlorophyll)

* Biconvex lens shaped (5m*dia)* Have membranes (grana and stroma lamellae)

* Chlorophyll photosynthesis* Grara & storma lamellae with thousands of quastacomes (Electron transport & photophosphorylation)

(Colourless plastid leucoplast)

* Storma consists of enzymes of dark reaction

* Golgi body apparatus/ dictyosome in plants (Camillo golgi, 1822)

* Membranes * Shipment in transport vesicles (Packaging) & transport

*Lysosome (Duve, 1955)

* Sac of digestive enzyme / Digestive vacuoles

* Cell destruction if captured

*Vacuole * Membrane (Tonoplast) bound * Storage deposit for water metabolites and product * turgidity of cell

* Centriole Rarely present in Plants Form poles of spindle apparatus

* Cytosol/ hyaloplasm The fluid protein of cytoplasm exclusive of organelles

Have compounds for building macro molecules

II Mitosis & Meiosis

Stages Mitosis(*Equational division)

Meiosis(*Reduction division)

1. Prophase: Chromatin condensation Chromosomes visible Nucleolus & Nuclear envelop disappear

1. Meiosis I 2. Meiosis III. Meiosis I :A. Prophase 1


55/122

2. Metaphase : Chromosomes are arranged in equational plate

a. Leptotene : Chromosome look thin thread (of loss ball shape because of condensation

b. Homologous chromosome begin to pairsynapsis/ synaptonemal complex found

c. Pachytene: complete bivalent tetrad. Crossing over

Chiasmata can be seen as the result of spearation of homologous Chiasma terminilizationd. Diakinesis: Chromosomes reach

maximum condensation, nucleolar membrane disappear, spindle begin to form

Metaphase I: Bivalents orient at random on the equatorial plane.

3. Anaphase: Move to opposite pole

4. Telophase: Chromosomes form into two groups

5. cytoplasmic division

Anaphase I: The centromeres do not divide continue to hold sister chromatids together

- Because of cross over, sister chromatids no longer be genetically identical.

Homologues more to opposite pole- This movement reduce the

chromosome number from the diploid condition (2n) condition to Haploid (n) state.

Telephase I : This divide the diploid cytokinesis mother cell into 2 haploid daughter cell.Meiosis II (equational division similar to Mitosis

1. Haploid cells mitosis (Meiosisll) 4. Haploid cells.

Significant difference between Mitosis and MeiosisSN Mitosis Meiosis1. Equational division separation sister

chrmatids : Relational division- separation of

homologuesEquational division- Separation of sister chromatics

2. One cytokinesis per karyokinesis : Two cytoplasmic division3. No synopsis: No chiasmata form No

genetic exchange between homologues (crossing over) & gastric recombination

: These do occur

4. 2 daughter cells/ cycle : 4 gametes/ spores per cycle5. Genetic content of product identical to

mother cell.: Not identical in terms of

1) Chromosome No. (Haploid) 2) Consent (crossing over-

recombination


56/122

6. Occar in somatic cell : Specialized cells of germ line

Ploidy Level in SeedsEmbryo-2n Endosperm – 3n Testa-2n Aleuron –2n

Post-mendalian era: devries, correns, Tschemark- Rediscovery of mendehan principles (1900). Sutton & bovery – chromosomal theory of inheritance (1903). Bateson –term – GENETICS (1905)

- Epitasis interallelic intraction (1909) Histones are – velly charged proteins on which –velly charged DNAs are coiled. 5

types of Histones are available. Hetro chromatin – Darkly stained Euchromatin – lightly stained

-genetically inactive -genetically active

Chromosome – named by waldayer –a neucleoprotein Chromosome – discovered by strasburger (1875) Parts of chromosome – (1) Centronere (2) Telomere (3) Nucleolar organising region

(4) Arms. Sources of new variation : (1) Independent assortment (2) Mutation (3)

Recombination cause of C. over (d) Poly Ploidy (5) Somoclonal variation DNA Replication - Semiconservative model

- Proposed by Watson and Crick Base + Sugar – Nucleoside Base – sugar + PO4 – Nucleotide

A= T; G=C A + G = T + C Opposite strands are running in antiparallol way Codon: Triplet sequence found in m RNA and codes for single amino acid anticodon:

Corresponding (complementary) triplet seq in t RNA start + codon: AUG stop/ Non sense/ termination codon: UAA, UAG, UGA.

Genemutiation Addition of a baseMutation Deletion of bases Frame shift mutation

Chromosomal Substitation of bases mutation

Muller first used X-rays as mutagen Natural mutation is of low frequency 10-6

Muton – The unit in which mutation occurs Inbred- Progeny of a single cross fertilized heterozygous individual Xenia – effect of pollen on endosperm expression

Metaxenia – effect of pollen on seed coat colour Pure lime are homozygous and hemogenons in nature Clone group of individuals descending from a single plant through several

reproduction. X = Basic chromosome number = Monoploid number = Genome number

n = Haploid number = Gametic number ex.: Triteum aestinum, 2n = 6x = 42 n = 21 (42/2), X = 7 (42/6)

Genome – All the chromosomes of a diploid species that are distinct from each other with reference to gene content and morphology.

Superiority of F1 hybrids over both of its parents : Heterosis Isogenic lines: Two lines differing for a single locus Parthenogenesis: Embryo originates from unfertilized egg.

Parthenocarpy : Development of fruit without fertilization , ex.: Banana


57/122

Aneuloidy : Changes in the genome with reference to individual chromosomes. Ex. Monosome (2n-1), Trisomy (2n=1), Tetrasomy (2n=2) Euploidy : Changes in the genome with reference to a set of chromosomes genome. Ex.: Triploid-3x, Tetraploid- 4x.

Test cross: F1 x homozygous recessive parent. Backcross : Repeated crossing of hybrid progeny back to one of its parents

Pleiotrophy : Single gene – governing multiple traits. Apomixis: A type of asexual reproduction in which embryo development and seed

formation take place without fertilization and with or without meiosis.


58/122

11. STATISTICS

1) AVERAGES:No Average Definition Uses1 Arithmetic

MeanSum of all values/No. of values To calculate average yield, SD, and

correlation and regression coefficients.

2 Harmonic Mean

I(1/x1+1/x2+…+1xn) (1/n)

When deal with Rate, price and speed

3 Geometric Mean

(X1*X2*…*Xn)1n When deal with relative changes

Ex. Bacterial growth, cell division

4 Median Middle most item of all values For open ended class data’s Intelligence, Ability and Efficiency.

5 Mode Most frequently occurred item Typical soil type, cropping pattern in a locality, and shoe and shirt size in business

Symmetrical distribution: Mean = Median = Mode Moderately skewed distribution: Mean – Mode = 3 (Mean – Median)

2) MEASURES OF DISTRIBUTION: Coefficient of variation = (SD/ mean) X 100

3) SKEWNESS: Lack of symmetry β1 = m2

3/m3

2. Y1= b1

Symmetrical distribution Y1=0 Negatively skewed Y1= -Ve Negatively skewed Y1= +Ve

KURTOSIS A Measure of peakedness or convexity β2= µ4/µ

32 Y2=β2-3

Normal distribution - Y2 = 0 Platykurtic - Y2= -Ve Leptokurtic - Y2= +Ve

4) REGRESSION AND CORRELATION a) Correlation: To study the association between two or more variables

Properties of correlation coefficient:1. It lies between –1 to +1 if it is 0; There is no relationship between variables2. Independent of change of scale and origin of the variables.3. It is geometric mean of two regression coefficients.4. The degree of relationship between two variables is symmetric i.e. rxy = ryx

b) Regression: To measure the average relationship between two of more variables. Properties:1. It gives the nature of relationship between two variables.2. It gives the cause and effect of relationship3. Regression coefficients are not symmetric, bxy ≠ byx

4. It is independent of change of origin but not of scale5) PROBABILITY

Probability ranges from 0 to 1 No of favorable cases

Probability = --------------------------------------- Total no of equally likely cases


59/122

Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0Eg. Probability of 7 in throwing a die – 0

Additive theorem(I) Mutually exclusive events

P (A or B) =P (A) +P(B), where P(AB)=0(II) Not mutually exclusive events

P (A or B)=P (A) +P (B)-P (AB) Multiplication theorem

(I) P (A and B)=P (A) X P(B)

6) DISTRIBUTIONa) Binomial Distribution (BD)

Random variable of BD is a discrete one BD has Bernoulli trials containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure) The BD is

P (X)=n Cxpxqn-x

Wheren = no of trialsp = probability of success q = probability of failurex = no of successes in ‘n’ trials

Mean (np) ≠ variance (npq) If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal

distribution. When n> 20; p<0.05, BD approaches Poisson distribution.

b) Poisson Distribution (PD) (the law of improbable events) PD – discrete probability distribution

e-mmx

P(x) = --------------X!Where

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5……e = 2.7m = mean (np)

Mean (np) = variance (npq) p 0; q 1 Uses of PD

Printing errors in a book No of deaths in a district in a given period Arrivals of trucks aeroplanes at terminals Telephone calls

c) Normal Distribution (ND) ND – continuous probability distribution Standard deviation of a sample = ơ Tv

Where,s = SD of populationn = sample size

The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical Mean = median = mode Area under standard normal curve = 1; mean = 0; SD = 1


60/122

7) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Experimental error : the variation due to uncontrolled factors Treatment : the objects of comparison Replication : allocation of treatments to the different experimental units

by a random process Local control : the principle of making use of greater homogeneity in groups

of experimental units for reducing experimental error Critical difference : (standard error) diff. X t value for error df at 5% or 1% level

S N Type of Design

Type of experimental material

Error degrees of freedom

1 CRD Homogeneous N-n

2 RBD Variation in one direction (n-1) x (r-1)

3 LSD Variation in two directions (n-1) x (n-2)

Where,N = total no. of observationsn = no of treatmentsr = no. of replications

Split Plot Design: To study effects of 2 or more factors requiring different plot sizesE. g. to study agronomic practices with fertilizer treatments

Factorial experiments: To study the effects of two or more factors and their inter relationships

8) TEST OF HYPOTHESIS Hypotheses : assumption about a population parameters Null hypothesis : Ho (No significant difference between two parameters) Altemative hypothesis : Ha (significant difference between two parameters) Errors:

Type I error: hypothesis is true but our test rejects it Type II error: hypothesis is false but our test accepts it

9) TESTS OF SIGNEFICANCE (Small sample < 30)

SN Type of Test Uses1. Students t test Small samples

2. Z test Large samples3. F test To test the proportions and variances4. CHI2 Test of independence, test of goodness of fit, test homogeneity


61/122

12. SOIL SCIENCE ROCKS:

Earth crust consists of the elements Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron etc. in the decreasing order of their amounts.

Rocks are basically divided into 3 types. Igneous Rocks: Granite, Basalt (Deccan Trap), Gabbro, Pumice, Rhyolite and

Tracheolite Acidic igneous rocks contain 60-75% quartz e.g. granite. Basic igneous rocks contain less than 50% of quartz e.g. Basalt.

Sedimentary rocks: Limestone, sandstone, Shale, Dolomite and Conglomerate. Metamorphic rocks: are formed from Igneous and sedimentary rocks e.g. marble,

gneiss, Schist, graphite, slate. Important conversions: Gneiss is formed from Granite. Marble from Limestone,

Graphite from Coal, Slate from Shale Quartzite from quartz or sandstone.SOIL:

Soil Origin, Weathering, Morphology, Factors and Processes of soil formation Rocks are the chief sources of soil parent materials over which soils are formed. Soil is formed from weathering of rocks.

Weathering = Disintegration + Decomposition Disintegration breaks consolidated rocks into unconsolidated parent materials, which

on further breaking and chemical decomposition forms soil. Physical weathering involves agents such as temperature, Water, wind, Plant and

animals and processes such as exfoliation (surface peeling off of rocks), alternate wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, burrowing of animals, root penetration, etc.

Water, on freezing, expands 9% by volume. Chemical weathering reactions- Solution, hydration, Hydrolysis, carbonation,

Oxidation and reduction. Hydrolysis is the most important chemical weathering process. Geo-chemical weathering is the weathering taking place at the layers down below

whereas pedo-chemical or pedogenic weathering is the one taking place at the surface and subsurface layers.

Soil found at the site of formation- sedentary soils, whereas soils found far away from the site of formation are called Cumulous or transported soils

Agent of transportation & name of the soil formed: River water-Alluvium, Lake water- Lacustrine, Seawater-Marine, Wind-Aeolian if coarse and Loess if fine particles, Gravity-Colluvium, Ice-Moraine.

Stages of soil formation- Infancy, youth, maturity and old age: Soil wherein there is continuous deposition of materials always remains young e.g.

Desert soils and alluvial deposits. Pedology is the study of origin, formation and geographic distribution of soils in

nature whereas Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to crop growth. Soil profile is the vertical section of soil through all its horizons and it extends up to

its parent materials. A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognised as a soil individual and it is e-

dimensional. The horizontal layers in a soil profile are called horizons. Typically there are 4 horizons –O, A, B and C. O horizon is the organic horizon found

in the forest soils. A horizon is below O horizon out of which A2 layer is called illuvial horizon. B-horizon is found below A horizon and is mostly called illuvial horizon. Elluvial layer is the one wherein soil materials are removed whereas illuvial layer is one wherein soil materials removed from other layers are deposited.

C- Horizon consists of unconsolidated parent materials.


62/122

Below the C-horizon is found the R layer, which is known as the Bed Rock. Solum = A+B horizons Regolith = A+B+C horizons

The study of the soil in the field condition with the help of various morphological characteristics is called Soil Morphology.

Dokuchaiev, the father of Soil science, gave the factors of soil formation, which were later, modified by Jenny.

The five factors of soil formation are Clorpi – Climate and organism (Active factors), Relief or topography, parent material and time (passive factors).

There are various processes of soil formation out of which two are important-Laterisation and Podzolisation.

Laterisation occurs in warm humid tropical conditions whereas Podzolisation occurs in the cold humid temperate conditions.

In Laterisation, Silica (SiO2) is removed from the A horizon and sesquioxides are left out in the A-horizon whereas in Podzolisation, sesquioxides are leached from the A horizon and silica is left out in upper layers.

Laterite is used for preparing bricks Laterites are very well weathered soils whereas laterite soils are still undergoing some weathering to become laterites.

Nature and composition if soil: Soil is a 3-phase, particulate, disperse, porous, open and heterogeneous system Ideal soil contains 50% solid matter (45% mineral matter and 5% organic matter) and

50% pore space (25% air and 25% water). Out of the 3 phases, Solid phase is the constant phase in terms of composition. There are basically 3 soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay. There are two systems of

classifying the sizes of these separates. International System given by Atterberg – Coarse sand 2mm – 0.2 mm, Fine sand

0.2mm to 0.02, silt – 0.02mm to 0.002mm and clay – less than 0.002mm or less than 2 microns.

USDA system – Gravel – 2mm and more, Very coarse sand 2-1mm – 0.2mm, coarse sand – 1.0 to o.5mm, medium sand – 0.5 to 0.25mm, fine sand 0.25 to 0.1mm, very fine sand 0.1 to 0.05mm, silt 0.05 50 0.002mm and clay – less that 0.002mm.

India follows International system of particle size classification. Physical properties of soil: The relative proportion of the various soil separates is called soil texture. There are

12 textural groups. Light textured or coarse textured soils are easy to plough whereas heavy textured or

fine textured soils are difficult to plough. The 12 textural groups from light or coarse textured to heavy or fine textured soils is

sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay and clay.

Gravel is neither a soil separate nor one of the soil textures. Particles greated than 2mm are not considered soil. Textured is determined by International Pipette and Bouycous Hydrometer method. Stoke’s law is applied in the determination of soil texture. Silt has intermediate characteristics between sand and clay. Clay is called the active fraction of the soil. It is made up of alumino-silicates. Soil texture is a static property i.e. it cannot be changed. Soil structure is the arrangement of soil aggregates or primary and secondary

particles. Grade denotes the durability or stability of the aggregates – structureless, weak,

moderate, strong and very strong.


63/122

Class of soil structure denotes size of the aggregates: very fine, fine, medium, coarse and very coarse.

There are 4types soil structures: platy, prismatic or columnar, angular or sub-angular blocky and spheroidal (granular and crumb structure).

Structure is denoted in the order of GRADE-CLASS-TYPE. Structure of the soil can be easily changed by management practices. Loamy texture and granular or crumb structure is best suited for agriculture crops. Bulk density (Apparent density of soil is the mass of unit volume of soul including the

pore space. Particle density (True Density) is the mass of unit volume of soil without pore space. Bulk density (A) is approximately half that of particle density. So bulk density is

always lower than particle density value of Bulk Density is 1.4 to 1.8 Mg/m3. Bulk density increases on compaction whereas it decreases on addition of organic matter.

The particle density (T) of soils is around 2.65 Mg/m3 due to dominance of quartz whose density is also of the same value.

Porosity percentage pore space is given by the formula 100x(T-A/T). Values: Sandy soil +30% clay soils =50-60% and loams = 40-50% Macropores are greater in coarse textured soil and are occupied by air while

micropores are greater in fine textured soils and are occupied by water. Soil colour: It is found out using Munsell Colour chart. Three variables are used to denote soil

colour .They are hue-dominant Wavelength, Value-relative lightness of the colour and chroma-purity of the colour.

Plasticity and cohesion: Plasticity is the capacity of the soil to change its shape under moist conditions. Cohesion is the capacity to stick together. Plastic soils are cohesive. Soil Colloids: The two phases are the dispersed phase (clay and humus) and dispersion

medium/water). Soil colloid is made up inorganic colloid-clay and organic colloid-humus. Particles smaller than I micron are said to exhibit colloidal activity. Colloidal property increases with decrease in diameter. Colloids exhibit the property of sacrificial activity such as the capacity to hold solid,

gases, salts and ions. Soil colloids have high exchange capacity, which increases with silica sesquioxides

ratio. Soil water: Water has maximum density at 40 C. One molecule of water is attached to four

molecules in the neighborhood. The diameter of water molecule is 30A (3x10-10m). Water has high dielectric constant of 80. Its surface tension is 7.2x10-2N/m.

Structure of water molecule is hexagonal lattice and the angle is 1040 50. Soil moisture constants: Hygroscopic water, capillary water and gravitational water. Water held at tension of more than 31-atm is called hygroscopic water. It is not

available to the plants. Water held below 1/3rd –atm is called gravitational water and it is drained from the

soil due to gravity. Water held at tensions beyond 15- atm is not available to the plants. 15 atm

represents the wilting point.


64/122

If water is allowed to drain by gravity after supplying water, some water remains even after drainage due to gravity. It is called field capacity. Water at field capacity is held at 1/3red atm.

Water held between 1/3rd and 15 atm is called available water Water in soil moves in response to difference to tension or pressure. More water means less tension and less water is held at more tension. So water

moves from low tension to high tension. Darcy’s law in soil deals to hydraulic gradient. Soil air: Soil air contains 10 times carbon dioxide as that of air. Ideally 2/3rd of soil pores are filled with water and 1/3rd with air. Fick’s law deals about the diffusion of gases in soils. Submerged soils contain less oxygen. Soil air is characterised by ODR-Oxygen Diffusion Rate. Soil temperature: In soils, heat is mainly transferred through conduction Fourier’s law deals with heat conduction in soils. Sandy soils absorb more heat than clayey soils because the specific heat of water

(heat required to heat a substance) is 4-5 times that of soil particles. Soil temperature is used at family level categorization in soil taxonomy. Chemical properties: pH is the negative logarithm of H ion concentration. Sorenson gave pH scale. There are two types of acidity in soil-active acidity and potential acidity. pH measure only active acidity. Potential acidity forms the bulk of the soil acidity. It

is greater than active acidity. Soil pH is also soil reaction. Soil with pH less than 6.5 are acidic, 6.5 to 7.5 are neutral and above 7.5 are alkaline. One unit change in pH changes H ion concentration by 10 times, 2 units by 100 times

and so on. Electrical conductivity: Measure of soluble salts in mmhos/cm or dS/m in solubridge or conductometer. Ion exchange: Most important process occurring in soil Ion exchange is a reversible pros\cess. Soil

colloids are the seat of ion exchange. Cation and anion exchange respectively. CEC is measured at pH 7 & expressed as

meq/100 g of soil. CEC varies greatly with nature and amount of clay and OM. Knolinite has 3-10, Illite – 10-30, Montmorillionite – 80-150 and Organic matter –

greater than 200.Base saturation:

Fertile soils are saturated with Ca++ and Mg++ ions. If soil is saturated with more than 15% exchangeable sodium, than that soil is called Alkali soil. If soil is saturated with H+ ions. Then the soil is said to be base unsaturated or acidic.

Organic matter: OM on decomposition by humification process gives humus. Humus is amorphous an

nature. In India OM is very less because of tropical and sub-tropical climate. In hilly and altitudes, OM is above 1% in mangroves it is 10-30%. CN ratio of OM is 10:1 whereas that of Indian soils is 5:1 to 25:1 with an average of

14:1 Histosols are called Organic soils.

BS ={(Na+ +K++Ca+++Mg++)/CEC}x100


65/122

Organic matter decomposition stages: First sugars & starches followed by proteins followed hemicelluloses, cellulose and fatty acids and finally lignin and waxes.

Biological properties:

The smell of soils after fresh showers is due to Actinomycetes. Bacteria occur in neutral to alkahne pH. Fungi in acid pH and Algae in shade areas. Symbiotic N fixer – Rhizobium in Legumes, Non-symbiotic or Free living is

Arotobacter. In paddy algae or Azolla fixes N. The amount of N fixed is 50-I50 Kg. In plant N is fixed as R-NH2, which is converted to ammonia. The ammonia is

converted so nitrite first by Nitrosomonas or Nitrosococcus, followed by Nitrite to nitrate by Nitrobacter. This process is called Nitrification.

Some of the nitrification Inhibitors are N-Serve and AM. Optimum condition for nitrification process is field capacity and pH above 5. Mineralogical Properties: There are primary, secondary, accessory and amorphous minerals. Primary mineral: Order of occurrence

Serpentine is hydrated silicate of Mg. Secondary minerals: 1:1- one silica and one alumina layer. Kaolinite, Halloysite and Dickite 2:1 – Two silica and one alumina layer: Montmorillionite (expanding), Vermiculite

(Slightly expanding) and Illite (Non-expanding and 15% of silica is replaced by Al3-

and K+ ions) Illite is also called as hydrous mica. 2:1:1 or 2:2 – Chlorite. The crystal unit is composed of one 2:1 unit (like mica and

Montmorillionite) and one octahedral unit, Brucite {(Mg3 (OH)6}. Accessory minerals: B- Tourmaline, F-Topaz, P-Apatite, Ti-Rutile and Anatase. Amorphous clay mineral: Allophane. Found in Soil order Andosols. Negative charge is due to exposed surface of clay and isomorphous substitution. Soil survey, classification and soils of India: There are two types of soil survey- Reconnaissance soil survey and detailed soil

survey. In RSS1 19 = 1 mile. Toposheets of 1:50,000 to 1:1,00,000 or aerial photo of 1:25,000

or 1:50,000 is used. Observations are once at 3-6 Kms. DSS: 19 = 8 mile or 19 = 16 mile. Cadastral maps of 1:5000 to 1:8000 or Aeria: photo

of 1:10,000 is used Observation are once at ¼ - ½ Km. Forest area is surveyed by RSS. Soil classification: India, from 1969, follows USDA’s Comprehensive system of soil classification called

soil Taxonomy. It is type of multi-category classification wherein there 6 categories: soil order, suborder, great group, sub-group, family and series.

There 12 order and the lastly added 11th and 12th orders are Andosols and Gelisols respectively, Andosols are found in volcanic cruption areas and contains high content allophane. Gelisols are found in arctic regions.

The two largest orders in India are Inceptisols followed by Entisols. Soil of India: Largest area is occupied by alluvial soils 75 Mha.

Bacteria > Actinomycetes> Fungi > Algae

Feldspars> Quartz> Mica> Limestone> Hornblende and augite> Olivine and serpentine


66/122

Black soils 9Vertisols mostly), 72 Mha, are characterised by Gilgai (shining surface), Micro- relief (ups and down), self-churning, smectite (expanding clays) and they are the Russian equivalent of Chernozems.

2/3rd of TN is of red soil. the parent material for red soils is mostly granite. Laterite is older than lateritic soils. Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils. Laterite means brick. Desert soils come under Aridisols. Problem soils occupy 10 Mha. Saline soils- 7.2 Mha and alkali soils- 2.8 Mha. Problem soils are highest in UP. Saline soils are formed mainly in aird and semi-arid regions due to rising of salt level

in the water table. Also it is due to secondary salinisation due to poor quality irrigation water.

Type of soil pH EC(dS/m) ESP (%)Saline < 8.5 > 4 < 15Alkali > 8.5 < 4 > 15Saline-Alkali < 8.5 > 4 > 15

Saline are called white alkali soils and are said to cause boron toxicity. Treated by leaching.

Alkali soils are called black soils and are reclaimed by applying Gypsum Saline tolerant varieties: rice, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and millets. Sensitive crops: Pulses and oilseeds. Acid sulphate soils: pH less than 3.5 due to Liydrogen Sulphide gas production, found

in Kerala and Sunderbans. Causes AKiochi disease. Cat clays are associated with these soils.

Acid soils have very low pH. Reclaimed by liming with limestone or calcite (CaCO3), Dolomite CaCO3. MgCo3. 2H2O. slaked lime Ca (OH2) and Burnt lime or quick lime CaO.

SAR= Na+ (Ca++ + Mg++) /2 Soil Management: The optimum physical condition of the soil for crop growth is called soil tilth. Other practices are choice of crops, following land capability classification, conserve

soil and water, avoid salinity, alkalinity and water-logging, adopt crop rotation especially with legumes, apply soil amendments and follow balanced fertilization.

Soil Testing: Mainly to test the fertility status of the soil that is to find out the nutrient deficiencies

and soil amendments. Half a Kg soil sample is taken and analysed for pH, total soluble salts by EC, Organic

Carbon by Walkley and Black Method, Available N by alkaline permanganate method, avai P by Olsen’s or Bray’s Method, avai K by Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate method.

pH below 6 is termed acidic, 6-8.5 neutral to saline, 8.6 to 9 tending to be saline and pH above 9 is termed as alkaline.

Total soluble salts: EC in dS/m: Below 1is normal, 1-2 critical for germination, 2-4 critical for growth of sensitive crops, above 4 injurious to most of the crops.

Soil test report gives soil texture, pH, EC, OC, Avai NPK, Gypsum and Lime amount to be added, Green Manure/Compost in the Flooding and draining.


67/122

STATUS OF AVAILABLE NPK IN SOILS

Nutrient LOW MEDIUM HIGHOrganic carbon Below 0.5% 0.5 – 0.75% >7.5

Available N (Kg/ha) <280 280-560 >560Available P (Kg/ha) 10 10-25 >25Available K (Kg/ha) <110 110-280 >280

Soil Fertility, manures and fertilizers: Soil productivity and fertility are synonymous terms. Soil productivity is soil fertility

+ something. There are 16 essential elements for plant growth. There are divided into Macro and

micronutrients based on the amount of plant uptake. Major nutrients consist of Primary elements. Beneficial elements are I, Se, Ga, AI. Ballast elements are AI and SI. Arnon gave the criteria for essentiality of the nutrients and Nicholas gave the term

functional or metabolic nutrients. Law of minimum was given by Father of AG. Chemistry Leibig and Law of

Diminishing Returns was given by Mitscherlich. Nutrient such as nitrate, chloride and sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids

and remain mainly in the soil solution. Diffusion mechanism enables nutrient movement without the movement of water. It is the mechanisms predominant are supplying most of the P and K to plant roots. Nitrogen role: greenish colour, efficient utilization of P and K. Its def symptoms

(yellowing) occur in the older leaves because of its high mobility, Def hastens maturity whereas toxicity delays maturity because of prolonged vegetative flush, succulent, leathery growth and also causes lodging. Toxicity also impairs the quality of barley, tobacco, sugarcane and fruits.

Nitrogen is available both in anionic and cationic form. Phosphorus promotes root growth, new cell formation, formation of grains and

maturation of crops, influences the vigour of plants and improves the quality of the crops, increases resistances to diseases, N fixing in legume crops. Its deficiency causes reddish or purplish discolouration of stem and foliage due to abnormal increase in the sugar content and formation of anthocyanin.

Potassium: to resist pest and diseases, cold and adverse conditions, starch production and production and translocation of sugars, improves the quality of tobacco and citrus. Luxury consumption is noticed. Deficiency symptoms ringing of alfalfa leaves with rows of small white spots: reddish brown discolouration of cotton leaves, drying, scorching and curling of leaf margins in potato and ‘interveinal chlorosis and ‘firing’ along the edges of maize leaves.

Nitrogenous fertilizers: Sodium Nitrate: 1st nitrogenous fertilizer. Chilean Nitrate 16% N in nitrate form.

Particularly useful in acid soils Ammonium sulphate: 20.6% and 24% S. When close to seeds affects seed

germination Anhydrous Ammonia contains highest N content of 32%. Urea contains 46% N and non-proteined organic form of N, amide form of N1.

Ammonium nitrate: 33-35% N (half as nitrate form and other half as Ammonical form), acidulating and explosive.

Nitro-chalk is obtained by mixing Ammonium nitrate with about 40% limestone or dolomite. It has 20.5% (50% in Ammonical form and 50% in Nitrate form).

Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate: Ammonium Nitrate + Ammonium sulphate. Contains 26% N (3/4th in Ammonical form and 1/4th in nitrate form.


68/122

Ammonium chloride: 26% N, possesses good physical condition, similar in action to ammonium sulphate, not recommended for tomatoes, tobacco and other such crops.

CAN: Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Kisankad 25-28% N (1/2 ammonical and ½ nitrate).

Slow release N fertilizers: Neem coated urea, Tar coated urea, urea formaldehyde (urea form), Urea super granules, etc.

Dried bone meal – 10-12% highly available N. Phosphatic fertilizers: Rock phosphate: 25-35% water Insoluble Phosphoric acid. Bone meal contains 20-

25% P2O5. Super Phosphate: Most widely used water-soluble P fertilizer in India. SSP: 16-18%

P2O5,DSP-32% P2O5, TSP-44-49% P2O5. Citrate soluble P: Dicalcium phosphate- 35-38% P2O5 Basic slage –6-20% P2O5

byproduct of steel industries. Gypsum: 20% S and 23% Ca. Potassic Fertilizers: India imports K fertilizers mainly from Germany and France. MOP: KCI 50-63% K2O SOP:K2SO4 48-52% K2O. Wood ash – 5-6% Potassium carbonate. Complex fertilizer: Diammonium Phosphate: (DAP) – 18:46:0 Suphala: Nitro phosphate – 20:20:2, 15:15:15, 18:18:9. Manures: FYM has 0.3%, 0.15%, 0.3% N, P2O5 and K2O. 1 tone of cattle dung can give only 2.95 Kg of N, 1,59 Kg of Phosphoric acid and 2.95

Kg of potash. Night soil is also called Poudrette. Soil erosion and conservation: Soil degradation is defined as the loss in soil productivity due to physical, chemical

and biological deterioration. Causes are excessive pressure on land to meet the growing demands of population .

They are in the form of over exploitation of natural resources like overgrazing, excessive deforestation, faulty methods of agricultural practices, shifting cultivation or Jhuming.

There are 2 types of soil erosion Normal crosion (geological crosion) and Accelerated erosion.

In normal erosion, rate of soil loss = rate at which soil is formed. Accelerated crosion is one where rate of soil of loss is far greater than the rate at

which it is formed. Area affected by soil degradation is 187.9 Mha (57.1%) of the total geographical area. Deterioration in the form of water erosion (148.9 Mha), Wind erosion (13.5 Mha),

chemical deterioration – 13.8 Mha, Physical deterioration like water logging (11.6 Mha) and Biological deterioration.

Water erosion: Erosion by water – splash erosion, sheet, rill, gully, stream bank and landslide erosion.

Splash erosion is the splashing effect of raindrops on soil particles. Sheet erosion is not clearly recognised but can be seen as muddy run-off. Rill erosion leads to formation of finger like rills and gully crosion is the severe form

of rill erosion wherein grooves form deep channels called pullies. Land becomes unfit for cultivation.


69/122

Size of gullies:

Symbol Description SpecificationsG1 Very small Up to 3 m deep and 18m bed width. Side slopes varyG2 Small Up to 3m deep and greater than 18m bed width. Side slope

veryG3 Medium Depth between 3 and 9m. Bed width greater than 18m. Side

slopes uniformly sloping between 8 and 15%G4 Deep and

Narrow(a) 3m-9m deep. Bed width less than 18m. Side slope vary.(b) Depth greater than 9m. Bed width varies. Side slope

vary, mostly steep or even vertical, with intricate and active branch gullies.

The mechanism of water crosion is detaching effect of raindrops and surface flow ofwater carries the detached soil particles to far places.

Wind erosion: Wind erosion normally occurs in arid and semi-arid regions. 3 types of soil movement are seen in wind crosion : saltation, suspension and surface

creep. Saltation is the most important process in wind erosion and control of wind erosion is

mainly based on elimination of movement in saltation. Particles of size 0.1 to 0.5mm are lifted.

Major portion of soil carried by wind is moved in a series of bounces called saltation. Suspension: Very fine particles less than 0.1mm in diameter are carried into

suspension over long distances. They are kicked up into air by action of particles in saltation.

Surface creep: Particles larger than 0.5mm but smaller than 1.0mm are pushed and spread along the surface by impact of particles in saltation to form a surface creep.

The mechanism of wind erosion is Initiation, transportation and deposition. Factors affecting soil loss: Universal soil loss (USLE) was given Weischmeir and Smith. A= RKLSCP where A denotes soil loss in the , R-Rainfall erosivity, K-soil

erodibility, L-slope length, S-slope%, C-crop management factor, P-Soil Management factor.

Soil loss is calculated by comparing soil loss with an ideal plot of 22m long (72 ft) and 9% slope.

Intensity of the rainfall is more important than duration and frequency of rainfall in causing soil loss.

Soil texture, structure, infiltration, permeability, organic matter content etc affects soil erosion.

Lateritic soils are less erodible than black soils. Speed and extent of run-off is decided by slope% and length. Velocity of water flow is proportion to square root of slope% or vertical drop. Hence if land slope% is increased 4 times then velocity is doubled. If velocity is doubled, erosive power of How is increased by 4 times i.e. erosive

power is proportional to square of the velocity. Size of the particles carried by the flow is proportional to the 6th power of the velocity

of flow. If velocity is doubled, size of the particles carried is increased by 64 times. Quantity of soil transported is proportional to the 5th power of the velocity of flow. If

velocity is doubled, then quantity of soil transported is increased by 32 times.

Rainfall crosion index = Kinetic energy of the storm x Max 30 minute intensity


70/122

So erosion is geometrically increasing with slope%. Loss of plant nutrients increases with increase in degree of slope. Soil loss is less when land is left undisturbed under a natural cover and soil loss

increases steeply when vegetation is removed and land is cultivated. Legumes and grasses are stronger in preventing soil loss. Monoculture of cereals should be avoided. Some important e.g. of order of soil loss.

Cultivated bare fallow Maize – wheat under Natural grasses Fallow land up and down cultivation

Soil And Water Conservation Measures The key to soil and water conservation is to follow land capability classification Land capability classes are based on intensity of hazards and limitations. As class

increases, the intensity of limitations increases. Class V has no crosion hazard but it is placed in class V only due to the fact that it

limitations are practically difficult to remove. Class VIII includes Bad Lands rock outcrops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, river

washes, mine spoils and other nearly barren lands. The colours for the various classes from I to VIII are Green, yellow, Brown, Pink,

Grey, Orange, Red and Purple. Sub class indicates dominant limitation and is denoted by e, w, s, c – e for erosion, w

for wetness, s for soil limitations and c for climate. If two limitations are found, the dominant limitations are written first. The order of priority in case of equal extent of limitations is e, w, s, and c. Arid lands start with class IV, semi-arid with class III or IV, sub-humid where crop

yield is affected frequently by drought with II or III, Humid climate with occasional dry spells with II and humid climate with well distributed rainfall with CLASS I.

Soil and water conservation measure are divided into Agronomic and Engineering measures.

Agronomic measure: The principles are to intercept raindrops and stop splash effect, to increase intake rate

and to stop overland flow. 1. Contour farming: It is farming across the slopes along the contour bunds within

6% slope, Important examples of soil loss: Maize + cow pea (Contour cultivation) < maize (up and down cultivation).

Potato (contour cultivation) < Potato (up and down cultivation) 2. Mulching: synthetic and natural. 3. Selection of crops: crops selected should provide maximum cover of soil.

Legumes are very effective particularly cowpea and mung. Crops can be divided into crosion resistant (Ground Nut) and crosion permitting crops (URAD).

Important e.g. of soil loss: Urad > Maize > Gora paddy > G. Nut.o Jowar > Black gram > G. Nut.

Biditobacco- fallow > Sun hemp- Biditobacco-fallow> Bajra-fallow> Bajra-Mung. 4. Strip cropping: Alternate strips of erosion resisting and erosion permitting crops. Wind strip cropping is growing alternate rows of tall and short crops across the

direction of wind. 5. Mixea cropping: Better protection and yield than strip cropping.

Cultivated fallow > Jowar > natural cover

Overgrazed fallow or Maize > Natural fallow


71/122

Engineering measures: To increase the opportunity time and to divide the long slopes into short ones so that the velocity of flow is reduced.

The methods are basin listing using basin leister (excavate some soil to allow rainwater to enter), sub-soiling (to remove the surface hard pans),contour bunds upto 6% slope, graded bunds in rainfall areas with a vertical interval of 0.3 (s+3) where S is slope %, Bench terracing (series of benches or platforms, Grassed waterways using Pannicum repans, Brachaeria mutical or cyanodon.

Gully control measures: Check dams, sodding, Gully plugging with brush woods, wire meshes, sand bags, boulders, live hedges (Vetiver), bricks masonry items, etc earthen plugging.

In case of small gullies, diversion check bunds and in case of medium gullies, cheek dams at vertical interval of 1.2m and terracing the side slopes are done.

Soils of India1. Red Soils (Alfisols):

Red colour in red soils due to the presence of various oxides of iron Light texture, porous structure, deficient in organic matter Absence of lime and low soluble salts Slightly acidic to neutral in reaction pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5 Rich in Kaolinite (1:1) type of clay minerals Formed from ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks The parent material for red soils is mostly granite It covers an area of 117.2 m ha (36 %) Distribution – Areas of Madras and Mysore, part of A.P, M.P, Orissa, Bihar, Santhal

paragana (Bihar) , Mirzapur, Jhansi district of U.P Red soil in Tamil Nadu occupies the largest area.

2. Black soils (Vertisols) : Covers an area of about 74 m ha accounting for 24 % of the total geographical area Generally rainfed The soils are dark or dark brown in colour Developed from Basaltic rock under semi arid condition The soils are locally known as ‘Regur’ or black cotton soil, deep black soil, and

medium black soil. The texture ranges from sandy loam to heavy clay. One of the characteristics of the swells on wetting during the season and shrinks and

cracks in summer season The base exchange capacity of deep black soil is quite high The pH varies from 7.5 to 8.5 The soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and they are rich in potash and lime The clay content ranges from 40-69 % and occasionally upto 80 % Cation exchange capacity is 35-50 meq/100g soil Rich in montmorillonite and beidelithoc group of clay minerals Occurrence – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M. P, Rajasthan, U.P, A.P and Madras

3. Alluvial soils (Entisols): Soils of recent origin It is grey or greyish- brown in colour and texture of alluvial soils is sandy loam to

clay loam Most fertile soil Base exchange capacity is comparatively low and pH varies from 7.0 to 8.0 Occupies the largest area i.e. 75 m ha


72/122

The alluvial soils are found in the areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, U.P, Bihar and West Bengal

Sufficient in P and K but deficient in Nitrogen and organic matter

4. Laterite and lateritic soils (Ultisols): Occupy 25 mha of the total geographic area Texture of top soil is loamy or clayey. Associated with undulating topography in region with a relatively high annual rainfall It is deficient in lime and are slightly to moderately acid in reaction The pH values from 5.0 to 6.0 They are low in base exchange capacity Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils Predominate in Kaolinite type of clay minerals Deficient in P, K, Ca, Zn, B etc Shifting cultivation is mainly practised in these areas

5. Desert soils (Arid soils): Covers an area of about 29 m ha Developed in Arid regions. It is mostly sandy Desert soils contain large amount of soluble salts and varying proportion of lime They have a high pH and are very poor in fertility constituents Composed of Quartz but feldspar and horn blend grains also occur with a fair grains

also occur with a fair proportion of calcareous grains Desert soils are largely found in parts of Rajasthan, South Punjab and in the range of

Kutch.

6. Saline and Alkaline soils: Developed in the arid and semi arid regions Poor drainage is also responsible for their development Saline are called Alkali soils and are said to cause Boron toxicity. Treated by leaching Alkali soils are reclaimed by applying Gypsum Pulses and oilseeds are very sensitive to this soils Saline soils occupies 7.2 m ha and alkali soils – 2.8 m ha Highest in Uttar Pradesh pH is greater than 8.5 Difficult to manage Exchangeable sodium percentage is more than 15 Electrical conductivity is more than 4 mm hos/cm Occurrence- Indo-gangetic alluvium in the north and the deltic region

7. Forest and Hill soils: Estimated to be 75 m ha Occurrence –Himachal Pradesh, J& k, U. P, Uttarakhand, Bihar , Maharashtra, Kerala

and North Eastern Region

Important points to remember: Soil profile – A vertical section of the soil body which shows different layers Soil texture – The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay Soil structure – Arrangement of soil particles e.g., granular, columner, compact Solum – A+B horizon Regolith – A+B+C horizon


73/122

A well developed soil have : A, B, C horizon The most abundant soil found in India is alluvial soil Anion exchange capacity is found maximum in the case of – Kaolinite Cation exchange capacity is found minimum in the case of – Kaolinite Black soil is the second largest group of Indian soils Cation exchange capacity is highest in – Montmorillonite Denitrification is more in water logged soils In no tillage systems, the surface soil layers have high bulk density Lime is used for reclamation of acidic soils Maximum absorption of water by roots takes place through the root hairs Maximum population of microorganisms found in soils are – Bacteria Most resistant mineral present in soil is – Quartz Montmorillonite (2:1), illite and Kaolinite (1:1) are clay minerals Pedology – study of soil development Gypsum or sulphur is used for reclamation of saline soils The most abundant mineral present on the earth is Feldspar pH – the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in the soil Tolerance of soil salinity in crops – Barley> wheat > Beans>Upland paddy Igneous rock- Granite, Basalt; Sedimentary rocks – sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite;

Metamorphic Rocks – marble, slate Check basin irrigation method is best suited for undulating topography Red soils are best suited for irrigated agriculture Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration of normal soils -10-12:1 The maximum moisture is available to plants at field capacity The main source of heat for soils is solar radiation Number of master horizons in soil are -5 Micronutrient defiant in Indian soils – Zinc Fertilizers not produced in India – Muriate of Potash Degree of soil salinity is indicated by its Total soluble salt content Maximum saline and alkali soils are found in Uttar Pradesh Alkali soils are generally found in Arid and semi-arid climate Gravitational water is less available for plant or not available (-0.1 to –0.3 bar) Capillary water- water held between –0.1-31 bars, most available for plant growth,

capillary water held between –15 bar is easily available to crop production Hydroscopic water- water is held below permanent wilting point, except few

microbes, all plants fail to absorb hydroscopic water. Dark colour of soils is due to presence of Titanium and Mn Total essential nutrients – 17. Recently added mineral is ‘Ni’. Ultra micro nutrient – Molybdenum Among the soil fauna, protozoa are the most abundant Edaphology – Study of relationship between plant and soil Petrology – study of Rocks


74/122

13. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Ext. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour Grow more food campaign (1947) Grow more food enquiry committee (1952) Etawah pilot project, Etawah dist. of UP, (1948), fore runner of community dev.

Project in India, started by Albert Mayer Community Dev, project (1952) National extension service (1952) Panchayat Raj System (PRS), Balwant Roy Mehta committee, introduced PRS (3

Tier, Dist->, Block->, Village), 2 Tier by Ashok Mehta committee. First Agricultural University as SAU, G.B.Pant AU. (1960), Uttaranchal IADP (Intensive Agr. Dev. programme)—1960 IAAP (Intensive agri. Area Prog.)----1964 HYVP (High yielding variety prog.) for wheat and paddy---1965-66 SFDA (Small Farmer Dev. Agency) ---1971-72 Rural Credit Review Committee----1960 NDP (National Demonstration project.)---1960 DAAP (1970-71) forth five year plan Drought prone area programme – 1970-71 Command area development programme - 1974 Tribal area development Programme---1972 Training and Village system----1974 KVK—(first was in Pondicherry, TNAU) Teaching by doing, 1974 TRYSEM (Training Rural youth for self employment)—15th Aug. 1979 IRDP(integrated rural development program me) ---2nd Oct.1980-81 JRY (Jawahar Rojgar Yojana) started by Merging National Rural employment prog

and Rural Landless employment guarantee prog. ---1989 Employment Assurance Scheme.—Oct 1993 ICAR started IVLP (Institute village linkage prog.)—1995 Forming System Research Extension ---1970 Lab to land Programme and National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) – 1979 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) – 1998 National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) – 2006 Important Projects and Associated PersonsName of Project Associated persons

Gurgaon project : F.L Brain Shantiniketan : Rabindranath Tagore Rural Reconstruction : Daniel Hamilton Marthandom Project : Spencer Hatch Sewagram : Mahatma Gandhi Etawah pilot project : Albert Mayor(first project)

Nilokheri experiment : S.K Dey Majdoor Manjil : S.K Dey Community Development : S.K Dey Indian village scheme : S.N Gupta National Demonstration scheme(NDS) : Kalwar and Subramaniam Young farmer association : Deskmukh 3 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Rajasthan) : B.R Mehta 2 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Karnataka) : Ashok Mehta


75/122

T & V system : Daniel Benore


76/122

14. CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY

Plant tissue culture: Father of plant tissue culture – Haberlandt (German) Practical demonstration of totipotency by vasil and Hildebrandt (1964) Micro propagation technique was first devised for Orchids Morel and martin – meristem culture. Apical meristems. Used for production of

disease free plants Anther culture – Maheswari and Guha

Molecular markers: These are heritable difference in the nucleotide sequence of DNA at particular

position on homologous chromosome Detected by southern blot reaction and PCR reaction Southern hybridization developed by E. M southern (1975) Polymerase chain reaction by KARY MULLIS (1985)

Types: 1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP):

First marker (1980) Co-dominant in nature Highly reproducible

2. Sequence Tagged sites (STS) Robust markers used in human and plant genome mapping

3. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD): Dominant marker Non reproducibility

4. Sequence tagged Microsatellite Sites (STMS): Co-dominant and reproducible Used for developing a physical map

5. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP): Co-dominant

6. Single Nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs): Used for genotyping human population for certain genetic diseases.

Genomics: First bacterial genome sequenced (1995) – Haemophilus influenxae First multi-cellular organism sequenced – Caenorhabditis elegans First plant sequenced (2000) – Arabidopsis thaliana First crop plant sequenced – Rice

Transgenic: An organism where a foreign gene is involved First transgenic developed in - Tobacco First transgenic crop plant – “ Flavr savr” tomato for delayed ripening (1994 – for

commercial cultivation) by calgene company Global transgenic covers mainly six crops i.e. soybean, corn, cotton, canola, squash and

papaya’ Common traits engineered – herbicide, Insect (only cry genes from Bt) and virus

resistance Transgenic crop cultivated area is highest in USA (59%) followed by Argentina, Canada

and Brazil Crops having highest transgenic cultivation area is soybean followed by corn and cotton In India, only transgenic crop cultivated commercially is cotton


77/122

In India, released of transgenic variety is approved by Genetic Engineering Approval committee (GEAC) under ministry of environment and forest.

Biosafety procedures for transgenics are governed by Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1986.

Higher plants whose genome has been sequenced:

Organism Type Relevance Genome size

Number of genes predicted

Organization Year of completion

Arabidopsis thaliana Ecotype:Columbia

Wild mustard Thale Cress

Model plant 120 Mb 25,498 Arabidopsis Genome Initiative[23]

2000

Oryza sativa ssp indica

Rice Crop and model organism

420 Mb 32-50,000

Beijing Genomics Institute, Zhejiang University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences

2002

Oryza sativa ssp japonica

Rice Crop and model organism

466 Mb 46,022-55,615

Syngenta and Myriad Genetics

2002

Physcomitrella patens

Bryophyte Model organism early diverging land plant

500 Mb 39,458 US Department of Energy Office of Science Joint Genome Institute

2008

Populus trichocarpa

Balsam poplar or Black Cottonwood

Carbon sequestration, model tree, commercial use (timber), and comparison to A. thaliana

550 Mb 45,555 The International Poplar Genome Consortium

2006

Vitis vinifera Grapevine PN40024

Fruit crop 490 Mb 30,434 The French-Italian Public Consortium for Grapevine Genome Characterization

2007

Carica papaya Papaya 'SunUp'

Fruit crop 372 Mb 28,629 Hawaii Agricultural Research Center and others

2008

Cucumis sativus Cucumber 'Chinese long' inbred line 9930

Vegetable crop

367 Mb 26,682 Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing

2009

Glycine max Soybean Soyabean Soya

Protein and oil crop

1,100 Mb

46,430 Purdue University

2010

Zea mays ssp mays

Corn (maize)

Cereal crop 2,800 Mb

32,000 NSF 2009


78/122

B73

Brachypodium distachyon

purple false brome

Model monocot (grass)

272 Mb The International Brachypodium Initiative

2010


79/122

15. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Ozone layer is mainly found in the lower stratospheric layer, more appropriately 25 km height from the ground

Troposphere and stratosphere contain 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere World agriculture started about – 10,000 years back Indian agriculture started about – 6000 years back First biosphere reserve in India is – Nilgiri biosphere reserve Among different Biogeochemical cycle, only phosphorus does not have any

atmospheric reservoir “Red Data Book” related to categories of threatened, endangered, extinct species Biogas contain 50-60 % methane Green house gases – Co2, CH4, N2O, CFC Of all the green house gases carbon dioxide contributes for maximum in Global

warming Green house gas produced in rice field is – Methane Jatropha is used to produce “Bio fuel” Itai-Itai and Manimata disease is due to Cadmium and Mercury Toxicity. Kyoto protocol signed in 1997, adopted in 2005. 1 kg weight fish has 1 80 mg DDT in body what be in ppm - 80ppm Which chemical is used for preservation – benzoic acid After Bhopal gas tragedy use of which pesticide was banned – Aldicarb Lactose is – glucose + glactose Blue asbestos has – a) sodium iron silicate b)sodium aluminium silicate c) silicon

aluminium sulphate d) none ans a) In lithosphere which has maximum concentration: Fe/O/Si/Na

(46.6%)>Si (27.72%)>Al (8.13%)>Fe (5%)>Ca (3.63%)>Na (2.83%)>K (2.59%)>Mg (2.09%) up to 16 Km of earth crust.

Upper 5 Km of earth crust contain 74% i.e. 3/4th Sedimentary rocks(shale 52%+sand stone 15%+limestone & dolomite 7%), 18% Igneous rocks (granite 15% + basalt 3%) and 8% other rocks are found in whole earth crust contain 95% igneous rocks and 5% sedimentary rocks (shale 4%, and sandstone 0.75%, limestone 0.025%)

Biodiesel is produced from: trans-esterification of vegitable/animal lipid or oil is a monoalkyl ester of long chain fatty acid

Ethanol is produced from: fermentation of charbohydrate containing matter eg Corn, Sugar cane

In India 10% blending is done in gasoline. Metals have: a) unfilled ‘p’ orbital, b) unfilled ‘d’ orbital, c) both a & b, d) none

ans-b Acid rain has pH: a) 5.6, b) 5.8, c) 5.4, d) 4 ans-a Cattle population per 100 Km2 is maximum in: a) Bihar, b) Haryana, c) UP, d)

Maharashtra Ans-b Orange is resistant to: a) HF, b) NH3, c) NO2, d) SO2

Cd is present in which fertilizer: phosphatic fertilizer Natural radiation contribute what % of total radiation – 83% Which one is extinct whale: killer whale/ sperm whale/ blue whale/ Indian dolphin Who said environment can satisfy the need not the greed: a) MS Swaminathan b)

Manmohan Singh c) Mahatma Gandhi Ans- c

Fecundity means: ability to reproduce Ability to maintain internal stability is called: Homeostasis


80/122

Agent Orange is the code name for a herbicide and defoliant—contaminated with TCDD

N2O can be detected by: a)FID b)TCD c) ECD d) All ans-c

Spectrophotometer is based on principle of: absorption spectrum Biogas contain: 60% Methane and 40% carbon dioxide Bird evolves in- Jurassic period (150 millions year ago) Coca cola contain SnCl2 which is: emulsifier/ antioxidant/ stabilizer ans-b Largest source of S is: volcanic eruption Convert 0.09 ppm to mg/m 3: 1ppm= mg/l = mg/1000cc = mg1000000/1000m3=

1000mg/ m3 ans=90 Convert 9 ppm to %: 1ppm= 1/106 so in % 1 x 100/106 = 10-4 %

Ans= 9 x 10-4

Definition of Niche: functional role of a species in an ecosystem Cybernetics: science of control or regulation Vienna convention on protection of ozone layer was held in year: 1985 Highest CEC in which soil: sandy/ clay/ loamy

ans-b Degradation of pesticide is maximum in which soil : sandy/ clay/ loamy

ans-b Denitrification occur in which type of soil: water logged/ anaerobic condition Bioaccumulation occur due to: fat or lipid solubility Traditional detergent contain: phosphorus/ sulphur/ nitrogen

ans-a Hg retention time in soil: Jet stream has sound intensity: Sulphur contain of diesel is: Ethanol + petrol = % of O2

What get leaked in ship wreck at Haldia in 1993– soda ash Radioactive nuclei involved in Delhi health hazard in 2010- Co-60, gamma radiation,

5.25 year half life Full form of PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls What is biodiversity index: A Q I- Air quality Index- 0-500, higher the AQI poor the quality of air W Q I- water quality index – 1-100, higher the WQI better the quality of water,

detrmined by 9 parametrs (pH, BOD, Fecal coliform, nitrate, phosphate, TDS, temperature change & turbidity)

SQI – soil quality indicator – What is bio-concentration factor (BCF) – % of bioaccumulative substances in tissue

of aquatic organism in relation to concentration of that substance in to environment i.e. water whwre organism live = Corg/Cinv X 100, assume accumulation is through water only

BAF – bio accumulation factor – assume both organism and their food are equally exposed

% of water in ocean: 97.5% Fresh water = 2.5% (2% cryosphere or ice, 0.4% ground water, 1% lake (0.02), soil

(0.005), atmosphere (0.0005), river (0.0001), & biota water Maximum fresh water trapped in: ice cap C-14 is emitter of which ray: α/ β/ γ ans- β

Fluoride problem is maximum in which state: Rajasthan


81/122

Sink of Pb is: smelter/coal Journal of environmental conservation and monitoring published from : Difference between point source and non point source of pollutants

Point source – easily identifiable – sewage/industrial/commercial waste discharge

Non – point source – diffused not easily identifiable – runoff / agriculture/atmospheric fall

Fog is: liquid (water) in gas/ solid in gas/liquid in liquid ans- liquid in gas In photochemical smog which has maximum concentration: ozone/PAN/SO2

ans-a Recently recognized hot spot in India: NE Himalya Typhoid is due to: Salmonella typhae SARS is due to : a) coronavirus b) neumoravirus Most important process of photoreaction in atmosphere is: photosynthesis Which parameter is important in methane emission: a) pH b) EC c) ESP

ans-a Golden langur and Chinkara deer are example of: a) endangered species b) extinct

ans-a Which state has two biosphere reserve: Assam Which is not considered in EIA: human interest In AAS Bears-Lamberts low cannot be directly applied why: What is commensalism Commensalism = one benefited(+) & other has no effect(0) Byssinosis is coused by: cotton DDT is soluble in: lipid or fat Pb is: a) chalcophile b) siderophile

ans-a NOx concentration in atmosphere is: 310ppb NO2

SO2

Estuaries has which type of water: brackish Water Vivisection is called – a) mass cutting of forest b) ivory trade c) animal for lab

purpose ans- c Anthropogenic to natural emission of metal in environment is called: Atrazene is a: pre-emergence herbicide Nitrogen fixing plants - LEGUMINOUS Biofertilizers – Azolla 1KWH=3.6MJ First wind energy farm in India: Mandvi Energy obtained from wind will be: a) squire of velocity b) cube of velocity Height of troposphere: 11km Which is not a physical process for air pollution control: a) wet scrubbing b)

electrostatic precipitator c) bag house ans a)

Minimum organic matter decomposition occur in which climate: a) cold & wet b) hot & humid c)cold & dry ans a)

Protozoa found up to what depth in soil: 15 cm Aldehyde to ethan conversion is done by – a) Xymase b) converage c) diesterage TCME in Japan Environmental (protection) rule – 1998 and act 1986 Denitrification occure in- waterlogged soil


82/122

Abulation is – emission of methane from water body as bubble Pyrolysis take place in absence of – oxygen Maximum erosion is due to – a) wheat b) clover C) potato d) sorghum

ans a) Not naturally managed ecosystem is - a) agriculture b) forest c) marine

ans a) 90 -95% nitrogen in mineral soil are in the form of – a) organic matter b)ammonia c)

nitrate ans-a Maximum degradation occur by – a) physical b)chemical c)water d) air

ans a) Which do not influence the climate of a place – temperature of land & sea/volume of

ice caps/ocean current /shifting of wind belt ans a)

Tickling filter is used for – a) coagulation b) separation ans a)

Dry habitat vegetation is called – xerophytes Sinc of Pb – a) atmosphere b) soil and sediments c) ocean

ans a) Source of Pb – a) smelter b) coal

ans a) Ecological pyramid is – a) tropical structure b) energy flow

ans a) Crop rotation does not affect – a) drainage to toxicity b) pest biological control c)

nutrient build-up ans a) Soil properties which not change – soil texture What is biome – a large area characterized by major vegetation type What is ecology – Which is not a fumigant – a) DDT b) EDB c) ALP

ans a) SI unit of energy – joule IGFRI is at – Jhansi Minimum Pb concentration in blood that inhibit ALA enzyme – 0.3 ppm Earth day is celebrated on – 22 April What is biotic potential- is the maximum reproductive capacity of a population if

resources are unlimited Azolla is used in – paddy field Low of minima was given by – Liebig Relation hip between absorbance and transmittance : A= Log 1/T BOD at 25oC is measerd for how many days – 3 days BOD at 20oC for 5 days Jet planes release – Nox SI unit of pressure – Pascal pH of sea water – 8.2 ± 0.2 mass of nitrogen in dry air – 75% Air pressure will be highest on – see level Silent spring was written by – Rachel Carson Buffering capacity refers to – ability to resist change in pH 1987 protocol which called for 50% cut off in CFC by 2000 is called – Montreal

protocol In Scandinavia fish kill was due to – acid rain Which is not given by uranium degradation – a)Ba b) Kr c) xe d) neutron


83/122

Year of natural conservation – 1980 Process of heating at high temperature without fusion–a) smelting b) roasting c)

combustion d) calcinations Erosion is caused by – deforestration/ agriculture/ all

ans-c Methane contribution to global warming – CO2 (74%) > CH4 (16%) > N2O (9%) >

CFCs (1%) GWP of nitrous oxide is what times of carbon dioxide – 200 , methane(20) Mega- diversity centre in world – 12 India has 3 hot spots of biodiversity Viz. the western ghat, The North eastern region

and the Eastern Himalayas Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) also called “Earth Summit” was held in Rio De

Janerio, Brazil in 1992. Came into force in 1993 Biodiversity Act of India, 2002, implemented in 2004 Centre of origin and centre of diversity proposed by – N. I Vavilov Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPVFR)- 2001 National Biodiversity Board located in New Delhi Indian Institute of Biodiversity (2001-2002) located in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh Largest and oldest centre of crop diversity – China centre Crop origin centre having highest diversity – Hindustan centre International treaty on Plant genetic Resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA)

signed under FAO in Rome in 2001 WTO came into being in 1995; its head quarter is in Switzerland Plant quarantine order, 2003 Sanitary and Phytosanitary standards under GATT, 1994 UPOV convention held in 1961. Headquarter located in Geneva Total no of Hot spot of Biodiversity in the world – 34 Citrus gene sanctuary located in – Garo hills, Meghalaya Rhododendron and orchids gene sanctuary located in – Sikkim IPGRI located in Rome, Italy Biodiversity ‘Hot spots’ term given by – Meyer Examples of In -situ conservation – Biosphere reserves, national parks, Sanctuaries,

Sacred groves etc. Examples of Ex- situ conservation – Field gene bank, Botanical gardens, Herbal

gardens, Clonal repositories, Cryo-gene bank etc. New seed development policy, 1988 PFS order enacted in – 1989 Wildlife (protection) Act – 1972 Forest (conservation) Act – 1980 Institute of Bioresource management and sustainable use located in – Manipur The “Cartagena protocol on Biosafety” was adopted in 2000 2010 is declared as the “International Year of Biodiversity” by FAO India contributes 7.5% biological diversity in the world. India contributes 2.5% Global landmass in the world. 33% of sp. In India is endemic.


84/122

16. SEED TECHNOLOGY

Seed is a ripened mature ovule that consists of embryo, seed coat and cotyledons Smallest seeds – Orchid seeds Largest seeds – Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica)Types of seeds:

1. Dicotyledonous seeds:(A) Exalbuminous seeds (Non-endospermic seeds):

Seeds which do not have endosperm at maturity. Examples – Pea, Gram, Bean, Tamarind, Cucurbits, Gourd, Cucumber,

Groundnut, Jute etc.(B) Albuminous seeds (Endospermic seeds):

Endosperms present until maturity. Cotyledons are thin acting as food sucking organ

Example : Castor, Papaya, Cotton2. Monocotydonous seeds:

(A) Albuminous seeds Examples – Maize, Wheat, Rice, Coconut

(B) Exalbuminous seed: Examples – Pothos, Amorphophallus, Alisma etc.

Storage substance:- Rice – Oryzein- Wheat – Glutenin- Barley – Hordein- Maize – Zein- Pea – Legumin- Soybean – Nodulin- Sunflower – Inulin- Grain legumes – Phaseolin

TYPES OF GERMINATION:1) Epigeal:

Cotyledons emerge above the soil surface by elongation of hypocotyls and generally became green

Examples – Green gram, Black gram, Groundnut, Soybean, Pumpkin, Okra, Cucumber, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Castor, Tomato, French bean etc.

2) Hypogeal: Cotyledons do not emerge above soil surface. The hypocotyl may elongate and

emerge above soil surface but the epocotyl grows first Examples – Rice, Lathyrus, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Coconut, Broad bean, Pea

etc. SEED TESTING:

- The first seed testing station was founded by Prof. F Nobbe at Germany in 1869- The International seed testing Association (ISTA) was established in 1924 in

Norway- Central seed testing Laboratory (CSTL) – established at IARI, New Delhi in 1960

now shifted to Varanasi, U.P GROW OUT TEST:

- Refers to those test in which appropriate samples of seeds are grown to determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of released cultivars

TETRAZOLIUM (TZ) TEST:- Given by Lakon (1942)- Tetrazolium test is a quick, easy and popular method of testing seed viability


85/122

- This test utilised the chemical 2, 3, 5 – Triphenyl Tetrazolium chloride or bromide which is a cream or light yellow colour compound.

- This chemical is reduced to an insoluble and stable red colour compound called Formazen in the presence of Dehydrogenase group enzymes

- This test should not be applied to any sample containing dry germinated seeds. CLASSES OF IMPROVED SEED:

A) Nucleus seed: It is the initial seed of an improved variety which is always limited in

quantity It is produced by the originating plant breeder Purity – It is genetically and physically cent percent pure Certification – exempted from certification by seed certifying agency but

should be certified by the breeder Use – for breeder seed production. It is not meant for general distribution

B) Breeder seed: It is the progeny of nucleus seed or breeder seed It is produced under strict supervision of original or sponsoring plant

breeder at the research farm of the concerned crop research institute or agricultural university

Production – produced in isolation from other varieties. Purity – genetically and physically cent percent pure Certification – No certification Use- For foundation seed production. Not meant for distribution Tagging – Gold coloured tag signed by the breeder.

C) Foundation seed: It is the progeny by breeder seed Production – produced by National Seeds Corporation under the strict

supervision of research scientists and experts from NSC at Govt. Seed multiplication farms. It is produced in isolation

Purity –genetically 100% pure. Physical purity – 98% Certification – undertaken by seed certification agency Use – For production of registered seed or certified seed production. Not

for general distribution Tagging – White Tag signed by the certifying agency

D) Registered seed: Progeny of either foundation seed or registered seed In India, registered seed is generally omitted and certified seed is produced

directly from the foundation seed Production – By progressive cultivators at the farms under strict

supervision of NSC. Purity – genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98% Certification – It is done by the SSCA Use – For production of certified or registered seed Tagging – Purple colour

E) Certified seed: Progeny of either foundation or registered or certified seed Production – produced on the fields of progressive farmers under the

strict supervision of SSCA Purity - genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98% Certification – Done By SSCA


86/122

Use – available for general distribution to the farmers for commercial production

Tagging – Blue colour Tag

IMPORTANT POINTS: The Indian seed act was enacted in 29th Dec, 1966 and has been in force since oct. 2nd

1969 The Indian seed Act was amended on sept.9, 1972 Indian patent Act -1970 National Seeds Corporation was initiated in 1961. It started functioning in July, 1963

with its headquarters in New Delhi. National seed project (NSP) established in 1976 New seed bill – 2004 Nordic seed bank - Norway Dockage – the impurity percentage of a seed lot Seed lot certificate colour is orange or green Seed sample certificate colour is blue Harvesting index is maximum in carrot The two most important factors influencing the life span of seeds under storage are

relative humidity and temperature Headquarters of ISTA- Zurich, Switzerland


87/122

17. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Father of agricultural engineering in India – Professor Mason Vaugh First bachelor’s degree course in agricultural engineering in India – Allhabad

agricultural Institute ,Allahabad (1942-43) Indian society of agricultural engineers (ISAE) – 1960 at IIT Kahargpur and presently

its headquarter is at New Delhi ISAE publications: 1) Journal Of Agaricultural Engineering (JAE)

2) Agricultural Engineering Today (ATE) 1960- 61 – atractor manuufacturing started in india by first manufacture m/s eicher

good earth Average man can develop maxium power of about 0.1hp (74.6 watts) for doing farm

work Power developed by an average pair bullocks is about 1hp (746 wants) for usual farm

work The averge force a draft animal can exert is nearly one –tenth of its body weight Unit power availavle for crop production (india) is about 1.35 kw/ha but for desirable

level of agricultural production power requirment could about 2.15 kw/ha Thermal efficiency for diesel engine – 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency for petrol engine – 25 to 32% Of the total energy produced in india the share of thermal power is about 56%,hydro

electrical Power (36%) ,nuclear power(16%) and rest comes from deisel and gas based power. The farm holding in india are classified as (a) marginal(<1ha),(b) small(1-2 ha) , (c)

semi medium (2-4ha) ,(d) medium (4-10),(e) large(>10 ha) At present agricultural machinery population is estimated at about 150 million which

includes about 3 million tractor .(2.5 lakh tractor/year ,10000 power tiller /year) The most popular tractor is found in 31-40 hp segment , which accounts for 60% of

the total sales in the countryBiogas Biomass: mixture of methane (45-70%) and carbon dioxide(30-35%) Cattle dung : water ratio for biogas slurry : 4:5or 1:1 Buffaloes : 15 kg dunr/day, bullocks or cows : 10 kg dung /day and calves : 5kg

dung/day Suitable condition for biogas production – ph(7-8), temperature(35 c) Biogas calorific value -4500 kcal/m^3Wind energy The speed required for operation of wind mill – 10 to 15 km/hr Two types of wind mill (horizontal axis and vertical axis rotr)1. Horizontal axis rotor –axis of rotion is parallel to the direction of wind i . Multi blade ii. Propeller – most commonaly used iii. Sail type2. Vertical axis rotor axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of wind Components of wind mill :- tower ,head ,roto ,transmission gear ,pump,generator Power available wind mill depends upon (1) wind speed (2) cross section of wind

swept by rotor(3) Overall conversion efficiency of rotor , transmission system,generatorSolar energy Temperature of sun 5777 k Radition range from sun ,0.4 um – maximum available range,


88/122

<0.4 um – ultraviolet radiation (8% of radition),0.4-0.7 um visible radiation (46%)>0.7 um infrared radiation (46%) Solar constant : solar radiation received per second by surface of unit area held

normal to the direction of sun rays at mean earth –sun distance. Its value 1350 w/m2

or 1.94 cal/s/m2

Radiation measuremento Pyrheliometer : beam radiation (direct radiation)o Pyranometer : total radiation (global radiation)- accurateo Solarimeter : total radiation (global radiation )- inaccurateo Pyrometer: very high temp measurement

Collection of solar radiation (three ways)1 By flat plate collector : temp range 40 centigrade to 100 centigrade

2 Focussing or concentrating colletore (>100 °c)3 Photovoltaic cell (soller cell) : directly convert solar energy in to electricity made

of Silicon separated by thin brrier with conversion efficiency is about 10% Portable water contained <550 ppm of salt ,sea water contained 30000-40000 ppm of

salt ,groundwater contained<2000-3000 ppm of salt Solar still –device converts saline water in to portable water. Green house is structure made of polythene/rain forced fibre to provide controlled

condition for crop production


89/122

18. AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS

SUN AND THE EARTH SYSTEM The sun is a star and is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy. Sun rotates in an anti-

clockwise direction i. e. from west to east. The temperature at the surface of the sun is around 6000C.

The earth is at a mean distance of 150 million km from the sun. The mean surface temperature of the earth is 15 C.

the shortest distance between the sun and the earth is called perihelion (147 million km) occurring on 3rd January and the longest distance is called Aphelion (152 million km) occurring on 4th July.

Solar constant is defined as the total amount of solar radiation received per unit area per init time in the absence of atmosphere, the radiation being perpendicular and the earth at its mean distance from the sun. its value is 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1.94 Langley/min.

There are four seasons in a year namely winter solistice (2nd Dec), Spring equinox (21 March), summer solistice (Jun 21st) and autumn equinox (23rd September).

During equinox, the sun is at the equator during solistices, the sun is at either tropic of cancer (summer solistice) or Capricorm (winter solistice).

ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPOSITION The vast expanse of air , which envelops the earth all around, is called the

atmosphere. It can be broadly divided into four layers namely troposphere (upto 18 km in the

equator and 8 km in the poles), stratosphere (8 or 18 km – 50 km), mesosphere (50km- 80km) and thermosphere (80km- 400km).

Pure dry air constitutes mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%). Co2

(0.03%), hydrogen, helium, water vapor, ozone, dust particles, smoke, salts and other impurities.

Like a green house, it allows short wave radiation to enter into it and reach the earth’s surface but is nearly opaque to long wave terrestrial radiation from the sun (Green House Effect)

Some of the important Green house gases are CO2 CFC1s- Chlorofluorocarbons, CH$ Nitrous oxide, etc.,

The atmosphere protects the earth from the harmful radiation of the sun with the help of the Ozone (O3) layer

METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY (WEATHER AND CLIMATE) The study of envelope of air surrounding the planet and of the phenomena associated

with the atmosphere is called Meteorology. A component of Meteorology is the study of weather. Weather is the present

condition of the atmosphere at a particular. It is mainly concerned with its day-to-day effects on life and human activities.

Climatology is the study of long-term manifestations of the weather represented by a statistical collection of weather conditions over a specific length of period usually at least a few decades.

The use of science of Meteorology for agriculture is called Agricultural Meteorology. The various elements that combinedly express weather are air pressure and wind,

temperature. Relative Humidity, precipitation (rainfall, snow, fog, hails, etc), visibility.

The climate is controlled by four factors called Climatic controls – Astronomical factors, Geomorphological factors, solar factors and Anthropogenic factors.


90/122

The Nine Climatic controls are latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, land and sea distribution, semi-permanent pressure system, storm tracks, occan currents, mountain barriers and air masses.

WEATHER ELEMENTSPressure:

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is measured by means of an instrument called (Aneroid) Barometer. It is measured

as force per unit area. The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb). One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm. A pressure 1000mb = weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm. Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb).

An Isobar is an imaginary line joining places of equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level.

On the earth’s surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes) the sub-polar low and the polar high. Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere.Wind:

Horizontal movement of air is called wind. The vertical movement of air is called air current

Lines joining places of equal wind speed are called Isotachs Winds of high speed are called Squalls. Due to horizontal differences in air pressure. air flows from areas of high pressure to

areas of low pressure. Wing direction is determined with the help of a wind vane and the speed or velocity

of the wind by Robinson’s Cup Anemometer. In a wind vane. The head denotes the direction from which the air is blowing and the tail denotes the direction to which the air blowing.

The two most well understood and significant winds for climate and human activities are the ‘trade winds’ and the ‘westerly winds’.

Winds which blow throughout the year from one latitude to other in response to the latitudinal differences in air pressure are called prevailing winds or planetary winds (e.g. Trade Winds)

The winds blowing from sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30 N and S latitude) towards the equatorial low-pressure belts are the extremely steady winds known as thetrade winds. They blow from west to east.

Near the equator, the trade, winds clash with each other and on the line of convergence, they rise and cause heavy rainfall.

The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the polar low-pressure belts. They blow from southwest to northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from northwest to southeast in the southern Hemisphere.

The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 60 latitudes. These latitudes are called ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious fifties’ and ‘shrieking sixties’.Periodic winds:

The winds that reverse their direction periodically with season are called periodic winds. The monsoons are the best example of large-scale modifications of the planetary wind systems.

The word monsoon is derived form the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means season. The monsoon winds thus refer to wind systems that have a pronounced reversal of

direction. In India, 80-90% of the rainfall is obtained from two monsoons namely southwest

Monsoon and “North East’ or “Retreating monsoon’.


91/122

Normally, the southwest monsoon reaches the Kerala Coast by the end of May, advances along the Konkan coast in early June and extends over the entire country by the end of July. The rains continue up to the end of September, when the southwest monsoon recedes.

In November and December, Northeast monsoon is the main contributor of rain over the southeastern part of the peninsular region especially Tamil Nadu.

The monsoon depressions can be said to be the single factor that controls the distribution of rainfall over the whole of India. These low-pressure systems. Which originate near the head Bay of Bengal and travel across the country in a west and northwesterly direction.

Heavy rainfall mainly occurs to the south of the tracks of these depressions. 3 to 4 depressions are found in a month during these monsoons.

When they take a normal Northwesterly track, there is flood in the Northern India and drought in the peninsula. When they follow an abnormal track across central India, there is flood in the Peninsular parts and drought in the Northern part of India.

These depressions terminate in Gujarat and Rajasthan. When a depression reaches these states. They get abundant rains; otherwise they are subject to a prolonged drought.

Occasionally there are one or two monsoon breaks during the monsoon seasons. These types of breaks normally bring floods in the rivers of Northern Bengal and Bihar.Thunderstorms and Hails:

Nimbostratus clouds indicate thunderstorms. Sudden change in the weather of particular place with heavy downpour is called

thunderstorms and hail is rain in the form of ice crystals. Thunderstorms and hail are predominant weather phenomenon before and after monsoon seasons. Important ones are Kalbaisakis in Bengal and Andhis over North West India.Cyclonic storms:

Caused due to the creation of low-pressure zones. They cause severe damage to the coastal zoos on an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year.

They are associated with the high wind speeds and tidal windsWestern Disturbances

Series of disturbances in the form of cloudy weather and light rainfall in the plains and snow fall in the hills.

These disturbances affect the Rabi crops.Rainfall:

Line joining places of equal rainfall are called Isohyets. Most of the rainfall of India is obtained from the Southwest and North East Monsoon

seasons. The constancy by which a place receives rainfall is studied with the help of Co-

efficient of variation (CV). High CV means very little or scanty rainfall. In parts of Saurashtra and Kutch, the CV of rainfall is 40-50% whereas in western Rajasthan it is 80-90%.

Rainfall measuring device – ordinary and automatic/self-recording rain gauge.Drought:

Below 75% of the normal rainfall and severe drought when it is below 50%. In Indian history the year 1987 was recorded as the worst drought affected year

followed by 2000. Palmer’s drought Index is calculated with data on rainfall, ET and soil moisture.

Evapo-transpiration and Water balance: Evapo-transpiration = Evaporation from the soil surface + transpiration from plants.


92/122

The extent to which the water needs of a crop are met in a locality depends on the rainfall input the losses due to run off and the evapo-transpiration.

In India areas of high annual PET are extreme west of Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and extreme south of Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin).

Evaporation is determined using USWB Class A Open pan Evaporimeter. ET is measured using Lysimeters.

Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness of a substance. Lines joining places of equal temperature are called Isotherms. Sunshine is not a limiting factor in crop production any where in India. High humidity and warm temperatures are conducive to most plant pest and diseases.

Weather modification: Cloud seeding technique- Silver Iodide is used for cold clouds and sodium chloride is

used for warm clouds.General Points:

Crop yield formulation is done using Regression Techniques. India has been divided into 15 Agro-climatic Zones.

Institutions Involved: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, Maharashtra. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan. International Crop Research Institute for semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad,

AP. National Centre for Medium Range weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), New Delhi.


93/122

19. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN INDIA

1871 : Dept. of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce (DRAC) (chief function: collection of statistics (revenue) and not agril. research) during the tenure of Lord Mayo.

1877-78 : India faced severe famine and GOI resolved to set up a Central Dept. of Agriculture controlled by imperial Secretariat.

1881 : Dept. of Agriculture were set up in provinces1892 : Agriculture chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after

research and teaching.1899-1900 : Famine1901 : Inspector general of Agriculture and an imperial mycologist were appointed

to advice to imperial and provincial govts. On agricultural matters.1903 : An Entomologist was employed.1901-05 : Agricultural colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur,

Lyallapur and Coimbatore.1905 : Agricultural Research institute was established at pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.

The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was Named as PUSA.

1919 : Constitutional reforms made agriculture as state subject.1928 : Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord Linlithgow recommended

setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India.

THE COMMODITY COMMITTEES:Ministry of Food and Agriculture started several committees concerned with research

and development activities related to specific crops. Some had their own research stations and some are self financed.

AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES C.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, is the first

Agricultural University established in the year 1960. Central agricultural University, Shillong, is the latest established Agricultural

University There are 30 State Agricultural Universities. Maximum 4 Universities in Maharastra Project Directorates:

Year Committee Research station/ Institute

1921 Cotton committee Technological laboratory now CTRL Matunga)

1931 Lac cess committee Indian lac Research institute, Namkum (1936), Bihar

1936 Jute Committee Jute Agricultural; Research institute, Barrakpore Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Calcutta, West bengal (Continues at Page 41)


94/122

Name PlaceRice HyderabadOilseeds HyderabadPoultry HyderabadPulses KannpurWheat KarnalBiological Control BangaloreWater management RahuriCropping Systems Research ModhipuramCattle MeerutVegetable Research Varanasi

National Research Centers (NRCs) :Integrated Pest Management New Delhi (IARI)Groundnut JunagarhSorghum HyderabadSoybean IndoreCashew PutturCitrus NagpurMushroom Research and Training SolanSpices CalicutAgro-forestry JhansiWeed Science JapalpurCamel BikanerEquines HisarMeat IzatnagarMethuen JharnapaniYak DirangCold Water Fisheries HaldwaniOrchids GangtokMustard BharatpurPlant Biotechnology New Delhi (IARI)

National Bureaus (6):NBPGR : National bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, IARINBAGR : National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources, Karnal, HaryanaNBAGR : National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad (UP).NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur.NBAIM : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Microorganism, Mau (UP)NBAII : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Insects, Bangalore (Karnatka)

Other Institutes: Under Ministry of Rural Development:

NIRD: National Institute for Rural Development. Hyderabad. Gauhati. Under Ministry of Foods and Agriculture and Cooperation :

o MANAGE: National institute for Agriculture Extension Management.Hyderabad.

o NAARM: National Academy for Agricultural Research Management. Organization: Streams of Extension in India:


95/122

1. The ICAR extension system, comprising mainly Research Institutes and Agricultural Universities.

2. Extension System of Ministry of Agriculture and the State Departments of Agricultural.

3. Extension System of the Ministry of Rural Development and State Development Departments, and

4. Development work by the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Business houses etc.

Front-line Transfer of Technology Programmes of ICAR:

1964 National Demonstrations1974 Operational Research Project1974 Krishi Vigyan Kendra1979 Lab to Land Program1944 Sugarcane committee Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore

Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow

1945 Coconut Committee Central Coconut Research Stations. Kanyagulam and Kasargod

1945 Tobacco Committee Central Tobacco Research institute, Rajahmundry

1947 Oil Seeds committee Financed research Schemes, head quarters at Hyderabad.

1949 Arecanut Committee Arecanut Research Station, Vittal1958 Spices and Cashewnut Committee Financed Research schemes

The central commodity committees were later abolished (beginning in 1965) and the research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR.

1965: Project for intensification of regional Research on cotton, Oilseeds and millets (PIRPCOM) First coordinated research work on regional basis was initiated in 1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and Indian Central Committees on oilseeds and Cotton. Seventeen centres were established throughout the country

Place State Research work on Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton, Jowar, Groundnut Bellary, Dhadesagur,

Dharwad, SilakereKarnataka Cotton, Jowar, Kharif Jowar,

Ragi, Groundnut Rajendranagar Andhra Pradesh Castir, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar Amaravati, Mohol Maharashtra Rabi Jowar Junagarh, Surat Gujarat Jowar, Groundnut cotton, Jowar Gwalior,

HosangabadMadhya Pradesh Kharif Jowar, Linseed

Ajmer Rajasthan Jowar, Bajra Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Indian Mustard, Bajra Patiala Punjab Toria, taramaria Sirsa Haryana Cotton IARI New Delhi Cotton, Jowar, Bajra, linseed

AII India coordinated Research Project:


96/122

1957: All India coordinated research project on maize was established with aid from Rockfellar foundation.

1965: ACRIPs were started on other crops as well as in other areas of Research.Crops Place

Maize New Delhi Jowar Hyderabad Barley Karnal Millets Pune Forage crops Jhansi National seeds project New Delhi Sugarcane Lucknow Sugar beet Pantnagar Cotton Coimbatore Jute and allied fibres Barrackpore Soybean Indore Tobacco Anand Cotton Project (WB assisted) Nagpur Fruits Bangalore Citrus Bangalore Tuber crops Dholi (Bihar) Potato Simla Vegetables New Delhi Medicinal and Aromatic plants New Delhi Spices and Cashewnut Kasargod Coconut and Arecanut Kasargod Under utilized and under exploited

plantsNew Delhi

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH: 1928: Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord linlithgow recommended

setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India.

23rd May, 1929 : Imperial Council for Agricultural Research was established President : Mohammed Habibullah Vice-President: Vijaya Raghavacharya Secretary : Mr. S.A. Hydari Governing body has 16 members. March, 1946 : The name Imperial council of Agricultural Research Institute was

changed to Indian council of agricultural research by then president Sir Jogendra Singh.

Reorganization or ICAR: In 1963, the Agricultural review Team headed by Dr. Marion W. Parker of USDA

was appointed. Based on its recommendations ICAR was made a fully automonous organization in 1966.

IARI, New Delhi, NDRI, Karnal and IVRI, Izathnagar were made national Institutes.


97/122

A policy was mad to appoint an agricultural scientist as the Chief Executive of ICAR, with the designation of Director General, Dr. B. P. Pal became first DG of ICAR in 1965.

Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE):In June 1972 Gajendragadkar committee was established to review the recruitment and personal policies of ICAR and its institutes, which submitted its report in 1973. Department of Agricultural research and Education was created in 1973 in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.

An Agricultural research service was initiated in 1973 for the recruitment of Scientific personnel under Agricultural Scientists recruitment Board.

Entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones and 15 agro ecological zones and 15 agroclimatic zones.

Research Stations:CARI : Central Agricultural research institute Port BlairCARI : Central Avian Research Institute IzatnagarCARIANGI : Central Agricultural research

Institute for Andaman and Nicobar Groups of Islands

Port Bihar

CAZRI : Central Aril Zone research Institute JodhpurCLAE, IISS : Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering BhopalCIBA : Central Institute for Barkishwater Aquaculture ChennaiCICFRI : Central Inland capture Fisheries BarrackporeCIFA : Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture BhubaneshwarCICR : Central Institute of Cotton Research NagpurCIFT : Central Institute of Fisheries Technology CochinCIHNP : Central Institute of Horticulture of Northern

PlainsLucknow

CIPET : Central Institute of Post-harvest Engineering and Technology

Ludhiana

CIRCOT : Central Research Institute for research on Cotton Technology

Bombay

CIRB : Central Research Institute for Research on Buffaloes

Hisar

CIRG : Central Institute for Research on Goats MakhdoomCMFRI : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute CochinCPCRI : Central Plantation Crops Research Institute KasargodCPRI : Central Potato Research Institute Kufri, Simla, CRIAF : Central Research Institute for Arid Fruits BikanerCRIDA : Central Research Institute for Dry land

AgricultureHyderabad

CRIJAF : Central Research Institute for jute and Allied Fibres

Barrackpore

CRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits SrinagarCRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits LucknowCRRI : Central Rice Research Institute CuttackCSSRI : Central Soil Salinity Research Institute KarnalCSWCRTI : Central Soil and water Conservation Research

and Training InstituteDehradun

CSWRI : Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute AvikanagarCTCRI : Central Tuber Crops Research Institute Trivandrum


98/122

CTRI : Central Tobacco Research Institute RajahmundryCTRL : Central Technological Research Laboratory MatungaIASRI : Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute New DelhiICARRCG : ICAR Research Complex for Goa Goa ICARRCNEHR : ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Hill

RegionBarapani

ICARRCNER : ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Region

Shillong

IGFRI : Indian Grassland and fodder Research Institute JhansiIIHR : Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Hassergatta,

BangaloreIIPR : Indian Institute of Pulse Research KanpurIISR : Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research LucknowIISS : Indian Institute of Soil Science BhopalILRI : Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum,

RanchiJTRL : Jute Technological Research Laboratory CalcuttaNAARM : National Academy of Agricultural Research and

ManagementHyderabad

NCAEPR : National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research

New Delhi

NIAG : National Institute of Animal Genetics KarnalSBI : Sugarcane Breeding Institute CoimbatoreVPKAS : Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandan Shala AlmoraWTCER : Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region Bhubaneswar


99/122

Deemed UniversitiesCIFE : Central Institute of Fisheries Education BombayIARI : Indian Agricultural Research Institute New DelhiIVRI : Indian Veterinary Research Institute IzatnagarNDRI : National Dairy Research Institute KarnalNIASM : National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management MaharastraNAARM : National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management Hyderabad

Indian Agricultural Research Institute:1905 : Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.

The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was named as PUSA. The Phipps laboratory in division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IARI is named after him.

1911 : Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute.1923 : Institute started offering Diploma of Associateship. 1934 : Major Earth quake damaged the buildings at pusa.1936 : Shifted to New Delhi.1936 : B. Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of the Institute. 1946 : The Diploma of Associate ship was Recognised equivalent to M. Sc.1947 : Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural Research Institute to Indian

Agricultural Research Institute.1958 : Recognized as “Deemed University” under UGC Act at 1956, PG School was

established.

NON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES EEI, Anand, Gujarat EEI, Jorhat, Assam EEI, Hyderabad, AP EEI, Nilokhen, Haryana

International Institutes of crop Improvement:CGIAR : Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research. Was established

in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agricultural Organisation world baulk and United Nations Development Programme.

CIAT : Centro International de Agriculture Tropical (International Centre for Tropical Agriculture), Palmira, columbia.

CIMMYT : Centro International de Majoramiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement) el Baton, Mexico.

CIP : Centro International de Papa (International Centre for Potato), Lima, Peru,IBPGR : International Board for Plant Genetics Resources Rome, Italy.ICARDA : International centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Alleppo, Syria.ICGES : International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Triesta,

Italy and New Delhi, India.ICRISAT : International Centre for Research in Semi-Arid Tropies, Patancherru,

Hyderabad, India.IFRI : International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, USA.IIAS : International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Luxemburg, Vienna.IITA : International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria.INSFFER : International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation on Rice,

New Delhi, India.ILRAD : International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.


100/122

ILCA : International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa.IRRI : International Rice Research Institute, Los Bonas, Philippines.ISNAR : International Service for national Agricultural Research. The Hague,

Netherlands.WARDA : West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia, Liberia.

Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes: The evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development can be grouped into five

stages.Stage I : Pre Independence era1903 : Model villages by Daniel Hamilton1908 : Tagore Started Youth organisation in the villages in the Kaligram Pargana1921 : Rural Reconstruction Institute, shantiniketan1921 : Marathandam Project by Spencer Hatch1921 : Gurgaon Experiment by F. L. Brayne1921 : Sevagram Project by Mahatma Gandhi.

Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior) by Col. Shitole1932 : Rural reconstruction Movement by V. T. Krishnamachari in Barod1945 : Indian Village service by A. T. Mosher and B. N. Gupta, D. Tharugad1946 : Firka development Scheme by T. Prakasha, D. Tharugad1947 : Mazdoor Manzil at Nilokheri by S. K. DeyStage II : Post Independence era1948 : Grow more food campaign1948 : Etawah Pilot Project by Albert mayer.1952 : Grow more food campaign enquiry committee. Stage III : Community Development era1952 : Community Development Project was started in 55 blocks, under the

dynamic leadership of S. K. Day.1953 : National Extension service.1954 : NES Programme1957 : Balwantraj Mehta committee on community.

Development Project recommended Democratic decentralization (Panchayatiraj).

1958 : Rajasthan became first state to adopt Panchayati Raj followed by Andhra Pradesh.

Stage IV : Intensive Agriculture development era1960 : IADP Intensive Agriculture district Programme also called as Package

Program in seven districts, later extended to nine more districts.1964 : IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme.1964 : ICDP Intensive Cattle Development Project1966 : HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme.1966 : MCP Multiple Cropping Programme.1971 : MKP Minikit Programme for Rice was started and later extended to

wheat, maize and other millets etc.Stage V : Developmental Programmes with social Justice1970 : SFDA Small farmer’s Development Agency1970 : MFAL Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Iaborers Programme.1970 : DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme.1974 : FWP Food for Work Programme.1974 : MNP Minimum Needs Programme.1974 : T & V Training and Visit system formulated by Daniel bonor and Baxtor

of Israel. Turkey was the first started in Rajasthan Canal area in


101/122

Rajasthan and Chambal area in Madhya Pradesh.1974 : KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mohan singh Mehta committee

recommended KVKs. First KVK was established by TNAU at Pondichery.

1974 : CAD Command Area Development Programme.1979 : IRDP Integrated rural Development Programme.1979 : TRYSEM Training Rural youth for Self-Employment.1980 : NREP National Rural Employment programme1980 : NARP National Agricultural research Project.1982 : DWCRA Development of Women and Children-in Rural Areas.1982 : CAPART Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and rural Technology.1983 : NAEP National Agricultural Extension Project.1983 : RLEGP Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme.1986 : TMO Technology Mission on Oilseeds.1989 : JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, formed after merger of (NREP and

RLEGP). 1993 : EAS Employment Assurance scheme1994 : IVLP Institute village Linkage programme.1994 : MSY Mahila Samrudhi Yojana.1994 : PMRY Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana.1995 : NSAS National social assistance scheme.1999 : NATP National Agricultural Technology Project1999 : JGSY Jawahar Gram Samuridhi Yojana (JRY).1999 : SGSY Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (IRDP, TRYSEM,

DWCRA, SITRA – merged into SGSY).

VARIETIES OF IMPORTANT CROPS: Rice TN-1 : (First introduced drawf variety into India), IR-8, Jaya (Blast Resistant),

Padma, Mashuri, Kakatiya, Pusa Basumati, Pusa Jaldidan, Lunisree, Ratna, TKM-6 (Stem borer resistant), Kataribogh (Tungro resistant), ADT-27 (indica x japonica), Santchousong (High protein content), Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen, Bala (Drought resistant), IR-20 (Resistant to Blast, BLB, stemborer, leafhopper).

Wheat : Introduction from Mexico: Lerma Rojo and sonara-64.Single gene dwarf varieties: Safed lerma, Sharbati sonara, pusa Lerma, Chotu lerma.

Double gene dwarf varieties: Shera, Arjun, Janak. Triple gene dwarf varieties: Heera, Moti. HD series, Kundan, C-306 (drought resistant).

Chickpea: Pusa 256 PBG-1 203, Pusa 209: Gaurav ICCC-32, Ajay. Pigeonpea: UPAS-120 9short duration), ICPH-8 (First Hybrid), (Arhar) Pusa 33.

Pusa Agati, ICPL 37. Hira, Mukta, Bahar, Prabat. SBH-8. Sugarcane: Noble Canes: CO-419, Co-997 Soybean: Bragg, Lee Clark-63, Shilajeet, Pusa 16, 20, 24, PK-327 Tomato: Pusa Sheetal, Pusa-120, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Margologe, Sioux,

Pusa Gauray, Best of All. Mango: Malika (neelam x dasheri)

Amrapali (dasheri x neelam) Ratna (neelam x alphonso)

Bannana: Poovan (larplur, Chakrakeli), Basrai, Champa Hill Bananas: Sirumali, virupakshi Culinary varieties: Monthan, Gross Mitchell, Mindoli Robusta Rasthali


102/122

Rose: Chitra, Dr. B. P. Pal, Priyadarshini, Nehru Ceremony, Jawhar, Abisarika, Banjara, Randhawa.

Califlower: Pusa Deepali, Pusa synthetic, Pusa Katki, Early Snowball, Kanwari , Early, Patna, Patna Main crop, Snowball-16, Sutton’s Snowball Japanese improved, Dania, Aghani, Poosi.

OIL PERCENTAGE:Crop PercenatgeSesamum : 46-52%Groundnut : 44-50%Castor : 35-58%Safflower : 24-36%Rape seed and mustard : 33%Soybean : 20%Niger : 37-43%


103/122

20. AGRICULTURAL POINT

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER: U.P has highest total fertilizer consumption Crop under highest irrigation is 1st wheat, 2nd rice. Irrigated area to Net sown area highest in Sugarcane followed by Wheat Largest imported fertilizer is potash. 26 % of Indian population are under below poverty line The parameter to group under BPL is

In urban area less than 2100 cal/day In rural area less than 2400 cal/day

HORTICULTURE IN INDIA Coconut: Area: kerala>Karnataka>TN

Production: Kerala>TN>Karnataka Cashew: Area: Kerala>MH>TN

Production:MH>Kerala>AP Tractors: India in 4th position (highest in UP) For India standard ratio for fertilizers has been assumed to be 4: 2: 1. At present only urea constituting more than 60% of the total fertilizer consumption. State having maximum area under irrigation – Punjab Major source of irrigation in India – canal Maximum area under fruit crops – mango Maximum production under fruit crops – Banana First agricultural census in India conducted in 1970 As per National forest policy, for ecological balance, the forests cover should be on

1/3rd area (i.e. 33 %) of the country Contribution of Agricultural Research in total productivity growth has been as high as

48 % Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for ‘Green Revolution’ awarded to U.S scientist Nobel

Laureate Dr. N. E Borlaug (Norman Earnest Borlaug) In India, the NPK nutrients ratio being used = 6.5: 2.5:1 as recommended ratio of 4: 2:

1 Animal husbandry output constitutes about 30% of the country’s agricultural output 11 March- Water Resource Day 21 March- World Forest Day 22 March- World Water Day 22 April- World Earth Day 5 June- World Environment Day 1 July- National Agricultural Day 16 July- ICAR Day 16 Oct.- World Food Day 23 Dec.- National Farmers Day

SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES: Command Area Development and Water Management →1974 -05 National Horticultural Mission →2005 May Marine Fishing Policy →2004 National Commission on Farmers →2004

(Head MS Swaminathan) Bharath Nirman → 2005-06 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme → 2006 Kisan Credit Card Scheme →1998-99


104/122

National Agriculture Insurance Scheme →1999-2000 Vishesha Krishi Upaj Yojana (Objective –Promote agricultural exports in fruits

vegetables and flowers National Agricultural Innovation Project → July 2006(world bank aided Objective

:To boost research and development in agriculture and to create skilled scientific human resource )

National Food Security Mission-2006-07(target for wheat, rice, and pulses to increase the production by 10, 8 and 2 Mt respectively)

ABOUT F.A.O. AND W.T.O. FAO Established on Oct 16 1945 head quarter located at Rome (Italy) DG of FAO – Jacques Diouf Oct 16 is called as world food day WTO Established on Jan 1 1995 Head quarter of WTO- Geneva Its DG – India is founder member of WTO Russia is not the member of WTO WTO is not a wing of UNO WTO is the result of Uruguay round Hot topic in WTO ministerial conference(2008-09)-reduction in agricultural subsidies

by developed countries Kyoto protocol →Aims at cutting global emissions of green house gases (global

warming) this agreement came in to force on Feb, 16, 2005. Till now America hasn’t accepted the Kyoto protocol.

REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURERevolution Related to

Green Revolution (1966-67) : Food grain production

White Revolution : Milk production Yellow Revolution : Oilseeds production

Grey Revolution : Manures and Fertilizers Blue Revolution : Fish production Red Revolution : Meat/tomato production Round Revolution : Potato production Silver Revolution : Egg production/ poultry Pink revolution : Prawn production Golden Revolution : Fruit production(apple) Brown Revolution : Non- conventional energy source Black Revolution : Bio fuel (Jatropha) production Rainbow Revolution : Agriculture Food chain Revolution : Reduction in wastage of food

grains, fruits and vegetables Prabhani Revolution : Okra

FIRST IN AGRICULTURE Hybrid Pigeon Pea : ICPH-8 (ICRISAT, Hyderabad) Hybrid sunflower : BSH-1 (Pro- Agro)

Hybrid cotton : H 4 (Surat Farm, Gujarat)

Semi-dwarf variety of basmati rice : Pusa Basmati 1 (IARI)

Aromatic Rice Hybrid : Pusa RH 10 (IARI) Sorghum hybrid : CSH 1 and CSH 2 (IARI)


105/122

Public sector hybrid of forage Sorghum : Pusa Chari Hybrid 106 Mango hybrid for commercial cultivation : Mallika (Neelam×Dasheri) Public sector insect resistant multicut forage : PCH 106 Viral disease : Leaf curl of Tobacco Plant Parasitic Nematode : Anguina tritici Plant Parasitic Bacteria : Fire Blight of apple Sorghum high yielding variety : CSV-1 Rice variety introduced in India : IR- 8 Developed dwarf variety of rice : TN 1 Rice hybrid variety of India : Jaya Hybrid of Mustard : Pusa Jai Kisan Hybrid variety of Bajra : HB 1 Hybrid developed by using local male parent : Hare Chhole no- 1 Man made cereal : Triticale Rice resistant variety developed for yellow

stem Borer: IR- 20 (TN-1× TKM- 6)

Organophosphate compound : Parathion Napier × Bajra (NB) hybrid : Pusa Giant Hormone : Secretin Maize hybrid : Ganga 101 (1961) High productive early duration hybrid

released by DRR (rice): DRR H 2

Country to adopt hybrid rice : China Hybrid rice released in India : APHR-1 and APHR-2 Egyptian variety of cotton : Sujata Super rice variety for saline/alkaline

conditions: Lunishree

Country to introduce zero tillage : USA Sugarcane variety : Co- 205 Scented basmati rice for normal and sodic

soils: Yamini (CSR 30)

Interspecific variety of cotton : Varalaxmi Tobacco hybrid : GTH 1 Safflower hybrid : DSH- 129 Crop to have its genome decoded : Rice Single cross maize hybrid : Paras Pathogenic resistant gene : HM 1 Systemic fungicide : Carboxin Organic fungicide : Dithiocarbamate Fungicide : Bordeaux mixture (inorganic in

nature) Person to record plant diseases : Theophrastus Plant to have its genome decoded : Arabidopsis thaliana Autopolyploid variety released for

commercial cultivation in India: Pusa Giant Berseem

Organochlorine compound : DDT Carbamate compound : Sevin/ carbaryl Laureate of the “world food” prize : Dr. M.S Swaminathan Director general of ICAR : Dr. B.P Pal President of ICAR : Mohammad Habibullah


106/122

Indian scientist who collected and identified the fungus

: K.R Kirtikar

Agricultural University : G.B university of Agriculture and technology, pantnagar (1960)

Plant pathologist of India : J.F Dastur Plant parasitic bacteria was reported by : T.J Burill Plant parasitic nematode was reported by : Needham Mycoplasma disease reported by : Do et al and Ishiit et al. Virus was first discovered by : Iwanowsky Scientist to study fungi and their species : Micheli Transgenic plant : Tobacco and tomato Biotechnological crop introduced in India : Bt. Cotton Hormone artificially produced by culturing

bacteria: Insulin

Commercial bio insecticide : Sporeine Maize hybrid developed in India : Ganga- 2 ‘00’ or canola type/ variety of Gobhi sarson : PGSH- 51 Short duration pigeon pea hybrid : PPH 4 Leaf curl resistant cotton hybrid : Fateh LHH- 144 Sorghum × Sudan grass hybrid : Sudan Chari no 1 Fungicide used : Sulphur (powdery mildew of vine) Insecticide used : Paris Green First Bt cotton variety : Bollguard (cry1 Ac gene used ) Fumigant used : Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) First hybrid in India : Pusa Meghdoot (bottle gourd) Commercial fertilizers : SSP First fertilizers used : Calcium nitrate

FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

Fathers of Name Agronomy : Pietro Decrescenzi Agricultural chemistry : Justus von Liebig

Antibiotics : Alexander Flemming

ATP cycle : Lipmann

Biology : Aristotle Botany : Theophrastus

Bacteriology : Leuwenhoek Biochemistry : Justus von Liebig Cytology : Robert Hooke Cytoplasmic Inheritance : Carl Correns Cooperative movement in India : F. Nicholson DNA finger printing technique : Alec Jeffrey Economic Ecology : Dr. M.S Swaminathan Ecology : Reiter Extension Education : A. Seaman/ Leagnes Experimental Genetics : Thomas Hunt Morgan Forest pathology : Robert Haring Fermentation : Louis Pasteur Field plot experimentation : Jean Baptiste Boussingault


107/122

Fruits and vegetables preservation : M. Nicolas Apart Genetics : Gregor Johann Mendel Genetic engineering : Paul Berg Green Revolution : Dr. N.E Borlaug Golden revolution in India : Dr. K.L Chadha Golden rice : Dr. Ingo Potrykus Hybrid Rice : Yuan Long Ping Hybrid cotton : C.T Patel Indian phytopathology : E.J Butler Indian Rust : Dr. K.C Mehta Indian Mycology : E.J Butler Indian Ecology : R. Mishra Indian plant breeding : Dr. B.P Pal Immunology : Edward Jenner Indian Green Revolution : Dr. M.S Swaminathan Microbiology : A.V Leuwenhoek Mycology : Pler A. Micheli Medicinal Bacteriology : Robert Koch Modern Genetics : T.H Morgan Mutation Theory : Hugo de vries Modern Botany : Linnaeus/ Bauchin Modern Cytology : Swanson Nematology : N. A Cobb Nitrogen Fixation : Winogradsky Ornamental Gardening : M.S Randhawa Plant Pathology : Anton De Bary Plant Physiology : Stephen Hales Pedology : VV Dokuchaev Parasitology : F. Platter Plant Tissue culture : G. Haberlandt Plant Anatomy : Grew Polygenic Inheritance : Kolreuter Pure culture technique : Oscar Brefeld Sociology : Auguste compte Statistics : R.A Fisher Soil Microbiology : S. N Winogradsky Soil testing Technique : M.L Troug Super Rice : Dr. G.S Khush Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus Tillage : Jethro Tull Virology : W.M Stanley Weeds : Jethro Tull White Revolution : Dr. Varghese Kurien Zoology : Aristotle Hybrid rice in India : E. A Siddiqe

FAMOUS NAME OF CROPSFamous Name Crops

King of cereals : Wheat Queen of cereals : Maize


108/122

King of fruits : Mango

Queen of fruits : Pineapple

King of temperate fruits : Apple King of spices : Black Pepper

Queen of spices : Cardamom Queen of vegetables : Potato Poor man’s meat : Soybean Wonder crop : Soybean Famine reserves : Millets Camel of crops : Sorghum Queen of oilseeds : Sesame King of oilseeds : Mustard Queen of fodder crops : Lucerne King of fodder crops : Berseem Poor man’s fruit : Jackfruit, Ber Vegetable meat : Cowpea Poor man’s substitute for ghee : Sesamum Poor man’s friend : Potato Poor man’s food : Pearl millet King of arid and semi fruits : Ber King of weeds : Congress grass (Parthenium

hysterophorus) National fruit of India : Mango Glory of East : Chrysanthemum Autumn queen : Chrysanthemum Wonder tree : Neem Queen of night : Cestrum nocturnum Egg plant : Brinjal Bio energy plant : Jatropha Queen of flowers : Rose Brown gold : Dead pupae of silkworm Apple of paradise : Banana Poor man’s orange(India) and love of

apple (England): Tomato

Drosophila of crop plants : Maize Adams fig : Banana Butter fruit : Avocardo Queen of beverage crop : Tea China’s miracle fruit : Kiwi fruit Food of god : Cocoa Small holder’s irrigated crop : Oil palm Oldest cultivated tropical fruits : Banana Tree of heaven : Coconut King of coarse cereals : Sorghum

TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPSTerms Crops

Curing : Tobacco, Tea Stripping : Jute

Nipping : Cotton


109/122

Wrapping : Sugarcane

Propping : Banana, sugarcane Trashing : Sugarcane

Dapog seedling : Rice seedling De-suckering : Tobacco, Banana De-tasseling : Maize Pegging : Groundnut Retting : Jute Ginning : Cotton Tapping : Gram Staking : Tomato Arrowing : Sugarcane Rationing : Sugarcane Tipping : Tea

CONCEPT AND RELATED PERSONSConcepts Related Personality

Super rice : G.S Khush Hybrid rice : Yuan Long Ping Golden rice : Ingo Potrykus

Super wheat : S. Nagarajan

Crop ideotype : Donald Green Revolution : N.E Borlaug

Green revolution in India : M.S Swaminathan White Revolution : Varghese Kurien Evergreen revolution in India : M.S Swaminathan Rainbow Revolution : Nitish Kumar Golden Revolution : K.L Chadha Bt. Cotton in India : C.D Mayee Green Revolution Term : William Gadd Noblization of sugarcane : T.S Venkatraman Hybrid cotton : C.T Patel PURA concept : A.P.J Abdul Kalam

TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTSToxins Related Plants

Gossypol : Cotton

Neurotoxin : Lathyrus

Erucic acid : Rapeseed and mustard

Goitrogen : Soybean Saponin and plant estrogens : Alfalfa

Aflatoxin : Groundnut Coumarin : Sweet cloven CN glucocides : Sorghum Steroidal alkaloids : Potato Alkaloids : Yam Resins : Mango Antivitamin E Factor : Field pea Polyphenolics : Safflower


110/122

Tripsin Inhibitor : Pigeon pea, French bean & soybean

Haemaggutinins : French bean Lathryrogenes : Lathyrus sativus Glucocides : White clover Eicosenoic acid : Rapeseed and mustard Polyphenolics : Sunflower Cucurbitacins : Cucurbits CN glucocides : Cassava

PARTS USED IN FRUIT CROPS:Name of fruits Parts used

Citrus : Juicy placental hairs Banana : Mesocarp and endocarp Coconut : Endosperm Guava : Thalamus and pericarp Apple : Fleshy thalamus Grapes : Pericarp and placenta Mango : Mesocarp Litchi : Aril Pomegranate : Juicy covering of seed Pear : Stalk of fruit and thalamus Almond : Seed Walnut : Cotyledon Fig : Fleshy receptacle and thalamus Pineapple : Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &

seed Cashew : Cotyledon Jackfruit : Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &

seed Bael : Fleshy layer of pericarp Jamun : Pericarp and thalamus

CLIMATERIC: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota NON CLIMATERIC: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus sp, Grape, Pineapple

Minimum support price of Agriculture products (Rs/Quintal)(Based on marketing year, given for 24 major crops by CACP) Crops MSP for 2007-08 MSP for 2008-09 MSP for 2009-10

Wheat 1000 1080 1100 Barley 650 650 750 Gram 1600 1600 1760

Rapeseed/Mustard 1800 1800 - Sunflower 1650 2215 - Cotton(long staple) 2030 2500 2500 Bajra 560 840 - Jowar-Hybrid 600 840 - Paddy-common 745 930 1000

Paddy-grade A 775 880 - Arhar 1590 2000 2300


111/122

Critical stages of Irrigation:Name of Crops Critical growth stages

Sorghum : Primordial initiation, flag leaf, flowering and grain development

Maize : Tasseling, silking and grain development

Rice : Tillering, panicle initiation, milk stage

Wheat : Crown root initiation, tillering, boot leaf stage, dough stage

Pearl millet : Tillering, flowering Gram : Branching, Pod development Soybean : Flowering, Grain development Groundnut : Branching, peg penetration, pod

development Sunflower : Seedling, Bud initiation,

flowering Cotton : Square formation, ball formation,

ball development Sugarcane : Seedling, tillering, ground

growthNUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES IN PLANTS Symptoms/diseases Caused due to

Whip tail in cauliflower : Molybdenum deficiency Browning in cauliflower : Molybdenum deficiency Downward cupping in radish : Molybdenum deficiency Scald of leaves : Molybdenum deficiency Yellow spot in citrus : Molybdenum deficiency Drying black tips of shoots : Potassium deficiency Grey speck of oats : Manganese deficiency ‘Speckled yellows’ of sugar beet : Manganese deficiency Marsh spots of peas : Manganese deficiency Pahala blight of sugarcane : Manganese deficiency Frenching of Tung trees : Manganese deficiency Die back of shoots in citrus : Copper deficiency Little leaf in citrus : Copper deficiency Rough bark and cracking in apple : Copper deficiency Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower : Boron deficiency Heart rot of sugar beet and Marigold : Boron deficiency Top sickness of tobacco : Boron deficiency Snake heads in walnuts : Boron deficiency Internal necrosis in mango : Boron deficiency Hen and chicken disorder of grape fruit : Boron deficiency Corking and pitting of fruits in tomatoes : Boron deficiency Internal necrosis in aonla : Boron deficiency Brown heart of turnip : Boron deficiency Fruit cracking of tomato and

pomegranate: Boron deficiency

Crown choking in coconut : Boron deficiency White bud of maize : Zinc deficiency Khaira disease of rice : Zinc deficiency


112/122

Apple (bitter pit) : Zinc deficiency Leaf bronzing in litchi : Zinc deficiency Little leaf in mango, litchi, cashew : Zinc deficiency Leaf scorch in mango : Excess of cl ions in water/ or

excess of MOP Buttoning in cauliflower : Nitrogen deficiency Tip burn of rice : O2 deficiency and excess of zinc Jonathan spot of apple : Water deficiency Bitter pit of apple : Calcium Interveinal chlorosis in apple and citrus : Magnesium deficiency Black heart of potato : Oxygen deficiency

MINERAL NUTRIENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS:

Nutrients Plant part first affected Available formsNitrogen : Older leaves : NO3

-, NH4+ ions

Phosphorus : Older leaves : H2Po42-, Po4

3- ionsPotassium : Older leaves : K+ ionsCalcium : Young leaves : Ca+ ionsmagnesium : Older leaves : Mg2+

Sulphur : First in new leaves : So42-, So2 from air

Iron : New leaves : Fe2+, Fe 3+, FeSo4 with EDTAManganese : Older leaves : Mn4+, Mn3+, and Mn2+

Zinc : Small yellow new leaves : Zn2+, ZnSo4 with EDTACopper : New leaves : Cu2+ or Cu+, CuSo4 with EDTAMolybdenum : Older / younger leaves : Mo3+, Molybdate ionsBoron : New leaves : Bo3

3-, H2Bo3-, HBo32-

PROBLEM SOILS:Parameter Saline soils Sodic soils Alkali soilspH < 8.5 < 8.5 > 8.5EC > 4 > 4 < 4ESP < 15 > 15 > 15

CROP PRODUCTION UPDATESRICE (Oryza sativa):

Chromosome no. – 2n = 24 Origin – South- East Asia Rice is the staple diet of 2.7 billion people in the world It occupies 150 m ha, producing about 573 Mt with average productivity of

3.83 t/ha India is the largest growing country in the world (44.6 m ha) China is the largest producer of rice There are 21 species in Genus Oryza, of these 2 are cultivated species: O.

Sativa (ASIA) and O. glaberrima (AFRICA) O. sativa have 3 varietal group : Indica (tropical), Japonica (temperate),

Javanica (Intermediate) India has richest rice germplasm collection in the world The process of tillering start in Rice 10 DAP Rice grain is a caryopsis type of fruit


113/122

Rice inflorescence is called panicle Optimum temperature for rice is 20-35˚C Rice is a short day plant Three system of rice cultivation

1. Dry cultivation – Rainfed2. Semi dry cultivation – After 45-60 days treated as wet crop3. Wet cultivation – 3-5 cm standing water

45 % of rice grown is under irrigated condition There are 3 type of nursery

1. Wet nursery: 25-30 days (age of seedlings)2. Dry nursery: 20-25 days3. Dapog nursery: 14 day (30 m2 for 1 ha, 1 kg/m2). Introduced from

Philippines 10 % yield loss caused by weeds in rice Punjab, Haryana, and western U.P are traditional basmati area in the country Pusa Basmati is world first high yielding, semi-dwarf Basmati variety Rice hybrid technology based on 3 line breeding (A line, B line & R line) Paddy harvested at 20 % moisture and stored at 14 % ‘Zn’ deficiency cause Khaira disease in rice (control : 25 kg znso4/ha) Blast disease is major problem in rainfed upland, rainfed lowland and hill area Neck blast damage is severe in Basmati varieties Chlorophyll meter method and leaf colour chart used for leaf ‘N’ status

determination (crude method) Maximum rice exporter – Thailand 3 types of rice cultivation in India:

1. Aus/Autumn: August-September.2. Aman/Kharif/Winter: 3. Boro/Summer: April-May

Highest productivity – Japan Rice protein is called Oryzein

Wheat (Triticum aestivum): Chromosome no – 2n = 42 Origin – Asia minor It is second important food crop in the country Four species: Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), T. Durum (Durum or macaroni

wheat), T. diccocum (Emmer wheat), T. spherococcum Wheat revolution in 1967, due to variety ‘HD 2329’ India is second in terms of area and production Before green revolution all varieties in India were tall type Seed rate = 100 kg/ha Variety – HD 2009, Up 262 and HD 2189 shows rust resistance In wheat, crown root initiation (CRI) is critical stage Phalaris minor is major weed in wheat fields Zinc and sulphur deficiency reported in Punjab, part of Haryana, west U.P and

Delhi Mn deficiency reported in Punjab Wheat diseases: three type of rust


114/122

1. Leaf/Brown: Puccinia recondita2. Stripe / yellow: P. striiformis3. Stem / black: P. graminis tritici

Wheat grains stored well in less than 10 % moisture content Wheat protein is called Glutenin

Barley (Hordeum vulgare): Lugri is a fermented drink developed from Hull less barley grains ‘pearl barley’ is suited for Kidney disorders Seed rate – 75-80 kg/ha Critical stage in barley is active tillering stage (30-35 DAS) Resistance variety: RD 2052 – Molya disease Alfa 93, RD 2503, Rekha – malting quality

Maize (Zea mays): Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties released by using “opaque 2” genes.

Varieties – Shaktiman 1 & 2, HQPM 1, Sakti 1 Hybrid varieties – Ganga 1, Deccan 107, 109 Composites – Parbhat, pratap, Pusa comp.2, Pusa comp1 Seed rate -20 kg/ha Maize grain contains 8-10 % protein & 4-5% oil Sweet maize variety – African tall Sweet corn variety – Composite madhuri and priya Pop corn variety – Amber, V L Amber, Pearl popcorn Baby corn – VL 42, Prakash Maize protein is called Zein Critical stages – Tasseling, milking stage

MILLETS: Millets belongs to C4 group of plants Higher productivity among the millet- Finger millet

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): 2n = 20 Seed rate = 18 kg / ha Hybrids : CSH 1 to 6, CSH 9,10, 11, 13, 16, 17,18 Major pest: Shoot fly, stem borer, midge, ear head bug HCN (Dhurin) present in early stage (40-50 days)

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum): 2n = 14 Seed rate = 5 kg/ ha 80 % phosphorus in grain stored in the form of ‘phytate’ Productivity high in UP>Gujarat> Haryana

Others: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), 2n = 36 Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), 2n = 40 Fox tail millet (Setaria italia), 2n = 18 Proso millet (Panicum millaceum), 2n = 36 Little millet (Panicum sumatranse), 2n = 36


115/122

The inflorescence of sugarcane is called ArrowPULSES:

It is important dietary protein Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), 2n = 16 Pigeon pea (Cajunus cajan), 2n = 22, highly sensitive to frost Green gram (Vigna radiata), 2n = 22. Very sensitive to water logging Black gram (Vigna mungo), 2n = 22 French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), 2n = 22 Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), 2n = 22 Lentil (Lens culinaris) Field pea (Pisum sativum) Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus)

WEEDS: The term weed was firstly used by Jethro Tull Weed is plant out of place Relative weed – e.g. rice in wheat field Absolute weed – e.g. Cyperus rotundus Mimicry weed – e.g. Phalaris in wheat field and wild rice in the field Noxious weeds – e.g. Parthenium National research centre for weed science located at Jabalpur (1988) Selective herbicide – Simazine, Atrazine, 2, 4- D, MCPA, Butachlor,

Pendimethalin, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin Non-selective herbicide – Diquat, Paraquat Systemic herbicide – propanil, 2,4-d, Atrazine, Simazine Contact herbicide – Paraquat, Diquat 2,4-D used for broad leaved weeds

IRRIGATION: Measured by Tensiometer Drip irrigation discovered in Israel Egypt has 100 % cultivate area under irrigation Sprinkler method of irrigation can provide protection against frost The method of irrigation suitable for row crops is Furrow method Check basin method is the most common method among the surface methods

of irrigation USA has the highest area under drip irrigation Maharashtra has the highest area under drip irrigation Haryana has the highest area under sprinkler irrigation

AGROFORESTRY Agro forestry is a form of “multiple cropping” The systemic research in agro-forestry is taken by “ICRAF” ICRAF = International Centre for Research In agro-forestry National Research Centre for Agro-forestry – Jhansi (1988) The most important agro-forestry practice is known from the “kangeyan tract of Tamil

nadu” (Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus) Agri-silviculture = trees + crops Alley cropping =perennial hedges + crops


116/122

Agri-horticulture = fruit trees + crops Agri – Silvi – horticulture = trees + fruit trees + crops Agri-silviculture = trees + crops + pasture or animals Silvi- olericulture = trees + vegetables Horti – pasture = fruit trees + pasture/animals Silvi – pasture = trees + pasture/animals Horti-apiculture = fruit trees + honeybees Aqua forestry = trees + fishes ‘‘Taungya” originated from Myanmar; it means hill cultivation Alnus nepalensis is “non-leguminous nitrogen fixing” tree “Allelopathy” refers to inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical compounds

from the neighbouring plants.Agro-forestry tree species having allelopathic effect on crop:

Tree species Effect on:

1. Alnus nepalensis Glycine max

2. Casuarina equisetifolia Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower

3. Eucalyptus tereticornis Cowpea, Sorghum, sunflower, potato

4. Gliricidia sepium Maize, rice, tropical grasses

5. Leucaena leucocephala Maize, rice, cowpea, sorghum, sunflower

Entomology updates The pesticide consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh and Pondicherry (union

territories ) Per ha. Consumption is maximum in Punjab Lowest pesticide consumption state - Mizoram Monocrotophos is the highest consumed pesticide in India followed by Endosulfan Examples of Polyphagous pest – Termite, Helicoverpa armigera, Locust, White grub Cotton consume highest pesticide (54%) In Fruits, Apple consumed highest pesticide and in vegetables, Cauliflower consumes

the highest pesticide DIPA (Destructive Insect and pest act) passed in 1914 Insecticide act – 1968 International pest/ pandemic pest – Locust (Schistocera gregaria ) NRC, IPM located in New Delhi, IARI Directorate of Biological control – Bengaluru, Karnataka Directorate of plant protection, quarantine and storage (DPPQS) – Faridabad, Haryana Central plant protection training institute – Hyderabad Central vector control research institute - Pondicherry Entomopathogenic virus – NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus), GV (Granulosis virus) Entomopathogenic bacteria – Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) for Lepidoptera Entomopathogenic fungi – Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae Entomopathogenic nematode – DD 136 (Nesaplettana carpocapsae) Insects which attack at night – cutworm, Armyworm, wheat stem borer (Sesamia

inferens) The word ‘larval equivalent’ is associated with Virus Crop for attracting insects – Trap crop


117/122

Examples of systemic insecticides – Rogor (Dimethoate), Metasystox, Phosphamidon, Monocrotophos, Phorate

Examples of contact insecticides – Malathion, Parathion, chloropyriphos Soil insecticide – Carbofuran 3G, Phorate 10G

INSECT VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASES1.) Aphids :

Tobacco mosaic – Aphis gossypii Cucumber mosaic - Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae Crucifer mosaic – A. brassicae Papaya mosaic – Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii Groundnut rosette virus - Aphis craccivora Cowpea mosaic - Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii Sugar beet yellow mosaic – Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) Potato leaf roll and crinkle disease - Myzus persicae Potato virus x - Myzus persicae Bean mosaic and potato mosaic - Myzus persicae Katte disease of cardamom – Pentalonia nigronervosa Foorkey disease of cardamom - Pentalonia nigronervosa Banana mosaic - Pentalonia nigronervosa Banana bunchy top - Pentalonia nigronervosa Chilli mosaic - Aphis gossypii

2.) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) Cotton mosaic Cotton leaf curl Tapioca mosaic Chilli mosaic Tobacco leaf curl Papaya leaf curl Vein clearing disease (okra) Tobacco spotted wilt – Thrips tabaci and whitefly Bhendi yellow mosaic Pulse yellow mosaic

3.) Green leaf hopper (Nephottetix virescens): Rice grassy stunt Rice transitory yellowing Rice Tungro - Nephottetix virescens and Recilia dorsalis Rice yellow dwarf

4.) Zig- Zag leaf hopper (Recilia dorsalis): Rice dwarf Rice orange leaf

5.) Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Tomato spotted wilt Soybean spotted wilt – Frankliniella scultzei Chilli leaf curl – Scirtothrips dorsalis

6.) Eriophyid mite: Red gram sterility mosaic – Aceria cajani Sugarcane steak mosaic – Aceria sacchari Wheat streak mosaic – Aceria tulipae Mango bud mite – Aceria mangiferae

7.) Mealy bug:


118/122

Sugarcane – Saccharcoccus sacchari Pineapple – Dysmicoccus brivipes Citrus greening – Psyllid (Diaphorina citri)

8.) Mycoplasma disease: Sandal spike disease – Jassus indicus (Hopper) Sesamum Phyllody – Leaf hopper (Orosius albicinctus) Rice yellow dwarf – Green leaf hopper Little leaf of brinjal – Hopper (Cestius phycitis)

NEMATODES:1.) Wheat:

Cereal cyst nematode – Heterodera avenae (Molya disease) Seed gall / ear cockle nematode – Anguina tritici

2.) Paddy: White tip nematode – Aphelenchoides besseyi Rice stem nematode – Ditylenchus angustus (Ufra disease) Rice cyst nematode – Heterodera oryzicola Rice knot nematode – Meloidogyne graminicola

3.) Citrus: Citrus nematode – Tylenchulus semipenetrans Lesion nematode – Pratylenchus coffeae

4.) Banana: Burrowing nematode – Radopholus similus

5.) Potato: Golden cyst nematode – Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida Tuber rot nematode – Ditylenchus destructor

6.) Tobacco: Root knot nematode – Meloidogyne javanica

Things to remember: Potato cyst nematode is a quarantine objective Biological control – Pseudomonas is antagonistic to the nematodes Tagetes is a trap crop for many nematodes Nematodes cannot be grown on artificial media to obtain material for inoculation Endoparasitic nematode – Meloidogyne Maximum number of plant parasitic nematode belongs to - Tylenchida order


119/122

general agriculture notes for icar and ars

Documents