Prelim Ag Notes

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Experimental Design 1. Explain the role of control, randomisation, replication and standardisation in Agricultural experiments.

- Control is the part of experiment that does not receive treatment, and is used as a standard so that variations between treatments can be compared.

- Randomisation is when treatments are distributed so that plots/animals have an equal chance of receiving treatment. It assists in preventing bias during sampling and treatment allocation

- Replication is the process of repeating each treatment several times within the experiment to help overcome any experimental error and increase the accuracy of the results.

- Standardisation is when all conditions in an experiment (e.g. climate, soil, shape) are as equal as possible. All plots/animals should be managed in exactly the same way so that the only thing different is the variable or treatment being tested, e.g. in a fertiliser trial, the only thing that varies is the amount of fertiliser applied. Plot size and shape, irrigation and planting rate should be the same.

2. Analyse and present data. Calculate the mean, mode, median, range, standard deviation, variance,coefficient of variation, normal distribution and standard error.

- Variance is the measure of how closely values cluster around the mean.

𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒2− �(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠)2

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 �

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

- Standard deviation helps observe the spread of results about the mean, and is the square root of variance - Coefficient of variation is the absolute measure of dispersion

𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = �𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

× 1001�%

- Normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve on a graph that is symmetric and asymptotic to the horizontal axis - Standard error determines if differences between two or more sets of data are significant. The significance

of an experimental result is the probability at a chosen level of significance that the result will hold true. 5% is the normal significance level, which means that the result obtained in the experiment should be obtainable 95% of the time.

3. Agricultural record keeping – broilers- Weekly weight - Deaths - Previous trial records - Feed amounts and costs - Temperatures

4. Measures of performance – chick trial- The feed conversion ratio (FCR) is used to calculate an animal’s efficiency in gaining weight from food eaten.

Animals with low FCR are efficient users of feed, e.g. poultry converts 2-3kg of feed to 1kg of live weight. The ratio is always in the form of X : 1, i.e. the weight gained by the animal must be in the ratio of 1 𝐹𝐶𝑅 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛 ∶ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙

- Feed - Live weight vs. dressed weight (dressing percentage) – The dressed weight of an animal is the weight of the

carcass with all the other parts removed. The higher the dressing percentage, the less waste. Broilers have a

dressing weight of about 66% 𝐷𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = �𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

× 1001�%

- Mortality rate – � 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

× 1001�%

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- The gross margin provides an indication of the profitability of an activity on a farm, and includes only variable costs, not fixed costs. 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 − 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠

- The least cost feed for chickens is calculated by finding the cost of the feed it takes for chickens to put on 1kg live weight. Data needed to calculate this are the FCR, the cost of the bag of feed and the weight of the bag

5. Farm technology – broilers- Electronic scales show an accurate digital reading of the weight of the animal - A brooder is a heated house. It is a chick’s first enclosure and keeps the chicks warm - The use of feed formulation is the process of quantifying amounts of feed ingredients to form a single

uniform mixture that supplies all their nutrient requirements - Breeding is the control of the mating and production of poultry offspring e.g. through selection - Marketing includes phone, internet and fax for orders, freezers for undressed chickens, and plastic bags so

that the consumer can carry the chicken with ease

6. Safe handling and management techniques for the care and welfare of animals – legal requirementsrelating to the care and welfare of the animal

- The “Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals – Domestic Poultry” outlines optimum conditions for birds - Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act - Occupational Health and Safety

7. Growth and development- Growth is the increase in size and weight of an animal as it gets older - Development is the changes in proportions of various parts of animal’s body as it gets older - Carcass components – Carcass consists of muscle, bone and fat. The ideal carcass contains the maximum

amount of muscle, an optimum amount of fat and a minimum amount of bone. Proportions of carcass components change as the animal develops – bone and muscle proportions decrease and the fat proportions increase as the animal becomes heavier

- Factors affecting carcass composition are breed (the carcass of dairy cattle are leaner than beef), sex (female cattle are usually fatter than castrated males, who are usually fatter than entire males), and nutrition (if growth is restricted because of inadequate feed, fat is the tissue that is affected most, followed by muscle, while bone is relatively unaffected)

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Overview of Agriculture 1. Agricultural systems – the interaction between subsystems on a farm, resources, plants, animals,management and microbes. Understand the meaning of the terms system, subsystem, inputs, outputs, monitoring, feedback and resources. Construct an appropriate model showing interactions between subsystems on a farm.

- - e.g. Animals – cattle, sheep; plants – pastures, orchids; microbes/invertebrates – bacteria; manager – farmer - A system is a group of parts (subsystems) that interact to achieve a purpose e.g. JRAHS Farm - A subsystem is a system that forms part of the total system e.g. pasture subsystem - Inputs are materials that go into a farming system e.g. fertiliser - Outputs are items or materials produced by a system e.g. hay - Monitoring is the process of checking up on a system over time from time to time - Feedback is the information received by the farmer that reflects the performance of the system - Resources are things available to be used that will aid in the production of outputs e.g. soil, water, climate

2. The patterns of climate and soil resources that influence the distribution of agricultural enterprises.- Influences of distribution include climate (temperature, rainfall, humidity, frost, sunlight, wind), soil

resources (type of soil e.g. clay, texture, acidity, drainage, nutrients) and the social aspect (closeness to market, transport to market, demand)

- The four main agricultural areas of Australia are temperate, subtropical, tropical, and arid/semi-arid

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- The temperate region covers most of NSW. It has warm-hot summers with low rainfall, and cold winters with high rainfall and frosts. Enterprises include wheat, oats, barley and sheep

- The subtropical region consists of four major zones, and is south of the tropics. It has similar conditions to the tropical region, but has cooler winters and rare frosts. Enterprises include avocadoes, bananas, coconuts, sugarcane and pineapple

- The tropical region is north of the Tropic of Capricorn. It has warm-hot summers with high rainfall and cool winters with low rainfall. It does not experience frosts. However, it has a low population density, which means that it is a long distance to the market. Enterprises include sugar cane, tobacco, sunflowers and rice

- The arid/semi-arid region makes up about 70% of Australia, and is located in central Australia. It has a harsh environment with hot days, cold nights, and low and erratic rainfall. Cropping is unsuitable due to the low rainfall. Enterprises include sheep and cattle grazing stations.

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- There are five main agricultural areas based on the climate in NSW Western Plains Western Slopes Tablelands Eastern Scarp Coastal Zone

Temperature - Very hot and dry summers

- Frost in winter

- Sub-humid climate

- Humid - Cold in

winter

- High summer temperatures

- High humidity

- Mild winters Rainfall - Unreliable

- <250mm/year - 300-600mm - North has

summer rains - South has

winter rains

- Ample - Fairly evenly

distributed rainfall

- Less than north coast

- North has summer rains

- South has winter rains

- High rainfall Soil types - Low in N

- Sandy to clay - Heavy texture - Sandy loams

- Hard sedimentary rock

- Alluvial granite loam

- Stony shallow soils on hills

- Similar to coast

- Alluvial (fertile)

- Stony soils - Sedimentary

Enterprises - Merino sheep - Merino sheep, lambs, pigs, cattle, poultry and dairy

- Grapes

- Potatoes - Maize - Vegetable

crops - Some cattle

- Beef cattle - Santa

Gertrudis - Hereford - Devon

- Dairy and poultry

- Sugarcane - Vegetables

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3. The impact of physical, biological, social, historical and economic factors on systems.Type of factor Factor Impact on a farm Physical Soil Low soil fertility will dramatically reduce plant growth

Topography Steep slopes are not suitable for cultivation Climate – rainfall

– temperatureDrought severely reduces pasture production Low temperatures may induce frosts which inhibits plant growth or kills plants e.g. beans

Biological Animals e.g. cattle Overstocking may lead to soil compaction, which reduces plant growth or death through stampedes

Plants e.g. fireweed Can cause illness or death in cattle if consumed too much Micro-organisms e.g. Rhizobium bacteria

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that increases soil fertility

Social Anything on or off the farm that influences the farm

Influences farm manager in making decisions

Historical Land clearing Over-cultivation has led to soil degradation e.g. erosion Rabbits Rabbits eat large areas of pasture and dig warrens, which

leads to soil degradation Economic Costs and prices The cost-price squeeze have forced farmers to either

economise their farm or be kicked out of the industry

4. Access information relevant for Australian agriculture- Sources of information include textbooks (e.g. Dynamic Agriculture), magazines (e.g. Australian Agriculture,

the Internet, Bureau of Meteorology, Agfact documents and TV programs (e.g. Landline)

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Nursery Excursion Arborglen Nursery, Glenorie (100 acres)

1. How has the nursery modified the environment to improve/increase production? How does the climateaffect what is produced on the nursery?

- Topography – Before the nursery opened, the area was bushland and undulating (hilly). To create space for plants to grow, and therefore increase production, the area was cleared, filled and levelled.

- Temperature – Plants can stand up to certain temperatures until they stress or die. To address this, plants were placed in glasshouses, where the temperature can be modified through air conditioners and fans.

- Rainfall – Some plants require certain amounts of water to grow. Irrigation is carried out when there is insufficient rainfall.

- Wind – The wind at Arborglen can be extremely rough, especially during the afternoon, and therefore is extremely likely to knock over some pot plants. Because the nursery is huge, it is possible that the farmers would miss it and the plant would die. Plants are put into glasshouses and igloos to overcome this.

2. What are the source, availability and quality of the water (i.e. does it have to be treated in any way)? Whatis the water used for?

- Water sources include town water, dam water and bore water. There are seven dams on the nursery. - Dam water is readily available, as rainfall “fills” up the dams - As the pH of the water is too high for most plants (pH 7-8), phosphoric acid is used to lower the pH - The water is used for watering plants, propagation (town water only) and cleaning. The water is recycled

back into the dams through run-off.

3. Explain how the nursery is influenced by the topography.- The nursery’s topography was designed so that the area would be levelled, filled and cleared, but also

allowing run-off into the dams.

4. What potting mixes/propagating mixes are used for plant production?- Propagating mixes consist of peat moss and perlite. The peat moss retains the moisture and fertiliser while

the perlite gives the mixture a bit of body.

5. Name some capital equipment on the nursery. Name some improvements that have been carried out.- Capital equipment include glasshouses, igloos, maintenance sheds, a dock, pumps, seedling machines and

potting machines - Dish drainage has been installed for quicker drainage, and more igloos, rows and dams have been added

6. How many people work on the nursery? What type of jobs are carried out by these employees?- There are 52 permanent employees and 80 contractors. During peak time, 30-40+ contractors are also hired - There are 4 managers, growers, nursery hands, maintenance crew, office staff, drivers and contractors

7. What are the main types of plants grown? List the fertiliser(s) that are used and the nutrients supplied bythe fertilisers. Is there a Quality Assurance program?

- Plants grown include flowers, herbs, trees, shrubs, climbers, cottage plants, bloomers, vegetables, cacti, succulents and indoor plants

- Slow-release fertilisers are used as a solid or liquid, and contain NPK, as well as magnesium and calcium - There is a Quality Assurance program

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8. What pests and diseases affect the nursery? How are they monitored? What control/prevention measuresare carried out?

- One full-time employee monitors and controls all the pests, diseases and weeds. A horticulturalist also comes in fortnightly to advise how to control and prevent pests and diseases.

- Rats eat the vegetables, especially the pea seeds. Sparrows pull out the plants and their roots. Physical barriers such as nets prevent rats and sparrows from accessing the plants, and rat poison (for rats) and pesticides control the pests.

- Aphids pierce and suck the sap out of plants such as roses, which distorts the foliage. Plants can be spot sprayed with insecticides to prevent aphids, and aphids can be physically controlled by manually removing

9. What methods of propagation are used on the nursery?- Cuttings, tubing, grafting are all carried out. - For cuttings, the cut is made just below a node and the bottom leaves are carefully removed. Rooting

hormones are treated onto the base of the cutting, and the cutting is placed in a propagation mix. - Grafting is the process of taking a rootstock of one plant and a scion of another. The tissues from one plant

are inserted into the other so that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together.

10. What types of technology are there on the nursery?- Technologies on the farm include tractors, forklifts, computer machines that run the irrigation systems,

pumps, seeding machines and potting machines

11. Describe the product preparation and processing. Are there any on-farm value adding, market(s)targeted, market specifications and selling options?

- Plants are picked, prepared (removing dead leaves and weeds), labelled, invoiced and dispatched - Value-adding techniques include using placing plants in colourful plastic pots with labels - The market targeted are people who are interested in buying plants - Market specifications include reaching a certain size, labelled, cleaned and not overgrown - Selling options – 80-90% of the plants produced are shipped to the 16 Flower Power retail stores, while the

excess stock are shipped to other areas

12. What types of feedback information are available? How can feedback information be used to monitorand improve performance on the nursery?

- Every day through the phone, owners and directors of businesses provide feedback to the nursery - If there is a problem that the feedback information addresses, the problem is dealt with instantly

13. What management practices are carried out?- Management practices include weeding with pre-emergent chemicals e.g. Ronstar, pruning, fertilising,

watering, pest and disease control, and propagation

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Farm Case Study – School Farm – Prime Lambs 1. List the enterprises on the school farm and briefly describe the marketing and consumer preferences foreach enterprise. Enterprise Saleable Products Marketing Angus stud Steers, young bulls, cull cows, cow heifers Camden Saleyards – Auction, Private

sale Prime lambs Prime lambs (30-35kg live weight), cull ewes,

cull ram Camden Saleyards – Auction

Broilers Frozen chicken School canteen Egg Production 1 dozen cleaned eggs School canteen Apiary 250g or 500g jars School canteen Orchard Washington Navel oranges, peaches, peach jam School canteen, school quadrangle Vegetables Sweet corn (cobs) School quadrangle

2. Describe the physical environment of the school farm.a. Describe weather measuring instruments used on the farm.

- A rain gauge measures the amount of rainfall, but is not very accurate due to the wind. - A maximum-minimum thermometer automatically records the maximum and minimum temperatures daily. - A wet and dry bulb thermometer measures the relative humidity. One thermometer has wet cloth wrapped

around it. If air is dry (and therefore the humidity is low), water will evaporate from cloth, and will cool thermometer. Relative humidity is the difference between the two readings on the thermometers.

- An evaporimeter is a metal container with water surface exposed to air, and measures the evaporating power of the air.

b. Identify the monthly averages for North Parramatta.- Rainfall – 930mm - Maximum temperature – 23°C

- Minimum temperature – 21.5°C - Evaporation – 117.7mm

c. Define effective rainfall, growing season, components of soil, soil texture and soil structure.

- Effective rainfall is when 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≥ 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛2

- Growing season is during the time when there are consecutive months of effective rainfall. The growing season for North Parramatta is January to August.

- The components of soil are 45% mineral parts (gravel, sand, silt and clay), 5% organic parts (dead leaves and roots, decomposed material), 25% air and 25% water

- Soil texture refers to the fineness and coarseness of the soil particles and depends on the proportions of sand, silt and clay particles. The texture determines the size and spacing of soil pores, and influences drainage, aeration, water-holding capacity, nutritional and water status, productivity and ease of cultivation Sand Properties Clay Properties - Large particles - Course texture - Poor structure - Low water and nutrient-holding capacity - Large pore spaces - Easy to cultivate - Improved by adding organic matter

- Small particles - Fine texture - Good structure - High water and nutrient-holding capacity - Small pore spaces - May be hard to cultivate - Improved by adding organic matter

- Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) in a soil. The basic unit is a soil ped. The shape and alignment of the peds, along with the soil texture and number of pore spaces, determine how much air, water, plant roots, and soil organisms can be found in the given soil.

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- Types of peds include: - crumb – small individual pieces, porous, best agricultural soil, easily penetrated by roots - granular – small pieces, not as porous as it consists of clay, impaired drainage and aeration - platy – overlapping layers, restricts water flow and root penetration, poor structure - blocky – close fitting, square-shaped pieces - prismatic – elongated pieces with angular tops - columnar – elongated pieces with rounded tops, good drainage

- Advantages of good soil structure include less erodability, good drainage and aeration, and needs less cultivation

- Soil structure can be improved by increasing colloids through growing a pasture, adding animal or green manures and using chemicals such as krillum

- Soil structure is destroyed through moving around wet soil, overcropping and too much cultivation d. Construct a soil profile of the school farm.

- Because the farm’s soil texture is clay loam, it is prone to water logging, that is, it has too much water retention. This is because it consists of clay, which has a high water-holding capacity.

Soil profile of school farm Location – Aquaculture shed, JRAHS farm

Parent Material – Shale from Wianamatta

Topography – Undulating Aspect – North-facing

Vegetation – Predominantly kikuyu pasture

Land Use – Grazing Erosion – Very little, if any

Drainage – Surface: Suitable Profile: Poor

Climate – Mean annual rainfall:1141.7mm

Climate – Mean annual temp.: 12.4-23.0°C

Soil Type/Texture – Cumberland Shire clay loam

Horizon No.

Depth (cm) Colour Texture Structure Organic Matter

Roots pH

A 30 Brown Clay loam Good Present Present 5.5 B 30-100 Red brown Clay Poor Not present Not present 5

e. Describe the school cultivation implements.Primary/Secondary Description and purpose Damage to soil

Rotary hoe Primary Cultivates vegetable plots for an extremely fine seedbed

Maximum – compacts soil and forms hard clay

Chisel plough Primary/Secondary Prongs break up the soil up to 20-30cm deep

Average

Deep ripper Primary Breaks up soil and any clay pans 50-60cm deep

Average

Offset disc plough Primary Scallops chop up vegetation material and partially buries it

Average

Diamond harrows Secondary Breaks up large clods High

3. Describe the biological environment of the farm.- Plants – crops (sweet corn, potatoes), pastures (kikuyu, lucerne, oats), weeds (stinging nettle, thornapple),

trees (macadamia, turpentine) - Animals – vertebrates (cattle, sheep, poultry), invertebrates (bees, roundworms, moths) - Microbes – rumen micro-organisms found in cattle, rhizobium bacteria found in legumes

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4. Calendar of operations for a production system – prime lamb enterpriseMonth Operation January February Joining March Joining April May Annual 5-in-1 booster vaccine for ewes and ram June July Lambing August Lambing September Lamb marking – vaccination, tail docking, cryptorchid October November Second booster vaccination December Sale at Camden Saleyards, shearing, check ewes and ram for

health and fitness - Lambs are weighed periodically to determine growth rate and when they have reached market weight - Drenching is carried out when necessary by using a broad spectrum drench like Ivomec. Required in

summer months and for ewes after lambing, as they are most susceptible to roundworms. Alternate drenches (Ivomec and Synanthic) are used to prevent the development of resistance in worms.

- Supplementary feeding supplied when necessary, such as during the winter months and drought. - Foot/hoof paring is carried out when necessary - Crutching and ear marking are not necessary

5. Physical resources on the school farm.- Fences – electric and security fences with barbed and plain wire - Buildings – feed shed, shearing shed and poultry shed - JRAHS dam - Machinery – tractor, cultivation and haymaking equipment - Irrigation infrastructure and water troughs

6. Agricultural record keeping – prime lambs- Dates of joining and lambing times - Drenching - Monitoring weight - Deaths

7. Measures of performance – prime lambs- Lambing percentage (the percentage of pregnant ewes) - Growth rate (g/day) - Weight and price received at sale - Bees – Honey (kg/hive) - Poultry – Eggs (eggs/hen/year)

8. Problems associated with production- Climate – Cold temperatures during lambing may kill or stress lamb, while high temperatures at joining may

affect the fertility of the ram. Hot and dry weather or frosty and cold weather may reduce pasture growth

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- Disease – Roundworms, blowfly, foot rot may affect animals on the farm, but can be solved with disease prevention programs e.g. drenching

- Nutrition – In winter, pastures may be slow growing and therefore there is inadequate nutrition for the sheep. To overcome this, supplementary feeding is implemented.

- Soil – The fertility of soil can affect the nutrition and growth of the crops. The JRAHS farm has a heavy clay loam instead of the preferable fertile loam

- Market – Marketing specifications require a full set of milk teeth and 40kg live weight for lambs - Fertility – The breeding season is controlled by day length. When the day length is getting shorter, it

stimulates the breeding season. British and European breeds respond to the length of days. - Management expertise – Poor management decisions will lead to reduced levels of production

9. Role of the farm manager- A farm manager makes decisions, orders supplies e.g. feed, organises farmhands’ work, co-ordinates various

work activities on farm, oversees the well-being of livestock, ensures maintenance work is being carried out e.g. infrastructure and liaises with the farm management committee

10. Current management practices, with reference to sustainability – problems and strategies.Problem Management Practices Erosion and structural decline – vegetable plot

- Avoid excessive cultivation with rotary hoe - Grass strips between each plot to help contain the soil - Mulch to cover exposed soil from wind erosion

Erosion – old sheep night paddock - Avoid overgrazing by rotating paddocks - Good vegetative cover - Fence off bare areas - Avoid sheep overstock

Erosion – orchard - Grass to stop erosion - Mulch around peach trees

Compaction around gates - Rotate paddocks to stop using the same area again and again - Avoid sheep overstock

Malnutrition in soil - Rotate crops so that the same nutrients are not all drawn out

11. Farm technology – lambs and marketing- Rudweigh electronic scales monitors the live weights of lambs up to the point of sale - Cross breeding – Border Leicester ewes are crossed with a Poll Dorset ram - Husbandry equipment such as a drencher, vaccination needle and pack, as well as shearing, tail docking and

hoof paring equipment - The production of a cryptorchid produces larger, more muscular, leaner carcass - Telephone/fax is used to co-ordinate the sales at Camden Saleyards - A saleyard feedback sheet is supplied by the stock and station agent

13. The agricultural workplace – potential hazards and safe work practices employedEnterprise – Operation Potential hazard Safe work practice employed Oranges – spraying for citrus leaf miner Chemical poisoning Wear protective clothing e.g.

boots, gloves, respirator, mask Cattle – placing cows into the cattle crush Being kicked (broken leg) Handle cattle quietly and carefully Haymaking – mowing the pasture Injury sustained from

machinery (loss of limb) Follow comprehensive instruction on the use of machinery

Broiler – Lifting bags of broiler feed Back injury Use correct lifting technique

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14. Animal welfare requirements – sheepWelfare Requirement - Description Management operation(s) to help meet requirements Adequate nutrition – To sustain good health and vigour

- Supplementary feed - Irrigate and fertilise pasture - Grow winter-growing pastures e.g. oats, ryegrass

Sufficient water – Access to suitable quality water to meet physiological needs

- Clean and refillable water trough - Include a dam on the property

Social contact – With other sheep, but with sufficient space to stand, lie down and stretch

- Keep sheep in the same paddock at the recommended stocking rate

Protection from predation - Stable electric fences - Set traps and baits - Get professional shooters

Protection from pain, injury and disease - Vaccinations once a year - Drenches - Crutching (against blowflies) and mulesing

Protection from extremes of weather – which may be life-threatening

- Shelter - Wind brakes

Precautions against the effect of natural disasters – provisions

- Move sheep to higher ground in case of flood - Backup supply of water and supplementary feed in case

of drought Appropriate handling facilities – Under normal usage, does not cause injury and minimises stress to the sheep

- Well-built and designed sheep yards