Age of Mass Politics 1871-1914Chapter 22-23

OverviewOrdinary people felt increasing loyalty to their

governments

By 1914 universal male suffrage was the rule Female suffrage emerged after WWI

Politicians and parties in national gov’t represented the people more responsibly

Increased literacy

Governments often led by conservatives who manipulated nationalism

New InstitutionsTrade Unions

Became fully legal in Britain in 1871; France in 1884; Germany 1890 Minimal political influence

Focused on organizing skilled workers and improvement of wages and working conditions Later industrial unions for unskilled labor

Opposed by employers Long strikes

Most of Europe remained non-union But a new form of collective association to confront

economic difficulties and improve security

New InstitutionsDemocracy and Political Parties

Broad based electoral systems by late 19th century (except Russia) Britain voting reform act in 1867 and 1884 Germany and Bismarck universal male suffrage

in 1871 French Chamber of Deputies democratically

elected Meant government could no longer ignore workers

and unhappy citizens Organization of Political Parties

Vied for members

German Empire 1871-1914Government structure

Federal union of Prussia and 24 smaller German states

Kaiser Wilhelm I held ultimate power Otto von Bismarck served as chancellor Bicameral legislature: Reichstag

Bundestag Bundesrat

Multi-party system Conservatives represented the Junkers of Prussia Center Party (Catholic) Social Democratic Party Middle-class left out of politics during this era

German Empire 1871-1914Germany under Bismarck

Integrated political and economic structure Unified monetary system Established Imperial Bank Developed universal German civil and criminal codes Established compulsory military service

Kulturkampf (“Struggle for civilization”) Bismarck sought to limit influence of Catholic Center

Party; strong in the south (most northern German states were Protestant)

Bismarck instituted a set of sweeping reforms to minimize threat from the left

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism German Social Democratic Party (SDP) 1875

Policy of permanent hostility to non-socialist governments Organizational success kept Marxism alive

Founding fathers: Ferdinand Lasalle (reform), Wilhelm Liebknecht, and August Bebel (revolution)

Bismarck and the SPD 12 years of persecution; anti-socialist legislation

Legislation proved counter productive Social welfare legislation

1883: health insurance measure 1884: accident insurance 1889: retirement and disability pensions Paternalistic and conservative alternative to socialism Social security program; first industrial nation to have

this kind of program

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism William II

Emperor William II allowed antisocialist legislation to expire Opposed Bismarck’s move to outlaw the SPD

Forced him to resign to gain support of workers Socialists next move

Erfurt Program predicted doom of capitalism and necessity of socialist ownership of the means of production Intended to use reform not revolution Immediate task was to improve lives of workers

rather than overthrow government SPD worked within the system; became largest

party in the Reichstag by 1912

Third French Republic Established in 1875

Largely dominated by the bourgeoisie

Constitution provided for a republic Chamber of Deputies

(elected) President was weak Senate indirectly elected

Republican party Led by Leon Gambetta

Established parliamentary supremacy

Reforms Legalized trade unions Established secular

education

Multi-party system; ever-shifting political coalitions Challenge from conservatives Boulanger Crisis (1887-1889) Panama scandal (1892) Dreyfus Affair (1894)

France: Opportunism Rejected Less united socialist party

Two major factions Jaurès

Socialists should cooperate with middle-class Radical ministries

Guesde Could not support bourgeois

cabinet Dryfuss Affair

1899 in effort to unite supporters of Dryfuss, Prime Minister Renè Waldeck-Rousseau appointed socialist Alexander Millerand to cabinet

French labor movement uninterested in parties and socialism Main labor union Confédération

Générale du Travail 1895 Rival to socialist parties;

embraced doctrine of Georges Sorel in Reflections on Violence (1908) General strike as tool to unite

workers and gain them power Increase in strikes met with

military suppression

Ultimately Juarès gained seats in Chamber of Deputies from 1905 to 1914

Third Republic enjoyed vast support of the French People

Great Britain1850-1865 realignment of political parties

Lord Palmerston (1784-1865) Whig prime minister and dominant political

figure Tory Party transformed to Conservative Party

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) Whig party transformed to Liberal Party

William Gladstone (1809-1898) Other major contributor John Bright

Democratic expansion under Disraeli and Gladstone

Great BritainBenjamin Disraeli

Argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of British Empire, and reluctant support of democratic reforms Influenced by John Stuart Mill

Reform Bill of 1867 “leap in the dark”

Appeal to working people Expanded Reform Bill of 1832 Redistributed seats for more even representation

in House of Commons Almost universal suffrage (males over 21) Reduced gov’t regulation of trade unions in 1875 Created regulations for improved sanitation

Great BritainWilliam Gladstone

Most important liberal figure in 19th century England Supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free trade,

extension of democratic principles, opposed imperialism

Abolished compulsory taxes to support Church of England

Australian Ballot Act 1872 secret ballot

Civil service reform 1870 Competitive examination for gov’t positions

Reform Act of 1884 (Representation of the People Act) Votes for agricultural workers

Great Britain Fabianism and Early Welfare

Programs “New Unionism”

Trade unions grew Supported Liberal Party

candidates Organized unskilled

laborers The Labour Party 1901

1906 sent 29 members to Parliament Still a rise in strikes as

unions become more militant

More government intervention

The Fabian Society Most influential socialist

group in England Took its name from Q.

Fabius Maximus, Roman general

Gradualistic approach to reform

Leading members: Sidney and Beatrice Webb, H.G. Wells, Graham Wallas, and George Bernard Shaw

Wanted to educate public to socialist reform; gas-and-water socialism

Great Britain British government, Liberal and

Conservative parties responded slowly 1903 Joseph Chamberlain

finance social reform through higher import duties Split the conservative party

Liberal Reforms 1906-1908 restored the protection of

labor unions Right to strike

1909 broad program of social legislation Established labor exchanges,

regulated certain trades and passed National Insurance Act of 1911 Unemployment benefits and

health care Compulsory school attendance

Conflict between House of Commons and House of Lords Over financing new programs

Increased tax on wealthy to help fund the welfare state

Parliament Act of 1911 Most significant legislation of Liberal

party rule allowed Commons to override veto

of Lords State was taking expanded role in

lives of citizens

Representation of the People Act 1918 Women over 30 gained suffrage Property qualifications completely

eliminated

Women’s Rights and Suffrage in England Initially sought to amend marriage and

property laws

By 1890s, women’s rights activists realized that suffrage was the key to remedying other problems

Suffragettes came largely from middle class Benefitted from education Free time to become activists Working-class women and socialists worked

independently

Women’s Rights and Suffrage in England Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847-1929)

Leader of National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) Fought for suffrage and helped grow the movement Knighted in 1924

Emmeline Pankhurst Leader of militant suffragettes

Along with her daughter, founded the Women’s social and Political Union (WSPU)

1907 began violent activities such as destroying railroad stations, works of art and store windows, and chaining themselves to gate in front of Parliament

Organized parades and demonstrations Arrested for their activities

Representation of the People Act 1918 Result of women’s critical contributions to the war effort; vote for women over 30

Reform Act of 1928 Suffrage for women over 21

The Irish QuestionYoung Ireland movement 1848

Ulster (Protestant counties in northern Ireland) Opposed Irish Home Rule Raised 100,000 armed volunteers by 1913 Supported by British public opinion

1914 Irish Home Rule Act passed

1916 Easter Rebellion

1922 Ireland gained independence Northern Ireland remained part of British Empire

The “Eastern Question” 1870’sThe Ottoman Empire

The “Sick Man of Europe” Constant state of crisis in the Balkans

Question of who would control the region Russia or Austro-Hungarian Empire Pan-Slavism

Idea of uniting all Slave in Europe under one gov’t (Russia)

Britain refused to accept Russian control and sent Royal Navy to help Turks “jingoism” Bismarck offered to mediate crisis

The “Eastern Question” 1870’sCongress of Berlin 1878

Russia gained little despite defeating the Turks Provisions

Recognition of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro as independent states

Establishment of autonomous principality of Bulgaria

Austrian acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina Transfer of Cyprus to Great Britain

Close to Suez Canal Rise in hostility from Russia toward Germany

New system of alliances formed

Socialist MovementsNegative response to industrialism and

nationalism Rise of socialist party

Problems were transnational; unite working class internationally

Main goal: advancer the cause of the proletariat throughout Europe

Reform or Revolution? Shaped socialist thought, party programs and

political behavior, and influenced the larger political arena

Karl Marx and the First International1864 foundation of first International Working

Men’s Association (known as the First International) Marx was principal organizer Socialists, anarchists, and Polish nationalists Marx approved reform efforts

In private he criticized reform activity Paris Commune

Marx called a genuine proletarian uprising Promoted anti-socialist legislation and sentiment First International moved headquarters to U.S. in

1873 and was disbanded in 1876

Karl Marx and the First InternationalMarxism emerged as the most important

strand of socialism Scientific characteristic made it appealing Deeply impressed German socialists; most

powerful party in Europe Also involved the influence of non-Marxist

socialists in Great Britain

RevisionismWorkers gained right to vote and participate

politically Attention to elections rather than revolutions Standard of living rose Government acceptance of labor unions Focus on bread-and-butter issues

Wages, hours, working conditions Genuine collective bargaining Eduard Bernstein: Evolutionary Socialism 1899

Most prominent socialist revisionist Argued Marx’s predictions of ever-greater poverty

for workers and concentration of wealth in fewer hands was proven false

AnarchistsSpin off from mainstream socialist movement

Sought to destroy centralized state Mikhail Bakunin

Russian nobleman, leading anarchist Strongest in Spain and Italy Political assassinations

Alexander II of Russia 1881 King Umberto I of Italy 1900 President William McKinley of U.S. 1901

Russia Defeat in Crimean War marked turning point

Lacked sizable middle class Had to modernize or would remain

vulnerable militarily and economically

Alexander II (1855-1881) Perhaps most liberal ruler prior to 20th

century Serfdom had slowed modernization Emancipation Act 1861

Peasants no longer dependent on lord; free to move and change occupations; could enter contracts and own property

Mirs Communes which were highly

regulated Collective ownership and

responsibility Zemstvos

Established 1864; assemblies that administered local areas Significant step to popular

participation Other reforms

Judiciary improved Censorship relaxed (but not

removed) Education liberalized

RussiaRailroad construction

Between 1860 and 1880 mileage grew from 1,250 to 15,500

Enabled export of grain and ability to earn profits for further industrialization

Stimulated domestic manufacturing Strengthened Russia’s military

RussiaCritics

Alexander turned increasingly traditional in values Radical populist movement emerged; sought

utopian agrarian order Intelligensia Nihilism Alexander II assassinated in 1881 by radicals

RussiaAlexander III (1881-1894)

“Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification (nationalism)” Encouraged anti-semitism (pogroms)

Theodor Herzl 1897Launched the Zionist movement

Fought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine

Russia Nicholas II

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Revolution of 1905

Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle class to demand reforms

Bloody Sunday, Jan 1905 200,000 worker/peasants

marched peacefully to “Winter Palace” Czar not in town Army fired on marchers

General Strike paralyzed Russia; czar was forced to make concessions

Duma: Assembly created as an advisory body to Czar Granted freedom of speech,

assembly, and press Czar retained absolute veto Revolutionaries divided; Duma

had no real influence Propertied classes benefited at

expense of workers, peasants, and national minorities

Mild economic recover 1907-1914 Peter Stolypin: pushed agrarian

reforms Gregorii Rasputin: caused

widespread doubts about czar’s ability to lead

Poor showing in WWI led directly to Russian Revolution