abnormal psychology fourth canadian edition prepared by: tracy vaillancourt, ph.d. modifed by:...
TRANSCRIPT
abnormal PSYCHOLOGY
Fourth Canadian Edition
Prepared by: Tracy Vaillancourt, Ph.D.
Modifed by: Réjeanne Dupuis, M.A.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Introduction:
Definitional and Historical Considerations, and Canada’s Mental Health System
Psychopathology
• Field concerned with the nature and development of abnormal… – Behaviour– Thoughts or cognition – Feelings or emotions
2
What is abnormal behaviour?
• Abnormality usually determined by the presence of several characteristics at one time such as: – Statistical infrequency– Violation of norms– Personal distress– Disability or dysfunction– Unexpectedness
3
Statistical Infrequency
• A behaviour that occurs rarely or infrequently– A 14-year old boy wetting his bed and– Mental retardation (IQ < 70) occur infrequently, as do
most mental disorders
• Discussion point: Is statistical infrequency a good enough marker to determine if a behaviour is abnormal?
• Consider elite athletic ability
• Consider the flip side of mental retardation-- intellectual giftedness (IQ >130)
4
Violation of Norms• A behaviour that defies or goes against social
norms; it either threatens or makes anxious those observing it– Anti-social behaviour of the psychopath violates social
norms and is threatening to others – But, “violation of norms” needs to be considered in
reference to prevailing cultural norms • What is the norm in one culture may be abnormal in another
• Discussion point: A prostitute violates social norms but does this mean that she/he would necessarily meet diagnostic criteria for a mental disorder?
5
Personal Distress
• A behaviour that creates personal suffering, distress or torment in the person– This criterion fits many of the forms of
abnormality such as depression but some disorders do not necessarily involve distress
• Psychopaths are often not distressed by their behaviour although these behaviour clearly impact others in a negative way
• Hunger and childbirth cause distress, but is this abnormal?
6
Disability or Dysfunction• A behaviour that causes impairment in some
important area of life, e.g., work, personal relationships, recreational activities– Examples of exceptions:
• Being short if you want to be a professional basketball player• Transvestism is not necessarily a disability although it is
currently diagnosed as a mental disorder if it distresses the person
• Discussion point: Why would transvestism without distress not be considered a disability? – Most transvestites are married, lead conventional
lives, and usually cross-dress in private.
7
Unexpectedness
• A surprising or out-of-proportion response to environmental stressors can be considered abnormal– For example, we would expect a person to be
sad if they lost a love one to cancer. We would not expect a person to laugh after being sexually assaulted.
– Other example: An anxiety disorder is diagnosed when the anxiety is unexpected and out of proportion to the situation.
8
The study and treatment of mental disorders in Canada
• There are approximately:– 3,600 practicing psychiatrists – 13,000 psychologists and psychological associates– 11,000 nurses specialize in the mental health area
• Non-medical practitioners usually work within hospital or agency settings on a salary or in private practice
• Public health plan reimbursement of fees-for-service is limited to medical doctors
• Most of the primary mental health care is delivered by general practitioners
9
Psychiatrist, psychologist—what’s the difference?
• Clinical psychologists typically have a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree, which entails four to seven years of graduate studies
• Psychiatrist hold an MD degree and have had postgraduate training, in which they receive supervision in the practice of diagnosing and psychotherapy
• Because psychiatrists have an MD degree, they can prescribe psychoactive drugs, whereas psychologists can not– For more details: “FOCUS ON DISCOVERY 1.1: THE MENTAL
HEALTH PROFESSIONS”
10
History of Psychopathology
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”
George Santayana, The Life of Reason
11
Pre-scientific Inquiry
• Mental disorders were believed to be caused by:– Events beyond the control of humankind, such as
eclipses, earthquakes, storms, fire, diseases were regarded as supernatural
– Behaviour that seemed outside individual control was subject to similar interpretation
– Thus, many early philosophers, theologians, and physicians believed that deviant behaviour reflected the displeasure of the gods or possession by demons
12
Early Demonology
• Demonology: The doctrine that an evil being, such as the devil, may dwell within a person and control his or her mind and body – Found in the records of the early Chinese, Egyptians,
Babylonians, and Greeks
• Given that abnormal behaviour was caused by possession, treatment often involved exorcism– Ranged from elaborate rites of prayer to flogging and
starvation as a way of rendering the body uninhabitable to devils
13
Trepanning• Involved the making of a surgical opening in
a living skull by some instrument– Treatment used by Stone Age or Neolithic cave
dwellers
• Used to treat epilepsy, headaches, and psychological disorders attributed to demons
• Thought to be introduced into the Americas from Siberia
– Practice was most common in Peru and Bolivia, – 3 British-Columbia Aboriginal specimens found
14
Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 B.C)
• Separated medicine from religion, magic, and superstition
• Rejected belief that the gods sent physical diseases and mental disturbances as punishment
• Insisted that illnesses had natural causes thus should be treated like other illnesses
15
Somatogenesis vs. Psychogenesis
• Hippocrates is one of the earliest proponents of somatogenesis
– Somatogenesis (genesis = origin)• Mental disorders are caused by aberrant
functioning in the soma (i.e., physical body) and this disturbs thought and action
– Psychogenesis • Mental disorders have their origin in psychological
malfunctions
16
Hippocrates’ Humoral Physiology
• Hippocrates’ treatments were different from exorcistic tortures – Tranquility, proper nutrition, abstinence from sexual
activity were prescribed for melancholia
• Mental health dependent on a delicate balance among four humours, or fluids, of the body
• Imbalances and results blood = changeable temperament black bile = melancholia yellow bile = irritability and anxiousness phlegm = sluggish and dullness
17
The Dark Ages and Demonology
• Churches gained in influence, papacy was declared independent of the state
• Christian monasteries replaced physicians as healers and as authorities on mental disorder
• The monks cared for and nursed the sick – By praying and touching them with relics or– Concocting fantastic potions for them
18
Persecution of Witches• During the 13th and the following few centuries, major
social unrest and recurrent famines and plagues
• People turned to demonology to explain disasters
• Led to an obsession with the devil – ‘witches’ blamed and persecuted
• 1484 Pope Innocent VIII exhorted European clergy to leave no stone unturned in the search for witches – Sent 2 Dominican monks to northern Germany as inquisitors who
later issued the manual entitled the Malleus Maleficarum • Used to guide witch hunters• Came to be seen by Catholics and Protestants as a textbook on
witchcraft
• Over the next several centuries, hundreds of thousands of people accused, tortured, and murdered
19
Witchcraft and Mental Illness
• Were so-called witches psychotic?– Detailed examination of historical period indicates
most were not mentally ill– Delusion-like confessions were obtained during
torture
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Other info. that ‘witches’ not mentally ill
• From 13th century on in England, hospitals took over churches’ responsibility to tend to the ill
• Laws allowed dangerously insane and incompetent to be confined to hospital and people confined were not described as being
possessed
• Early 13th century “lunacy” trials held in England – Trials conducted to protect the mentally ill– Judgment of insanity allowed Crown to become
guardian of estate • Defendant’s orientation, memory, intellect, daily life, and
habits were at issue in the trial• Strange behaviour were explained as physical illness / injury
21
Development of Asylums• Until the end of the 15th century, very few mental
hospitals in Europe but England and Scotland had 220 leprosy hospitals– Leprosy gradually disappeared from Europe and
attention turned to the mentally ill
• Confinement began in earnest in the 15th-16th centuries
• Leprosariums were converted to asylums– Asylums took disturbed people and beggars – Had no specific regimen for their inmates but work– Despite the desire to help ‘the mad,’ hospitals tailored
for the confinement of the mentally ill also emerged
22
St. Mary of Bethlehem• Founded in 1243 in London, devoted solely to the
confinement of the mentally ill– Conditions were deplorable (bedlam)
– Eventually became one of London’s great (paid) tourist attractions
• Viewing the violent patients considered entertainment
• Discussion Point: What might be the effects of such inhuman treatment on the sequela of mental illness?
23
Moral Treatment• Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) considered primary figure
in movement for humanitarian treatment of the mentally ill in asylums
• Believed patients should be treated with dignity– Put in charge of a large asylum in Paris known as La
Bicêtre – Removed the chains of the people imprisoned – Began to treat patients as sick rather than as beasts– Light and airy rooms replaced dungeons– Walks around the grounds were allowed
• Results?– Some patients incarcerated for years were discharged
24
Dorothea Dix• Moral treatment was
abandoned in the latter part of the 19th century but Dorothea Dix’s (1802–77) efforts resurrected it – Boston schoolteacher who taught
a Sunday-school class at the local prison
– Shocked by deplorable conditions and interest spread to the conditions of patients in mental hospitals
– Campaigned vigorously and successfully to improve the lives of people with mental illness
25
Asylums in Canada
• Network of asylums eventually established in Canada
26
Asylums in CanadaAlberta Insane Asylum, Ponoka 1911
British Columbia Public Hospital for the Insane, New Westminster 1878
British Columbia Mental Hospital, Coquitlam 1913
Manitoba Selkirk Asylum, Selkirk 1886
Home for Incurables, Portage-la-Prairie 1890
Brandon Asylum, Brandon 1891
New Brunswick Provincial Hospital, Saint John 1835
Provincial Lunatic Asylum 1848
Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Hospital for Insane, Halifax 1857
27
Ontario Provincial Lunatic Asylum, Toronto 1850
Kingston Asylum (Rockwood), Kingston 1856
London Asylum, London 1859
Orillia Asylum for Idiots, Orillia 1861
Hamilton Asylum, Hamilton 1876
Mimico Branch Asylum, Mimico 1890
Hospital for Insane, Brockville 1894
Cobourg Asylum 1902
Penetanguishene Asylum, Penetanguishene 1904
Whitby Hospital, Whitby 1914
Prince Edward Island
The Prince Edward Island Hospital for the Insane 1877
Asylums in Canada
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Asylums in CanadaQuebec Quebec Lunatic Asylum, Beauport 1845
Provincial Lunatic Asylum, St. John’s 1861
L’Hospice St. Jean de Dieu, Longue Point 1856
L’Hospice St. Julien, St. Ferdinand d’Halifax 1873
L’Hospice Ste. Anne, Baie-St. Paul 1890
Protestant Hospital for the Insane, Verdun 1890
St. Benedict Joseph Asylum, near city of Montreal 1885
Saskatchewan The Saskatchewan Provincial Hospital, Battleford 1914
Newfoundland Asylum for the Insane, St. John’s 1855
Northwest Territory
Taken to asylums of Alberta and Saskatchewan 1914
Yukon Taken to New Westminster by Royal Northwest Mounted Police
1877
29
Beginning of Contemporary Thought
• In 19th century, return to the somatogenic views first espoused by Hippocrates
• Early system of classification established
30
Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• Created a classification system to establish the biological nature of mental illnesses
• Noticed clustering of symptoms (syndrome) which were presumed to have an underlying physical cause, – In fact, mental illness is seen as distinct, with own genesis,
symptoms, course, and outcome
• Proposed two major groups of severe mental diseases:– Dementia praecox (early term for schizophrenia)
• Thought chemical imbalance as the cause of schizophrenia
– Manic-depressive psychosis (now called bipolar disorder) • Thought an irregularity in metabolism as the cause of manic-
depressive psychosis
• Importantly, Kraepelin’s early classification scheme became the basis for the present diagnostic categories
31
General Paresis and Syphilis
• Mid-1800s progress was being made in terms of understanding senile and presenile psychoses and mental retardation from a more biological perspective
• Far more was then discovered about the nature and origin of syphilis– General paresis characterized by steady physical and
mental deterioration, delusions of grandeur and progressive paralysis from which there was no recovery
• Discovery provides a good example of the increasing use of empirical approaches used to understand mental illness
32
Louis Pasteur
• Germ theory of disease, established by Pasteur– Laid the groundwork for demonstrating the relation
between syphilis and general paresis– Also helped establish a causal link between infection,
destruction of brain areas, and a form of psychopathology
– Light bulb moment: If one type of psychopathology had a biological cause, so could others
– Result: Somatogenesis gained credibility and became a dominant theory
33
Psychogenesis Re-visited
• Somatogenic causes dominated field of abnormal psychology until 20th Century due in large part to discoveries about general paresis
• but, psychogenesis was still “in fashion” in countries like France and Austria
34
Current Attitudes
• Much progress has been made in terms of understanding the nature, origin, developmental course and treatment of psychological disorders
• Still, many Canadians are still suspicious of people with mental health issues– These concerns are reinforced with negative
stereotyping and stigmatization
• Unfortunate consequence is that many people with mental illness do not seek help
35
Mental Health Care in Canada
• Canada has a universal health care system since 1970• Each province / territory is responsible for administrating
health care • Health-care re-organisation and funding cuts have led to
the closing of long-term psychiatric mental hospitals and beds on psychiatric hospital wards
• Community services are expected to take over some of these services
• See Canadian Perspectives 1.2 for more details
36
Historical Perspective of Mental Health Care in
Canada• The health care system in Canada has not always been
stellar in its ethical treatment of patients under its care • Examples are:
– Dr. Cameron’s brainwashing treatment in Montreal in the 1950s and 60s
– Psychosurgery (e.g., lobotomy) performed out of scientific curiosity, i.e., to see how it would change patients
– In either case, consent was not obtained from patients or families
• Lobotomies were banned in all psychiatric hospitals in early 1980s
• See Canadian Perspectives 1.3 for more details
37
The Romanow Report • Building on Values: The Future of Health Care in Canada
(2002) • The Romanow Report made 47 recommendations• Romanow called mental health care “the orphan child of
medicare” and recommended to make it a priority – Some of the recommendations were:
– Include some homecare services for case management and intervention services
– Develop a national drug agency
– Provide a emergency drug program to help those with severe mental illnesses (e.g., schizophrenia and bipolar disorder)
– Establish a program to support informal caregivers (e.g., friends, families) who assist the mentally ill in critical times
38
The Kirby Report • Out of the Shadows at Last: Transforming Mental Health,
Mental Illness, and Addiction Services in Canada (The Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, 2006)
• 2 Key recommendations were made: 1. The creation of the Canadian mental health commission
A. Facilitate a national approach to mental health issues
B. Promote reform of mental health policies and improvement of services
C. Educate Canadians by increasing mental health literacy
D. Reduce stima and discrimination of mentally ill individuals and families
2. The creation of the 10-year Mental Health Transition Fund 1. Provide affordable housing to the mentally ill
2. Offer support to provinces / territories in order to increas services in the community
39
The Future of Psychology• The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) was
critical of the Romanow Report as it (1) did not include psychology’s vision and (2) embraced a ‘physical medicine vision’ or somatogenic perspective
• CPA argued that:– A plethora of research on the improved effectiveness of
pharmacotherapy when combined with psychological treatment
– Savings could range as high as 80% of currently dominant treatments, including medication
• The World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations advocate for (1) the integration of mental health services into primary health care and (2) the collaboration of care tams as the way of the future
40
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.