A brief history of papier-mâché

(For a more detailed history of papier-mâché see Bawden, J. (1993) The art & craft of papier-mâché. London; Mitchell Beazley. Chapter 1: 'Perspectives' and Chapter 2: 'Folk Art Traditions')

The origins and spread of papier-mâchéThe Chinese are thought to have invented paper at the start of 2nd C AD and from this they developed papier-mâché pulp and plasterboard Soldiers often wore helmets made from papier-mâché, which were lacquered to give them added strength. Archaeological finds suggest that they also made pots.

Chinese Emperor X’ian’s terracotta warriors

The Arabs in Samarkand learned the technique of papier-mâché from Chinese craftsmen captured in the 8th C during the Chinese-Persian war, who showed them how to use rags and waste paper to create the pulp. Eventually, the technique spread to Morocco, then to Spain, France and Germany during the 10 th

C. The Italians acquired the skill of making papier-mâché from their Venetian trade with the Orient. From Italy it spread to India and Persia.

"Persian craftsmen were producing papier-mâché plates, mirror cases, pencil boxes, toys during the 18th and 19th centuries. Indians were also producing these items, decorated with designs of small flowers and foliage in the Florentine manner. These designs were probably introduced in the 17th C at the time of the building of the Taj Mahal."

(Bawden 1993:10.)

FranceThe first people to start using papier-mâché as a commercial medium were the French at about the middle of the 17 th C. They were inspired to do so by the Chinese and Japanese imports of papier-mâché artefacts.

"Papier-mâché's hey day in Western Europe was 1770-1870. Innovations came from France. The use of papier-mâché to imitate stucco and plaster decoration began in France in the middle of the century and was adopted in England within five years or so." (Bawden 1993:11.)

Go to: http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/papiermache/papiermache.htmTo see an illustrated article on papier-mâché ceilings by Harriet Hawkes

Papier-mâché furniture became very popular in France during the 1840s - 1880s but by far England was the greatest producer and "included probably the finest pieces of papier-mâché furniture ever made." (Bawden 1993:11). The French also made dolls' heads as early as the16th C. This idea spread across Europe to Germany and England in the 1800s. All sorts of fillers were added to the pulp for making the dolls' heads, e.g. rye meal in Germany, potato in northern England, sand, clay and chalk in England and Italy. Binders were also added, e.g. honey-water, gelatine, gum arabic, etc. Resin was often used to give a hard shiny surface to the doll's head. Potash was also mixed in with the pulp to ward of insects from eating the papier-mâché.

Papier-mâché dolls

GermanyGermany joined in during the Early 18 th C when Fredrick the Great, who had a penchant for papier-mâché snuff-boxes, established a factory in Berlin in 1765. The German craftsman, George Sigmund Stobwasser, set up a factory and became famous for his round, flat papier-mâché snuff boxes and tobacco boxes. The Germans also diversified into making large quantities of papier-mâché dolls.

"An extraordinary demonstration of the versatility of papier-mâché was a watch made in Germany in 1883, constructed entirely of papier-mâché and paper. It was the masterpiece of a Dresden watch-maker who claimed it was as durable and performed as well as any metal watch."

(Bawden 1993:11.)

RussiaThe Russians started imitating the English by using papier-mâché in1830. "The basic material consisted of layered paper which was softened by heat and shaped on wooden moulds and the saturated three times with flax-seed oil. The articles were then primed with a mixture of native red clay, Holland soot and oil, and were subsequently dried, lacquered and polished." (Bawden 1993: 11). The Russians became the foremost manufacturers of snuff boxes, trays, cigarette cases and chests.

A Russian lacquered jewelry box from Palekhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GreatRussianGifts.com_Russian_lacquer_box.jpg

EnglandThe 17th & 18th C saw the rise of papier-mâché lacquer ware in England for making furniture, ornaments and small architectural features such as gilded wall brackets. This developed into Japan ware when Henry Clay in 1772 invented a method for making heat-resistant papier-mâché panels, which he then japanned. These panels were then used for the roofs of horse drawn carriages and sedan chairs, panelling in rooms, doors and cabins on board ships, tables, cabinets, bookcases and trays. Japanning became an art form, which was highly-prized as an accomplishment for young ladies during the 18 th C. Papier-mâché became an architectural medium for ornamentation in the 19 thC in England. These were moulded onto a skeleton of wood by Charles Bielefeld and used as panels in steamers and railway carriages. "However, Bielefeld's most interesting product was a village of ten prefabricated houses…… When the village was temporarily set up on the factory grounds, heavy rains caused flooding.…..The fate of the village is unknown but it is thought that some of the houses may have survived a long time. Certainly, a papier-mâché church erected near Bergen in Norway in 1793 lasted thirty-seven years before being demolished." ( Bawden 1993:13.) Other architectural features made from papier-mâché included, mirror frames, sconces, wall brackets, and moulded ceilings. Not many people realise that the domed ceiling of the British Library reading room is crafted from papier-mâché. In the 19th C decorative objects such as trays and boxes were usually painted black and then decorated with gold leaf, powder, enamelled in bronze or silver or inlaid with mother-of-pearl. In the late 19th C marbling and wood grain effects were introduced.

Japanned papier-mâché Chair, English, c. 1844.

Victorian papier-mâché Tilt-Top Checkerboard Tilt Top Table

AmericaEngland exported their papier-mâché goods to America during the 19 th C and in 1850 the first factory was built in Connecticut. English japanners taught the Americans the techniques and they began to make all sorts of papier-mâché ornaments but concentrated on papier-mâché clock case, which were black and

painted with gold and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. One factory in Boston made papier-mâché buttons, another in Connecticut made desks, stair rods, sewing boxes and chessboards.

"At the end of the 19th C an Act of Congress made it possible to macerate retired bank notes. The resulting pulp was mixed with a solution of soda, ash and lime, which destroyed the identity of the bank notes. This pulpy mixture was then moulded into busts of prominent Americans and replicas of national monuments….They were not decorated in any way, the mottled grey colour of the pulp providing ornament enough." (Bawden 1993:15.)

Present dayToday, you can find papier-mâché all over the world. Because it is an inexpensive material, it is used a lot in carnivals and fiestas to make giant-sized carnival masks, heads and costumes, etc.

"The craft of papier-mâché has been, and still is, carried out in many rural communities, often following traditional styles that have not changed for centuries. Th Indian region of Kashmir, for example, has a tradition of making folk art papier-mâché, as does Mexico. The Japanese make dolls from the material and the Philippinos make large animals. Craftsmen in Spain and Italy produce papier-mâché puppets." (Bawden 1993:16.)

In Japan they make toys and dolls of animals to ward off evil spirits and protect children. In India in the Kashmir region they make vases and boxes, which are then painted with patterns.

A teapot from Kashmir

Papier-mâché is among the most renowned crafts of Kashmir. The craft represents a rich tradition of craftsmanship that dates back to the reign of Zainul Abidin Budshah (1420-1470 AD).

http://www.vkashmir.com/Handicraft/Handicraft.asp

In Mexico they make toys and dolls, which have religious significance. The most famous of these is the 'piñata'. This is a papier-mâché shape made at Christmas and filled with sweets, fruits, nuts and small toys, which is hung from a tree or the ceiling in a house and attacked by blindfolded children with a stick until it breaks and the contents all spill out.

Mexican ‘piñatas’

The Mexicans also celebrate 'All Souls' Day' by making papier-mâché skeletons and skulls, which are made to dance or jump out of coffins by attached strings. The Mexicans also have a long tradition of papier-mâché mask-making, originally animal faces worn by hunters to bring good luck in the hunt. Now they are worn to bring about magic but are also sold to tourists.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead

In Europe, the most famous papier-mâché art form is the Italian 'Commedia dell'arte', which uses puppets.

Venetian papier-mâché masks http://www.masksvenetian.com/page/gal_car#CV012

This developed into our English 'Punch & Judy', 'Polichinelle' in France, 'Kasperl' in Germany, 'Jan Klassen' in the Netherlands, 'Christovita' in Spain and 'Petrushka' in Russia.

A Swedish Punch puppet made by the

Jonna Grimstoft

Prof. Fred Greenspan's Traditional Puppet Theatre, Seattle 1999

http://www.spyrock.com/nadafarm/SeattleFaire/Faire_shows.html

Punch & Judy Faire in Seattle August 6th 1999

http://www.spyrock.com/nadafarm/SeattleFaire/Faire_parade.html

In southern Europe giant figures and heads known as 'cabezudos' are worn and paraded through towns during Corpus Christi Day processions. The giants are the central figure in these parades; are always in pairs and are accompanied by caricature figures, which dance around them.

“In Spanish festivals, it is common to find a procession of gigantes y cabezudos ("giants and big-heads") The word cabezudo is also used to describe a stubborn person as hard-headed. In the case of these festivals, however, gigantes refers to the towering figures, and cabezudos refers to people wearing only big headmasks”

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantes_y_cabezudos

Building of a papier-mâché mask in the Carnival of Massafra

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papier-m%C3%A2ch%C3%A9

“Papier-mâché is commonly used for large, temporary sculpture such as Carnival floats. A basic structure of wood, metal and metal wire is covered in papier-mâché. Once dried, details are added. The papier-mâché is then sanded and painted. Carnival floats can be very large and comprise a number of characters, props and scenic elements all organized around a chosen theme. They can also accommodate several dozens people, including the operators of the mechanisms. The floats can have movable parts, like the facial features of a character or its limbs. It is not unusual for local professional architects, engineers, painters, sculptors and ceramists to take part in the design and construction of the floats. Italian float makers are some of the best in the world, and New Orleans Mardi Gras float maker Blaine Kern, operator of the Mardi Gras World float museum, brings Carnival float artists all the way from Italy to work on his floats.” Wikipedia (online)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papier-m%C3%A2ch%C3%A9

Present day, papier-mâché is used by many professional artists as their chosen medium, for example David Farrer.

David Farrer

Papier-mâché sculptures by David Farrer can be viewed at: http://davidfarrer.com/

‘My favoured subject matter is ecological, having a strong interest in ‘green’ matters. My work reflects this. The recycled head concept came about in 1995 while working in South Africa. Over the years I have travelled extensively in this part of the world and never cease to be amazed by its beauty and abundant wildlife…. There are admirable wildlife protection policies in operation, yet hunting and specifically trophy gathering remains big business too. I decided to bridge the gap by producing a ‘recycled trophy’ that would satisfy the urge to hang an animal head on the wall but promote pro-ecological thought.…Although the idea was born in Africa I have diversified into European and North American beasts, which to some sections of the public have more familiar appeal.’ (David Farrer 2000 online)

‘Close observation of African culture, where there was an economic need for recycling, led Farrer to experiment with such crude materials as galvanised steel wire, magazines, wood and horse hair. Using papier-mâché these are transformed into vibrant and dramatic sculptures that elevate traditional craft materials and naïve techniques to contemporary fine art…… In David Farrer’s work there is something for everyone. Its intersubjectivity works on many levels with a multiplicity of effect depending on the viewer’s beliefs and interpretation. The sculptures are skilfully executed, creative, innovative and unique.’ (Vivienne Roberts 2003 Art critic online)

Today, many schools use papier-mache as a medium in art and design. Below are examples of papier-mâché by primary children after Antoni Gaudi. The teacher is Matt Hubbert (PGCE student at the University College of St Mark & St John, Plymouth 2007).

“As part of our Fiesta! whole-school project, years 5 & 6 studied the work of the famous Barcelona-based architect Antoni Gaudi (1852–1926). Inspired by Gaudi's fluid, organic style, the children designed spires, towers and pinnacles to complete his unfinished masterpiece 'La Sagrada Familia'. They then realised their designs in 3-D, using 1.5m cardboard tubes, newspaper and papier-mache. Tissue paper was used to recreate the highly-coloured finishes and mosaics that characterise Gaudi's work.”