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Module 1: Introduction

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION?

Before we can understand the meaning of sociology of education, we need to understand the meaning of education.

EDUCATION has different meanings to people in different context. School children in general it may mean acquiring of knowledge whereas to

those who are not academically inclined may perceive it as dreary and torment;

University students may find it as an important aspect of their student life that will decide their future; qualifications to a stable job.

To parents it may mean their children will have a secure future and achieve what they were unable to have.

For schools administrators and teachers it means a job, an opportunity for career development.

Thus, education touches the lives of a majority of the members within a particular society and it sets in various roles and subgroups in the society.

SOCIOLOGY is a branch of the social science that studies systematically the contexts in which members of the society live and how these contexts leave an impact on their lives. Sociologists look where people live, their age, education, jobs, income, gender, ethnic group and how these factors influence their behaviour, attitudes, perceptions and so forth. For example:

How do parents influence their children in terms of their aspirations and what the children should attain in life.

Does being a male or a female differ in our perception of life, our way of communicating with others, and our ideas of who we are and what we need to attain in life?

In other words, people do what they do because of internal as well as external

influences. Our experiences in education and interacting with others have shaped our thinking and belief of life. In addition, it explores what happens outside the school such as the relationship between school, parents, and community, commercial interests, and the increasing complex technological society.

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION combines sociology and education. Sociology of education is a young field that seeks to understand how education affects social life and social change. It examines students, teachers, administrators, parents and members of the society within the contexts of home, school and community. In this course or subject, you will come to understand how society influences your ideas and opinions about life and you will see that the way you perceive the world is the result of your experience with human beings around you.

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WHAT IS SCHOOLING?

Society expects a lot from schools. The moment children enter school, parents and the community expects the school to nurture the cognitive, psychomotor, emotional and social aspects of children so as to prepare them to succeed in education, earn a living, and start a family. Schools are expected to contribute to the development of human capital. Schools impart knowledge through its educational system with a formal curriculum that covers a range of subjects such as history, language, mathematics and so forth.

Schooling refers to the more organised aspects of formal education that takes place in schools and how the educational process influences individuals and societies. It is part of education that is most highly valued. On the average students, teachers and administrators spend about six hours a day and five days a week in school. Children enter primary or elementary education at age six or seven (varying across countries). In secondary school, the students spend between four to five years schooling. A portion of these students to proceed to tertiary education spending between 3 to 5 years at colleges and universities. Throughout the schooling years children are involved in various types of school activities which takes up a large amount of their waking hours. Schools have become an important part of children’s life and an important social context.

Besides the hours and days children spent in school, large amounts of money are spent by parents, business and the government on schooling. Parents allocate a substantial part of their income to ensure their children experience a good school life in the form of materials, transport, food, uniform and so forth. The government allocates large sums of money on education building schools, paying teachers’ salary and so forth. In most developed countries such as United States, Canada, Japan, Denmark and other, expenditure on schooling is relatively high. Expenditure on schooling is seen as an investment to ensure economic and social progress and hence place high priority on educating their children from kindergarten to college and university. Similarly, developing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines are setting aside a large portion of their budget for educating too are emphasizing this aspect and today we see government in countries are allocating a huge amount of their budget into educating their young ones. As more people have access to education, it is hoped that the public may change their attitudes and behaviours towards social problems such as drug use, alcoholism, and poverty.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY a) What is your definition of education? b) What does a sociologist do? c) Explain what do you understand by ‘sociology of education’

FUNCTIONALISM CONFLICTFUNCTIONALISM CONFLICT

INTERACTIONIST


THEORIES ON THE ROLE OF SCHOOLING

Sociologists differ in their perspectives on the role of schooling in contemporary society. These perspectives are stated in three theories on education: functional, conflict and interaction. Each of these perspectives will provide valuable insights into the role of school or education.

1) FUNCTIONALIST THEORYFunctionalism emphasises the school as the medium for transmitting education

to the members of society. Education is seen as one of the most important components of society. Emile Durkheim, a famous French sociologist, made many contribution to the sociology of education (see picture). According to him, education and in particular a school is a social institution that interacts with other institutions in society. Education and society reflect each other. For example, economic disparities that exist in society are also reflected in education and schools. Functionalists first see the role education plays in conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation.

In an article written in 1911, entitled ‘Education, its Nature and Role’ published in Education et sociologie, Durkheim asserted that every society has a certain ideal as to what a person should be intellectually, physically and morally. This

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LEARNING ACTIVITY a) Why do you believe schooling is important? b) Relate some of your experiences while you were in school.


ideal is the crux of education. The function of education and schooling is to perpetuate these ideals of society.

….education is the action exercised by the adult generations over those that are not yet ready for social life. Its purpose is to arouse and develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral state, which are demanded of him both by the political society as a whole and by the specific environment for which he is particularly destined. It emerges from the foregoing definition that education consists of a methodical socialisation of the young generation (Education et sociologie, 1911).

According to Durkheim’s functionalist theory, education is the means for promoting social solidarity and stability in society and this is to be implemented through the teaching and learning process in schools.

More recently, eminent sociologist Amitai Etzioni who wrote 24 books and hundreds of article, believed that “shared” value is one of the values that needs to be

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CASE STUDY: Transmission of Core Values in American Education

The most important value permeating the American classroom is individualism—the ideology that advocates the liberty rights, or independent action, of the individual. American students learn early, unlike their Japanese or Chinese counterparts, that society seeks out and reveres the best individual, whether that person achieves the best score on a test or the most points on the basketball court. Even collaborative activities focus on the leader, and team sports single out the one most valuable player of the year. The carefully constructed curriculum helps students develop their identities and self-esteem. Conversely, Japanese students, in a culture that values community in place of individuality, learn to be ashamed if someone singles them out, and learn social esteem—how to bring honour to the group, rather than to themselves.

Going to school in a capitalist nation, American students also quickly learn the importance of competition, through both competitive learning games in the classroom, and through activities and athletics outside the classroom. Some kind of prize or reward usually motivates them to play, so students learn early to associate winning with possessing. Likewise, schools overtly teach patriotism, a preserver of political structure. Students must learn the Pledge of Allegiance and the stories of the nation's heroes and exploits. The need to instil patriotic values is so great that mythology often takes over, and teachers repeat stories of George Washington's honesty or Abraham Lincoln's virtue even though the stories themselves (such as Washington confessing to chopping down the cherry tree) may be untrue.

Source: CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 12 May 2009.


taught in school, from kindergarten to university level. So how do schools disseminate these “shared values”?

Socialisation: From kindergarten to university, schools need to teach students their role and specific academic subjects. At the kindergarten stage, teachers should teach children the appropriate attitudes and behaviour that is acceptable by the society. At the primary and secondary level, children are taught specific subject matter, skill and previous educational experience suitable to their age group. At the university level, they are then exposed to new areas of study and experience.

Transmission of culture: It is the responsibility of the school to transmit cultural norms and values of the society to the next generation. In doing so, they disseminate the cultural values, attitudes and behaviour accepted by the society so that the children will become productive members of their community.

Social Placement: Schools are responsible to trained future work force. They are to identify the most qualified person to fill the positions in society. Students are taught specific subjects in schools and later enrolled into programs at the college and university. Individuals that have the qualification and requirements are then channelled into the job market.

Change and Innovation: Schools have the responsibility to meet the changes and challenges in society. With new technology and new areas of study being discovered, schools need to create new subjects and universities need to create new programs to meet the societal needs. For example, introducing sex education in school may help to solve part of the social problems created by early pregnancy among teenagers in school. Medical faculty update their equipments and technology to meet the discovery of new illnesses and drugs.

2) CONFLICT THEORYConflict theorists believe that schools create class, racial, and gender

inequalities among its students. According to them, these inequalities arise due to certain groups within society that seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others (Ballantine, 2001). They argue that access to quality education is related to one’s social status. Pierre Bourdieu, the French sociologist explained this point by stating that children bring to school their own cultural capital; i.e. their values, beliefs, attitudes, and language competencies. Cultural capital also comprises their accepted attitudes towards education, dress code and manners, knowledge about specific subjects (music, arts, books) and their own age group culture.

Cultural capital vary according to the socioeconomic status of families. Generally, middle and upper class parents emphasise “more” cultural capital

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Amitai Etzioni(1929 - )


compared to working class or low income parents. For example, standardised tests may disadvantage working class or low income students. A question may ask:

“Which one of these instruments usually belong in an orchestra?A. banjoB. sitarC. violinD. harmonica

This question assumes considerable cultural knowledge, including what an orchestra is, how it differs from a band, and what instruments comprise an orchestra. The question itself assumes exposure to a particular kind of music favoured by middle and upper class students. Testing experts claim that they have been careful in making sure culturally biased questioning does not arise. Many of these tests contain a knowledge base that is culturally sensitive.

Some schools practice “streaming” or “tracking” in which students in primary and secondary schools are grouped according to their academic performance. Why is it necessary to differentiate students according to their academic ability? Schools feel that it is easier to teach students with similar abilities than mixed abilities. As such students are streamed according to “high,” “average,” and “low” academic ability.

Studies on the effects of streaming or tracking showed that it has an effect on students’ academic achievement and career choices. Oakes (1985) study found that students grouped together as low achievers had lower educational expectations and career aspirations. Miller (1995) found that streaming or tracking had put poor and minority students through a dilute programme thus making them unable to compete with high academic ability students. Instead of helping students to improve their school performance, the practice of streaming or tracking is likely to make students drop out of school or placed in situations that do not help them to proceed to college or university.

In short, conflict theorists see education not as a social benefit or opportunity, but as a powerful means of maintaining power structures and creating a docile work force for capitalism.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONFLICT THEORY AND FUNCTIONAL THEORY

Conflict theory see the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system as perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.

Both functionalists and conflict theorists agree that the educational system practices sorting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting. Functionalists claim that schools sort based upon merit; conflict theorists argue that schools sort along distinct class and ethnic lines. According to conflict theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower-class member of society. Conflict theorists call this role of education the “hidden curriculum.”

Source: CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 12 May 2009.


3) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVEEarlier we discussed that those who subscribe to functionalism focus on the

functions of education whereas those who subscribe to conflict theorists stressed on the relationship between education and inequality. The third theory on schooling is the symbolic interactionist perspective which emphasises on classroom communication patterns and educational practices and how it affects students’ self-concept and aspirations. Interactionists limit their analysis of education to what that can be observed directly on what is happening in the classroom. Focus is on how teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes.

Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted the landmark study which was published with the title 'Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development', in 1968 (see Figure 1.2). Rosenthal was a Harvard University professor while Leonore Jacobson was a principal of an elementary school in San Francisco. The book is a classic in the sociology of education. Put simply, the main argument of the book is that the expectations that teachers have about their students' behaviour can unwittingly influence student behaviour. This influence, or self-fulfilling prophecy, could have a positive or negative impact. In other words,

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when teachers expect students to do well, they tend to do well; when teachers expect students to fail, they tend to fail. This phenomenon termed as the self-fulfilling prophecy, where a false assumption actually occurs because someone predicted it.

The self-fulfilling prophecy concept was introduced by Robert Merton in a seminal essay published in the Antioch Review in 1948. In that article, Merton described a self-fulfilling prophecy as a three-stage process:

Stage 1 is when a person's belief (false at the time it is held) that a certain event will happen in the future.

Stage 2 is when this expectation, or prophecy, leads to a new behaviour that the person would have not undertaken in the absence of such expectation.

Stage 3 is when the expected events actually take place, and the prophecy is fulfilled.

One of Merton's examples was the collapse of a solid and solvent financial institution, the Last National Bank, in the early 1930s. The process began with the belief, false at that time, that the institution was at the verge of bankruptcy. That led to a massive withdrawal of savings by panicked depositors, which in turn led to the actual collapse of the bank.

Rosenthal and Jacobson borrowed the term 'Pygmalion effect' from a play by George Bernard Shaw ('Pygmalion') in which a professor's high expectations radically transformed the educational performance of a lower-class girl. 'Pygmalion in the Classroom' describes an experiment carried out in an elementary school (which the authors call Oak School) to test the hypothesis that in any given classroom there is a correlation between teachers' expectations and students' achievement (see Figure 1.3).

In the experiment, Rosenthal and Jacobson gave an intelligence test to all of the students at an elementary school at the beginning of the school year. Then, they randomly selected 20 percent of the students ─ without any relation to their test results ─ and reported to the teachers that these 20% of students were showing "unusual potential for intellectual growth" and could be expected to "bloom" in their academic performance by the end of the year. Eight months later, at the end of the academic year, they came back and re-tested all the students.

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Those labelled as "intelligent" children showed significantly greater increase in the new tests than the other children who were not singled out for the teachers' attention. This means that "the change in the teachers' expectations regarding the intellectual performance of these allegedly 'special' children had led to an actual change in the intellectual performance of these randomly selected children" (1968. p. viii).

The teachers were also asked to rate students on variables related to intellectual curiosity, personal and social adjustment, and need for social approval. In what can be interpreted as a 'benign cycle,' those average children who were expected to bloom intellectually were rated by teachers as more intellectually curious, happier, and in less need for social approval.

For ethical reasons, the Oak School experiment only focused on favourable or positive expectations and their impact on intellectual competence, but it is reasonable to infer that unfavourable expectations could also lead to a corresponding decrease in performance. Often, these negative expectations are based on appearances and other factors that have little to do with actual intellectual ability:

There are many determinants of a teacher's expectation of her pupils' intellectual ability. Even before a teacher has seen a pupil deal with academic tasks she is likely to have some expectation for his behaviour. If she is to teach a 'slow group,' or children of darker skin colour, or children whose mothers are 'on welfare,' she will have different expectations for her pupils' performance than if she is to teach a 'fast group,' or children of an upper-middle-class community. Before she has seen a child perform, she may have seen his score on an achievement or ability test or his last years' grades, or she may have access to the less formal information that constitutes the child's reputation. (1968, p. viii).

Rosenthal and Jacobson's study and subsequent research confirmed that teachers' expectations matter, that student labelling is often done on arbitrary and biased grounds, and suggested that through the hidden curriculum teachers can, consciously or unconsciously, reinforce existing class, ethnic and gender inequalities.

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Figure 1.3 The Pygmalion Effect


This is done by creating a classroom atmosphere in which some students are systematically encouraged to succeed whereas others are systematically discouraged, reproducing in the classroom the social cycle of advantages and disadvantages. It also implies, conversely (and this has important policy implications), that a change in teachers expectations can lead to an improvement in intellectual performance from those who are usually expected to achieve the least (Schugurensky, 2002).

Although many people had suspected for years that teachers' expectations have an impact on students' performance, 'Pygmalion in the classroom' was one the first studies providing clear evidence to document this hypothesis. If we agree, based on this evidence, that a relation between teachers' expectation and the performance of certain students, then a subsequent question arises: How, specifically, do teachers influence a higher achievement of those average students arbitrarily labelled as 'intellectually superior'? In other words, what are the specific classroom mechanisms by which a teacher's expectations actually translates into a gain in performance? Because the Oak School experiment did not attempt to examine this issue, it did not provide conclusive evidence on this, but suggested that a combination of subtle changes in teaching strategies and communication patterns (e.g. teachers paying more attention and giving more encouragement and positive reinforcement to the children from whom more gains were expected) took place during the academic year and played an important role in effecting student performance (Schugurensky, 2002).

'Pygmalion in the classroom' was followed by many other school-based studies that examined these mechanisms in detail from different perspectives. Prominent among the works on this subject conducted by U.S. scholars are "Student social class and teacher expectations: the self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education" by Ray Rist (1970); "Social class and the hidden curriculum of work" by Jean Anyon (1980); "Keeping track: How schools structure inequality" by Jeannie Oakes (1984), and "Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls" by Myra Sadker and David Sadker (1995).

Although Rosenthal and Jacobson's work has received several methodological and theoretical criticisms, their pioneering and imaginative research on the Oak School certainly opened a 'black box' in the empirical study of equality of educational opportunity, and provided a lasting contribution to the field.

Ray Rist conducted research similar to the Rosenthal-Jacobson study in 1970. In a kindergarten classroom where both students and teacher were African American, the teacher assigned students to tables based on ability; the “better” students sat at a table closer to her, the “average” students sat at the next table, and the “weakest” students sat at the farthest table. Rist discovered that the teacher assigned the students to a table based on the teacher's perception of the students' skill levels on the eighth day of class, without any form of testing to verify the placement. Rist also found that the students the teacher perceived as “better” learners came from higher social classes, while the “weak” students were from lower social classes.

Monitoring the students through the year, Rist found that the students closer to the teacher received the most attention and performed better. The farther from the teacher a student sat, the weaker that student performed. Rist continued the study through the next several years and found that the labels assigned to the students on the eighth day of kindergarten followed them throughout their schooling. While interactionist theorists are able to document this process, they have yet to define the exact process of how teachers form their expectations or how students may communicate subtle messages to teachers about intelligence, skill, and so forth.

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THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

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ENVIRONMENT


A system can be broadly defined as an integrated set of elements that accomplish a defined objective. For example, a computer system includes multiple servers, terminals, printers, network links, software, users, and support systems, including maintenance and repair, training, and spare parts. All these elements are essential for the computer network system to function. In biology, a system is a group of organs that work together to perform a certain task such as the digestive system, the respiratory system and so forth.

In short, a system is any collection of interrelated parts that together constitute a larger whole. These component parts, or elements of the system are intimately linked with one another, either directly or indirectly, and any change in one or more elements may affect the overall performance of the system, either beneficially or adversely. A simple system is illustrated in Figure 1.4 (Ellington, 1996).

The system consists of four distinct elements, A, B, C & D, which are related to or dependent upon each other as indicated. Note that some interrelationships may be two-way, while others may be one-way only. These elements may themselves be capable of further breakdown into other smaller components, and thus be regarded as subsystems of the overall system.

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It is 8.00 o’clock on Monday morning. You are entering the compound of a school. You see children in uniform rushing to get into the school building. As you enter the school building you could hear children voices, tapping of feet, and you see children rushing into their respective classes. In the midst of all this, the bell rings and in a few minutes silence prevails along the corridor. You know teachers will enters these classes and soon lessons will begin and lasts until noon. This scenario will be repeated on each school day. Every student knows this school system and will avoid coming to school late, be properly dressed, ensure that the school bag is filled with whatever is needed during the lessons for the day, and be ready to learn the subjects taught on that day. These are basically what is expected from a student and if he is not prepared to fulfill these expectations then the teacher will attempt to instil in this student with the expected behaviour of all school children.

OUTPUTFEEDBACK

FEEDBACK

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT


Figure 1.4 A Typical System

Similarly, the school can be considered to be a very complex system. The input into a school consists of people, resources and information, and the output consists of people whose performance or ideas have (it is hoped) improved in some desired way (see Figure 1.5). All schools have a vision, mission and goals which are formalised so that the school community may work towards achieving them. How are these goals set? By whom? Goals that are formal serve several purposes. Once the goals are formalised it may serve as guidelines for teachers and school administrators to carry out their activities. This also implies that the goals have been consensually accepted and that they should have high priority in the school system.

According to Ballantine, (2001), the school has been established to “develop in each student the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward ever nobler ends” (p. 136). Each school will then decide the type of programmes to reflect the desired goals. These programmes will focus on the curriculum content, teaching style, and school structure to meet the stated goals.

In other words, the school system attempts to mould the input in such as way as to enable the optimal assimilation of the knowledge and skills to take place during the learning process, and hence maximise the quality of the output (Ellington, 1996). It is a system comprising various subsystems or parts and each has a purpose to perform in order to fulfill the mission or vision of the school. Thus, it is vital that these parts interact and assist each other in their daily routine to ensure smooth school operations. Based on this understanding, the school is seen as responsible to shape the behaviour and values of students through its formal and informal curriculum. This curriculum is then transmitted to the students through socialization among members of the school.

Socialising in school involves instilling values and standards of behaviour. In other words, socialising involves efforts made by teachers to shape children’s behaviour, inculcate moral values, and cultural styles. Teachers will describe a student as “well behaved” if she conforms to the standards of conduct, “good” if she conducts herself well morally, and “well adjusted” if she conforms to the school culture.

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INPUT

ORGANSATION A

D BC

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT


Figure 1.5 The School as a System

SCHOOL AS A BUREAUCRACY

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INPUTStudents, human resources, financial resources, information

ORGANISATION Teachers Students Management Curriculum others

OUTPUTImproved student achievement, Change in student attitudes, Enhanced skills of students, Improved socioemotional intelligence

FEEDBACK

FEEDBACK

You have been teaching for a number of years in a school. You are considered by your superior as a diligent and caring teacher. You have the ability to handle your class well and know how to organise your teaching materials to make your lessons interesting. All these are performed within the classroom and goals set by the school. You decide how to present your lessons to students. This whole process that you have done throughout the year in school is known as bureaucracy.

LEARNING ACTIVITY a) Why is the school considered a social system? b) Describe your school, college, university or educational institution as a social system.Why are educational institution described as ‘open’ social

systems?


In traditional society, authority was held together by a king, chief or priest whom the people obeyed because they represented ancestral, religious and customary wisdom. Obedience is unquestioning, passed on from generation to generation by succession to offices of power vested with authority. As societies developed complex organisations, the state, religious institutions, cities, they needed organisers and managers. Almost all activities, in fact, need some rules and administration. No games could be played, no arts performed, no knowledge transmitted, no products made if there were not rules and umpires, referees and teachers to administer them. Schools, hospitals, courts of law, libraries, universities, industrial firms, parliament, all need rules and all need bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is one of the great tools of civilisation. Societies would collapse into disorder without bureaucracy.

Max Weber, a German political scientist and sociologist in his book Economy and Society was the earliest to recognise that to administer, maintain authority, and enforce rules, modern institutions have to introduce a bureaucratic system. In a bureaucracy there is a:

a well-defined division of duties and tasks to be performed by individuals in accordance to the procedures and rules set by the organisation

a consistent and clear system of recruitment and a career path for individuals, and loyalty to the organisation is reflected in the performance of individuals,

a hierarchy which differentiates status, authority and power among individuals system of information flow upwards and downwards in the hierarchy and

patterns of cooperation among individuals.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, business corporations, armed forces, non-governmental organisations, hospitals, schools and so forth.

According to Weber, as an organisation develops there is a need to standardised procedures of conducting the daily functions of the organisation so that official tasks can be conducted on a continuous basis rather than on the whims of the administrators. Under bureaucracy system there is equal opportunity of appointment to positions in the organisation, enforce laws and rules, and for officials to exercise authority under the law. The bureaucracy disapproves of all rule breaking, which it tends to label ‘corruption’. However, in an effort to reduce personal discretion in decision making by those in power, there is a tendency to introduce many rules and regulations to make provision for every kind of situation that may arise. Hence the term “over bureaucratic”. Another tendency is towards centralisation of power. In order to reduce too much delegation of authority or power leading to a lack of uniformity, decision making is moved upwards in the system. Hence the term “over centralisation” in the bureaucracy.

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Figure 1.1 Organisation chart of a hypothetical Ministry of Marine Resources

As mentioned earlier, a bureaucratic system needs to have an organisational structure with well defined functions and rules, and clear descriptions of who should carry out the assigned functions. See Figure 1.1 showing a hypothetical organisation chart of a Ministry of Marine Resources. At the top of the pyramid is the Minister and at the bottom are four departments. The pyramid hierarchical structure is most common in many organisation, though the concept of a ‘flatter’ organisational structure is gaining popularity especially in organisations demanding high creativity such as information and communication technology companies. In the pyramid structure, those on top of the pyramid have higher authority supervising those lower down the pyramid with every worker accountable for the task they perform.

With bureaucracy, decisions are made at meetings conducted within the organisation and rules and procedures set must be adhered accordingly. The recruitment of new staff is based on educational qualifications and chosen on the basis of their ability rather than on personal connections. This solves the problem of cronyism and bias. Thus, bureaucracy acts like a giant machine with every officer performing his duty based on the routine and impersonal ways set by the organisation. This is vital if the organisation is to progress forward.

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Figure 1.2 Hypothetical example of the organisation chart of a secondary school

Schools are run on a bureaucratic structure. In Malaysia, at the top we have the Ministry of Education supported by several Divisions to look into every aspect of the educational system. All procedures concerning school curriculum and co-curriculum; the number of teaching days, texts books, national examination procedures and dates

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PRINCIPAL

ASSISTANTPRINCIPAL

Department of Science & Mathematics

Administration

Support Services

ASSISTANTPRINCIPAL

PRINCIPAL

ASSISTANTPRINCIPAL

Department of Technical & Vocational Studies

Department of Language

Department of Social Studies


of examination, various clubs and sports that can be conducted in schools are decided at the ministry level. Similarly, procedures on appointment of teachers, promotion, and salary scheme are set by the ministry. Below the Ministry and its several Divisions are the State Education Departments that oversee the running of schools in each state. Further down the hierarchy is the District Education Department that monitors the operations of schools in each district. Finally, we have the schools, each with its own bureaucratic structure to run the daily activities.

Figure 1.2 is a simplified organisation chart of a hypothetical secondary school. At the top of the hierarchy is the Principal who is assisted by two or three assistant principals. In the example above, one Assistant Principal oversees four departments divided according to the subjects taught in school. In each of these departments is a Head of Department and several subject matter experts, i.e. the teachers. Each department will be responsible for determining teaching of their respective subjects in the classroom. The other Assistant Principal oversees the Administration of the school which will involve issues relating to finance, purchasing, recording keeping, correspondence and so forth. Also, under the purview of the Assistant Principal is the management of Support Services such as janitorial services, landscaping services, building maintenance and so forth.

COMMENTRAY ON “OVER BUREAUCRATISATION”A certain amount of bureaucracy, accountability and organization is vital for

the world we live in. But as rules multiply, it becomes so difficult to do anything that one has to cheat or break the rules in order to survive. Indeed, since the rules often conflict with each other and whatever one does breaks some rule so it is a question of choosing between illegalities. The system becomes ever more complicated, with more and more rules. Rather than leading to openness and transparency (which was the original intention), this leads to a situation where only a highly trained specialist (professional bureaucrat) knows how it works. There is as a result more space for hidden corruption.

There is also a loss of personal incentives. Humans like freedom and responsibility in their lives. They like to be given basic guidance and then encouraged to get on with things; to be ingenious and creative in their solutions. As bureaucracy increases, people are ever more rule-bound, forced to work ‘by the book’. This means that jobs become dead; creative and ingenious solutions are often frowned upon.

Another harmful effect of over-active bureaucracies is that they divert talent. In almost all organizations, the higher the pay and the higher the status, the less

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LEARNING ACTIVITY a) Why would you regard your educational institution as a bureaucracy? b) Draw an organisation chart of your education institution. c) Is your educational institution “over bureaucratic” or “ over centralised? Explain.


practical work and the more administration. A head teacher who was perhaps an excellent communicator does not teach any more. An excellent surgeon ends up doing paperwork as head of a hospital. A brilliant academic is finally the administrative head of a University. None of them any longer do the thing they most enjoy or are good at. They spend their time as fund raisers, personnel officers, chairs of committees. It is a widespread tendency: if you can do anything really well, stop doing it and become an administrator.

A further effect is waste of time and effort, much of it never accounted for despite the fact that bureaucracy is supposed to be based on accountability. In case an institution might need to justify an action, huge amounts of time are spent on concocting audit trails, lengthy agendas, minutes, papers to cover every aspect of everything. The time and energy in doing all this when set against the cost of any likely harmful outcome is probably out of all proportion. Yet it is held to be irresponsible not to do it.

[source: Alan McFarlane, How the world works? What is bureaucracy for? March. 2007]

SCHOOL CULTURE

Each school has its own climate which refers to the school environment or atmosphere. This climate exists along its corridors, classrooms, among its students and teachers. It is a feeling you get when you enter the school compound. The school culture is part of the school climate. Culture refers to a group’s shared beliefs, customs, and behaviour. A school’s culture includes the obvious elements of schedules, curriculum, demographics, and policies, as well as the social interactions that occur within those structures and give a school its look and feel as “friendly,” “elite,” “competitive,” “inclusive,” and so on. School culture is variously defined by its:

Rituals Expectations Relationships Curricular focus Extra-curricular activities Decision-making processes Graduation requirements and any other aspect of “the way things are done in a school”.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY What are your thoughts about the commentary by Alan McFarlane?


A school has a personality of its very own. It has, some cherished traditions, unwritten rules, unspoken expectations, a proud heritage or past, and a sense of spirit. It may have a special song, symbolising what is important. It may have special traditions and meanings that are uniquely its own. Each school has its own culture; values, norms, attitudes, beliefs, customs and procedures which make up the school system. School culture is important in instilling a feeling of loyalty among its members. For example, in many American schools, setting up of the school cheering squad is important. The school believes that the presence of a cheering squad during any interschool matches will boost the morale of their school players. When a team goes down to the field, the players are accompanied by the cheering squad. This will create a feeling of togetherness and this is a culture unique to the school.

Other aspects of school culture include ceremonies that are unique in each school. Similarly, students in the school may have their own culture which involves their language, dress, music, and activities and this is passed on to the next generation of new students entering the school. This culture may emerge from the immediate community in which the school is located.

For example, if the surrounding community is an affluent society then we can expect students in this school to have the language, behaviour and life style of the affluent society. Teachers too have their own culture to represent the adult society. There are teachers who tend to be less approachable and create a distance from students. These styles and outlooks reflect what teachers believe about their role.

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Positive School CultureThere’s no one perfect school culture, but the following are some features of a positive school culture:

There needs to be a widely shared sense of purpose and values that is consistent and shared across staff members. Without this, there is fragmentation and often times, a conflict.

There are group norms of continuous learning and school improvement that the group reinforces. The importance of staff learning and a focus on continuous improvement in the school.

A sense of responsibility for a student’s learning and not to blame students for not being successful. In a positive school culture, staff really feel a sense of responsibility for the learning of all students.

There should be collaborative and collegial relationships between staff members. People share ideas, problems and solutions, They work together to build a better school.

There is a focus on professional development, and staff reflection, and sharing of professional practice. These are places where people interact around their craft; to improve their teaching collaboratively.

Source: Shaping School Culture. Excerpts from an interview with Dr. Kent Peterson. Apple Learning Exchange, 2004.


REFERENCES:

Ballantine, J.H. (2001). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 136

CliffsNotes.com. Theories of Education. 28 Apr 2009

Durkheim, E. (1961). Education and sociology. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.

Ellington, H. (1996). The systems approach to curriculum development. Educational Development Unit. The Robert Gordon University.

Jackson, P.W., Boostrom, R.E.,& Hansen, D.T. (1993). The moral life of schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Merton, R.K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, pp. 193-210.

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Miller, L. Scott. (1995). An American imperative: Accelerating Minority educational advancement. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How high schools structure inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University.

Ray C. Rist, (1970). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education, Harvard Educational Review, 40, 72-73.

Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development'. New York: Rinehart and Winston.

Saphier, J. & King, M. (1985) Good Seeds Grow in Strong Cultures. Educational Leadership, March 1985 (Vol. 42, No. 6, p. 67-74)

Schugurensky, D. (2002). Selected Moments of the 20th Century. Department of Adult Education, Community Development and Counselling Psychology, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto.

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