1. 2 college of business research director and prof. of mgt. & quant. methodscollege of business...

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• College of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. MethodsCollege of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. Methods

• Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983

• Honors/Awards/Recognitions:Honors/Awards/Recognitions:

• Recipient of theRecipient of the “Outstanding University Researcher Award”“Outstanding University Researcher Award”

(One of only three COB faculty who have ever received it)(One of only three COB faculty who have ever received it)

• Recipient of the Recipient of the ““Manahan Family Award for Teaching ExcellenceManahan Family Award for Teaching Excellence””

• Designated as aDesignated as a “Caterpillar Faculty Scholar” “Caterpillar Faculty Scholar”

• Recipient of theRecipient of the “Outstanding College of Business Researcher Award”“Outstanding College of Business Researcher Award”

• Recipient of theRecipient of the “Outstanding MQM Department Researcher Award”“Outstanding MQM Department Researcher Award”

• Member of Member of Editorial Review BoardsEditorial Review Boards of of 3 research journals3 research journals

• Recipient of many Recipient of many Outstanding Research/Best Paper AwardsOutstanding Research/Best Paper Awards at various conferencesat various conferences

• ReviewerReviewer for several other journals and national/international conferencesfor several other journals and national/international conferences

• Published approx. Published approx. 40 research articles40 research articles in academic and professional journals in academic and professional journals

• Published many Published many chapters/articles in various books.chapters/articles in various books.

• Presented more than Presented more than 60 research papers60 research papers in international/national conferencesin international/national conferences

and published them in the proceedings of those conferencesand published them in the proceedings of those conferences

• Extensive business Extensive business consulting/management trainingconsulting/management training experience experience

• Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of

Bloomington, Children’s Foundation, Digital Monitoring Solutions, etc. Bloomington, Children’s Foundation, Digital Monitoring Solutions, etc.

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FO C US OF THE COURSE?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Meaning of “Methodology”???“Methodology”???

• A sub-fieldA sub-field of of epistemologyepistemology which is, in turn, which is, in turn, a branch of a branch of philosophy philosophy (see next slide).(see next slide).

• MethodologyMethodology is concerned with: is concerned with:

Methods/toolsMethods/tools of discovering the of discovering the unknownunknown and andpursuing the “truth” pursuing the “truth”

Science of Science of acquiring knowledgeacquiring knowledge and andestablishing its establishing its truth/validitytruth/validity

Methodology: Methodology: “The “The Science Science (and art) (and art) of conducting scienceof conducting science””

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PHILOSOPHYPHILOSOPHY means means ““love of wisdomlove of wisdom””

It is the It is the rational pursuitrational pursuit of of the the truthtruth andand nature of existence/being. nature of existence/being. TheThe “ “mother disciplinemother discipline” ” from which other scientific disciplines emerged.from which other scientific disciplines emerged.

IN THE BEGINNING, IN THE BEGINNING, all systematic/rational searches of knowledge all systematic/rational searches of knowledge

and wisdomand wisdom constituted philosophy, but constituted philosophy, but primarily focused onprimarily focused on:: OntologyOntology (nature of existence/being and man’s relationship to existence) (nature of existence/being and man’s relationship to existence) Cosmology and Astronomy Cosmology and Astronomy (origin and structure/rational order of the universe)(origin and structure/rational order of the universe) Logic, Mathematics & Science Logic, Mathematics & Science (mathematical/logical analysis to understand nature)(mathematical/logical analysis to understand nature) EpistemologyEpistemology (nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge) (nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge) Spiritual/Theological IssuesSpiritual/Theological Issues (especially in the Middle Ages) (especially in the Middle Ages) Ethics and Government Ethics and Government (man’s conduct/morality, relationship with other(man’s conduct/morality, relationship with other

men, and forms of government and their pros and cons) men, and forms of government and their pros and cons)

TODAY, focus of philosophy includes:TODAY, focus of philosophy includes: MetaphysicsMetaphysics (understanding the nature of ultimate reality) (understanding the nature of ultimate reality) EpistemologyEpistemology (nature of knowledge, its sources, and its validity) (nature of knowledge, its sources, and its validity) Ethics Ethics (perspectives on right/wrong, fairness, justice, etc.) (perspectives on right/wrong, fairness, justice, etc.) Logic Logic (principles of reasoning and rational argumentation)(principles of reasoning and rational argumentation) AestheticsAesthetics (the theory of the nature of art, beauty, etc.) (the theory of the nature of art, beauty, etc.)

Aristotle & Plato at the Academy of Athens, by Raphael (1510), Fresco, Vatican

INTRODUCTION: MAN’S QUEST FOR ANSWERSINTRODUCTION: MAN’S QUEST FOR ANSWERS

Man’s Man’s existential questionsexistential questions regarding: regarding:The nature of The nature of his existencehis existence, , his place his place in this world, and in this world, and the way his world worksthe way his world works, , how much controlhow much control over destiny, over destiny,what is the truthwhat is the truth, and , and how to go abouthow to go about finding out the truth finding out the truth..

The different meansThe different means that have been employed to answer these that have been employed to answer these fundamental questions: fundamental questions:

1.1. Appeal to Appeal to intuitionintuition, , self-evidentself-evident, , common sensecommon sense, , authorityauthority, , traditiontradition, , superstitionsuperstition, , religious faithreligious faith, , majority judgmentmajority judgment, etc., etc.

1.1. PhilosophyPhilosophy ((speculative thoughtspeculative thought based on rational analysis and logical/objective based on rational analysis and logical/objective reasoning, to arrive at conclusions based on reasoning, to arrive at conclusions based on logical necessitylogical necessity))

2.2. TheologyTheology (philosophical speculations to explain/justify religious dogma as offered (philosophical speculations to explain/justify religious dogma as offered by divine revelation—by divine revelation—religion through a philosophical lensreligion through a philosophical lens))

3.3. Modern ScienceModern Science (developing explanations of natural phenomena based on (developing explanations of natural phenomena based on rational and objective analysis of sensible/observational evidencerational and objective analysis of sensible/observational evidence))

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A Historical Journey ThroughA Historical Journey Through

The Evolution of The Evolution of EpistemologyEpistemology

The Focus of this PresentationThe Focus of this Presentation: :

To examine the historical To examine the historical forces that have shapedforces that have shaped modern man’s modern man’s perspectives on perspectives on epistemologyepistemology..

• ““Episteme” Episteme” (Greek word):(Greek word): Organized knowledgeOrganized knowledge (science)(science)

• EpistemologyEpistemology ((theory of knowledge, what is true knowledge theory of knowledge, what is true knowledge and the proper ways of getting at itand the proper ways of getting at it))

a.a. The The naturenature of knowledge of knowledge (What constitutes (What constitutes true knowledgetrue knowledge?)?)

b.b. Its Its sourcessources and and methodsmethods (How it is supposed to be acquired?)(How it is supposed to be acquired?)

c.c. Its Its ValidityValidity (The ways to establishing its truth?)(The ways to establishing its truth?)

d.d. The The appropriate methodsappropriate methods for advancing science/knowledge for advancing science/knowledge

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A Journey ThroughA Journey ThroughThe Evolution of The Evolution of EpistemologyEpistemology

• The GenesisThe Genesis of of written knowledgewritten knowledge goes back to goes back toMesopotamia (today’s Iraq)Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq)

THE VERY BEGINNING-- THE VERY BEGINNING-- Emergence of Emergence of Writing & AlphabetWriting & Alphabet::

• World’s first World’s first writing systemswriting systems 3300 BC3300 BC::

• First First standard alphabetstandard alphabet 1100 BC1100 BC::

• Symbols to represent Symbols to represent vowels,vowels, 750 BC750 BC

THE VERY BEGINNINGSTHE VERY BEGINNINGS

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Important Discoveries in Important Discoveries in Numbering SystemsNumbering Systems::

•Positional notationPositional notation in numbers discovered around in numbers discovered around 3500 BC3500 BC

MesopotamiaMesopotamia (by Babylonians & Sumerians) (by Babylonians & Sumerians)

Base of 60Base of 60

ZeroZero not understoodnot understood

• The concept of 0 The concept of 0 properly understood/used properly understood/used 350 BC350 BC

In In MesopotamiaMesopotamia (by Babylonians) (by Babylonians)

Then by Then by GreeksGreeks

•0 and the 0 and the decimaldecimal system, system, HindusHindus around 1200 years ago around 1200 years ago(AD 750)(AD 750)

But, in Europe, not until the But, in Europe, not until the 1100’s1100’s (when (when Arabic numerals were Arabic numerals were finally adoptedfinally adopted) through translations of the works of ) through translations of the works of KhawrazmiKhawrazmi (Iran, 780-850).(Iran, 780-850).

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Organized knowledge and the Organized knowledge and the modern scientific methods modern scientific methods owe their developmentowe their development directly to directly to three major three major knowledge knowledge explosionsexplosions in philosophy and science: in philosophy and science:

1.1. In In GreeceGreece around 6around 6thth century BC. century BC.

2.2. In the In the Muslim WorldMuslim World (especially by Persians/Iranians)(especially by Persians/Iranians) around 8around 8thth-12-12thth century.century.

3.3. BeganBegan in in EuropeEurope during the during the 1616thth & 17 & 17thth century scientific revolution century scientific revolution and the and the 1818thth century enlightenment era century enlightenment era (“the age of reason”). (“the age of reason”).

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

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First Knowledge Explosion--The First Knowledge Explosion--The GreekGreek Domination: Domination:

• From From 600 BC through the 16600 BC through the 16th th centurycentury, the development , the development of virtually of virtually all philosophy and scienceall philosophy and science was dominated (or was dominated (or greatly influenced) by the work of greatly influenced) by the work of ancient Greek ancient Greek philosophersphilosophers : :

Raphael (1483-15 ), Academy of Athens, Fresco, Vatican


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Thales (625-546 BC) --Birth of Science/Philosophy:

• Explanation for how the material world was constructed. Without resorting to supernatural explanations.

• Was the first to assume:

World is an ordered entity, intelligible, & explainable in terms of one or more underlying elements.

− Water--the single entity/element that underlies everything else in the world.

His work marked the birth of science! Soon after, other Greeks began thinking about the world in similar ways.


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PythagorasPythagoras (570- 495 BC)—(570- 495 BC)—A Mathematical World:A Mathematical World:

• First to propose aFirst to propose a mathematically constructedmathematically constructed universe universe intelligibleintelligible in mathematical terms in mathematical terms

• Continuation of his work by other Continuation of his work by other Pythagorean philosophersPythagorean philosophers

SocratesSocrates (470 - 400 BC) (470 - 400 BC) • Mainly concerned with Mainly concerned with ethicsethics and and politicspolitics..

• NOT interested in scientific research, but NOT interested in scientific research, but viewed knowledge a virtue.viewed knowledge a virtue.

• Believe: Just as the human person is guided by the power of his mind, Believe: Just as the human person is guided by the power of his mind, the the world is also guided by a knowing powerworld is also guided by a knowing power that operates the universe that operates the universe in an orderly fashionin an orderly fashion based on some natural laws. based on some natural laws.


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With Plato and Aristotle, a long-standing philosophical debatebegan surrounding the theory of knowledge,centering around the following issues:

1.The nature of existence.

a. Objects exist independent of our mind and perception(materialism), vs

b. Material objects exist only because we perceive them (idealism).

2.The nature of reality. What is real? What constitutes primary reality?

a. The material things of the experiencible “phenomenal world” as they appear to our senses (e.g., beautiful things, or various individual cats)—Realism

vsa. The transcendent, changeless, perfect prototypes of worldly entities of the

“noumenal world” (Plato’s Idea/Forms/Universals) as they actually are beyond our mind/senses (e.g., beauty, or what it is to be a cat)—Idealism

That is, the question of whether there is a duality/distinction between:

• The noumenal world: The real world of perfect Platonic entities (Ideas/Forms); the world as it actually is, and

• The phenomenal world: The experiencible world of imperfect material objects (“particulars”); the world as it appears to our senses. (Continued…)

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens,

Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

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3. The nature of knowledge. What constitutestrue knowledge?

a. Does knowledge pertains to understanding of the experienciblematerial objects of the natural world (i.e., “Particulars”)? Or

b. Does it pertain to understanding of the intelligible, transcendent,changeless entities/concepts of the noumenal world (i.e., “Universals”)

4. The Source of knowledge.

a. Knowledge is a priori (inborn/innate). That is, it is already planted in the mind prior to our birth and, thus, we only have to uncover it (Rationalism).

b. We are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) and, thus, knowledge is only attainable through interaction with the material world--through experience and sense perception (Empiricism)

5. Method of acquiring knowledge.

a. Should knowledge be acquired intellectually through contemplation, reasoning, and logical analysis in the mind (Rationalism)? Or

b. Should it be acquired experientially through careful observation, experimentation, and sense perception (Empiricism)?

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of EpistemologyPlato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens,


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Plato’s (427-347 BC)

1.1. A philosophical A philosophical idealistidealist and and rationalistrationalist

2.2. IntuitiveIntuitive and and spiritualspiritual

3. God being perfect architected/arranged/designed a perfect world. 4. So, the entities of this real “noumenal world” must be perfect/changeless.

Plato calls these perfect prototypesperfect prototypes (transcendent/ (transcendent/ideal entitiesideal entities))“Ideas/Forms”. – CharacteristicsCharacteristics created by God, in which material beings/objects partake. created by God, in which material beings/objects partake.

Examples:Examples: Cat (or universal “catness”) vs this or that particular cat, Cat (or universal “catness”) vs this or that particular cat,virtue vs virtuous individuals, beauty vs beautiful objects,, etc.virtue vs virtuous individuals, beauty vs beautiful objects,, etc.

4. But, observable objects (“particulars”) of the experiencible ”phenomenal world” are NOT perfect (since many of each exist, & multiplicity rules out perfection).

So, they must not have primary reality and must be just illusory/shadowy imperfect reflections/copies of the real thing (i.e., Ideas/Forms).

This is why the experience-based understanding of these material things (“particulars”) is unreliable and subject to disagreement.

5. As such, such an understanding amounts to mere OPINIONS. OPINION is just assumptions about reality based on appearances.

6. TRUE KNOLEDGE, being certain and infallible (there is only one truth),must pertain to the perfect reality represented by Ideas/Forms.




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Therefore, real knowledge involves concepts/definitions, NOT objects.

7. Since true knowledge CANNT be learned through interacting with/ experiencing the material world (phenomenal world), then, it:

a. must be (like in mathematics) deduced intuitively/intellectuallythrough contemplation and intellectual reasoning in the mind.

Where we are NOT hand-strung by physical/perceptual limitations.

b. Must be brought to us from an earlier existence (it is inborn/a priori).

ImplicationsImplications??

8.8. In short, In short, PlatoPlato was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world Saw reality as being intelligible; not sensible. Saw knowledge as pertaining to Saw knowledge as pertaining to abstract abstract concepts, NOT sensible objects.

9.9. He He dismissed validity of the sensesdismissed validity of the senses, and the role of observations, , and the role of observations, in understanding the real world and in advancing true knowledge. in understanding the real world and in advancing true knowledge.


Plato(427 BC - 347 B C )

We must have an We must have an immortal soulimmortal soul that that carries our carries our a-priori a-priori KnowledgeKnowledge from an from an earlier existence to our current one.earlier existence to our current one.

The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge is The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge is blunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies .blunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies .

Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscover what had been already known.Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscover what had been already known. Plato’sPlato’s belief in belief in immortalityimmortality and and transmigrationtransmigration of the soul shaped much of of the soul shaped much of

his his philosophical dualismphilosophical dualism regarding regarding body vs. soulbody vs. soul, , reality vs appearancereality vs appearance, , knowledge vs opinionknowledge vs opinion, , ideas vs sensible objectsideas vs sensible objects..

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Aristotle Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)(384 – 322 BC)1.1.RationalRational (based on (based on logical necessitylogical necessity)) & & NaturalisticNaturalistic (Note his hand…)(Note his hand…) 2.2.Stressed Stressed validity of the sensesvalidity of the senses

Recognizes importance of Recognizes importance of observationobservation preceding deduction preceding deduction

3.3.Introduced Introduced ““categories”categories” 10 characteristics 10 characteristics (categories) (categories) for identifying, categorizing, and understanding entities: for identifying, categorizing, and understanding entities:

– substancesubstance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state,, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state,action, action, andand affection affection

4.4.““SubstanceSubstance”” (i.e., matter) and its (i.e., matter) and its independent existenceindependent existence All other characteristics (including Plato’s “Ideas”) All other characteristics (including Plato’s “Ideas”) exist through a substanceexist through a substance (i.e., (i.e.,

throthrough ugh concrete particularsconcrete particulars--e.g., beauty through a beautiful object).--e.g., beauty through a beautiful object).

5.5.Substance (concrete particulars) represent Substance (concrete particulars) represent the primary realitythe primary reality. . Basis for Basis for KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE (in order to understand Idea/Forms, you (in order to understand Idea/Forms, you

need to observe concrete particulars)need to observe concrete particulars)

•CONCLUSION:CONCLUSION: Understanding the Understanding the natural worldnatural world constitutes constitutes valid knowledgevalid knowledge, and can be , and can be attainedattained through through sense perceptionsense perceptionand and observation of particulars.observation of particulars.

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of EpistemologyHistory of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology



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Aristotle Aristotle (Continued)(Continued)::

•It is through the It is through the ability to reason & to articulateability to reason & to articulate that man that mantranslates observations translates observations (sense experiences) into useful knowledge.(sense experiences) into useful knowledge.

•To avoid To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallcious discourseconfusion/sophistry/fallcious discourse, reasoning, reasoningmust be must be logicallogical and follow and follow strict and proper rulesstrict and proper rules. .

• So, he developed the So, he developed the “science of logic”“science of logic”——the rules of scientific the rules of scientific thinking/reasoningthinking/reasoning known as known as Aristotelian syllogismAristotelian syllogism::

– A formal system of A formal system of logical argumentationlogical argumentation based on the premise based on the premisethat that every truth followed logically from other truths,every truth followed logically from other truths, and that and thatyou you could not miss a stepcould not miss a step by jumping from truth A to truth C. by jumping from truth A to truth C.

a.a. Start with Start with self-evident axioms self-evident axioms (simple & (simple & obviously true statementsobviously true statements).).

b.b. Combine them using Combine them using rules of logic rules of logic to arrive at to arrive at theoremstheorems ( (proven proven propositionspropositions) which are then used in combination with other axioms and ) which are then used in combination with other axioms and theorems to arrive at theorems to arrive at new theoremsnew theorems..

For exampleFor example, one simple form of such deductive process consists of , one simple form of such deductive process consists of two two premises (axioms) premises (axioms) and and a conclusion (theorem):a conclusion (theorem):

(i) (i) Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise)Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise)

(ii) (ii) Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise)Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise)

(iii) (iii) Every Greek is mortal.Every Greek is mortal. (Conclusion) (Conclusion)

• Centuries later, used as the Centuries later, used as the basis forbasis for the development of first the the development of first theIslamic Islamic and, 2-3 centuries later, and, 2-3 centuries later, Christian “Christian “Scholastic Scholastic Theology.”Theology.” ? ? ? ? ? ?


Aristotle (384-322 BC)Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

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Scholastic Theology: Scholastic Theology: Using Using Aristotle’s philosophy Aristotle’s philosophy andand system of logic system of logic as as a a means to means to develop rational explanations for religious dogmadevelop rational explanations for religious dogma..

•Before the scholastic movement, Before the scholastic movement, early Christianity’searly Christianity’s Augustinian Augustinian theologytheology had been built on the more had been built on the more spiritual spiritual PlatonicPlatonic philosophy philosophy

− Thus, stressed Thus, stressed primacy of the supernaturalprimacy of the supernatural world and, thus, world and, thus, understanding of the understanding of the spiritual worldspiritual world of of perfect, transcendent,perfect, transcendent,divinedivine Platonic “Platonic “Ideas” Ideas” ((the universalsthe universals), discounting the), discounting theknowledge of the natural world. knowledge of the natural world.

•Christianity’s later Christianity’s later AristotelianAristotelian perspective shifted the perspective shifted the epistemological focus to the epistemological focus to the primacy of the materialprimacy of the materialobjects of the natural worldobjects of the natural world ( (the particularsthe particulars) and, thus, legitimized ) and, thus, legitimized pursuit of such secular/worldly knowledge.pursuit of such secular/worldly knowledge.

How How did this did this transitiontransition from the from the Augustinian-PlatonicAugustinian-Platonic to the to the Aristotelian- ScholasticAristotelian- Scholastic theology come about theology come about??

A REVIEW OF the A REVIEW OF the HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS…. HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS….


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Rise of Christianity, Fall of Rome, & The Dawn of Europe’s Dark Ages:Rise of Christianity, Fall of Rome, & The Dawn of Europe’s Dark Ages:

•Macedonians Macedonians conquered conquered GreeceGreece (338 BC) (338 BC)

•Subsequently, Subsequently, Alexander’s (356-323 BC) Alexander’s (356-323 BC) conquest of conquest of Persian Empire Persian Empire and and beyond ushered in the beyond ushered in the Hellenistic eraHellenistic era. .

– The The Intellectual centerIntellectual center of the world gradually moved to of the world gradually moved to Alexandria, Egypt.Alexandria, Egypt.– Alexandria’s Alexandria’s specialized science/philosophyspecialized science/philosophy (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy,

Galien, Plotinus, …, Hypatia)Galien, Plotinus, …, Hypatia)

•RomansRomans conquered Greece (264-146 BC). conquered Greece (264-146 BC).

Expansion of Christianity:Expansion of Christianity: InIn AD 312, AD 312, Emperor ConstantineEmperor Constantine

•Accepted ChristianityAccepted Christianity– End of persecutionEnd of persecution of Christians. of Christians.

•Establishment of the Establishment of the Eastern EmpireEastern Empire ( (Byzantium) Byzantium) withwithConstantinopleConstantinople as its capital. as its capital.

The “The “persecutedpersecuted” quickly turn into the “” quickly turn into the “persecutorspersecutors””


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• AD 395--Christianity the empire’s AD 395--Christianity the empire’s official religion.official religion.

• 44thth - 5 - 5thth cent., cent., ChristianityChristianity penetrates every aspect of the Roman state. penetrates every aspect of the Roman state.

• End of science/philosophy in the West. End of science/philosophy in the West.

• The The ChurchChurch becomes Roman Empire’s becomes Roman Empire’s leading institutionleading institution..

The seed of mixing The seed of mixing religionreligion and and politicspolitics..

The Fall of RomeThe Fall of Rome: :

• InvasionsInvasions by nomadic by nomadic barbarians barbarians (Germanic tribes) in the 4(Germanic tribes) in the 4thth & 5 & 5thth centuries centuries

• Result: Result: Europe breaks apart Europe breaks apart into kingdoms of various Germanic tribes into kingdoms of various Germanic tribes


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• Many blamed Christians/Christianity for Many blamed Christians/Christianity for underminingundermining Rome’s Rome’spagan Godspagan Gods and her and her Greco-Roman cultural valuesGreco-Roman cultural values..

• St. Augustine’sSt. Augustine’s (358-430) comes to Christianity’s defense(358-430) comes to Christianity’s defense

Theology stresses the Theology stresses the “Original Sin”, “Original Sin”, discounting man’s worth & dignitydiscounting man’s worth & dignity

Converted from Converted from ManichaeismManichaeism

− Manichaeism’s Manichaeism’s DualismDualism: : SoulSoul being good, and being good, and bodybody being evil. being evil.

Augustine’s Augustine’s dualismdualism ofof “City of Man” “City of Man” vs vs “City of God” “City of God” ::

– Rome is Rome is earthly and materialisticearthly and materialistic (“City of Man”). (“City of Man”). So what if it fell?So what if it fell?

– ““City of God”City of God” is is spiritualspiritual & cannot be conquered. & cannot be conquered.

– Earthly power and glory in the Earthly power and glory in the “City of Man” “City of Man” are nothing compared to the glory of are nothing compared to the glory of the spiritual and heavenlythe spiritual and heavenly “City of God.” “City of God.”

• A call on the Christian Europe to build a A call on the Christian Europe to build a Heavenly CityHeavenly City on the ashes of fallen on the ashes of fallen of Rome.of Rome.


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• Augustine’s theology, found an Augustine’s theology, found an ally in the ally in the Platonic philosophyPlatonic philosophy

Primacy of transcendental Forms/Ideas Primacy of transcendental Forms/Ideas Inferiority of the sensible material world vs the eternal supernatural world.Inferiority of the sensible material world vs the eternal supernatural world. Immortality of the soulImmortality of the soul

• Also influenced by Also influenced by Plotinus, Plotinus, pagan founder of pagan founder of Neo-Platonism Neo-Platonism (3(3rdrd century, Alexandria, Egypt) century, Alexandria, Egypt)

Amplified Amplified religious/mystic aspectsreligious/mystic aspects of of Plato’sPlato’s philosophy philosophy

Fused Plato with eastern mysticismFused Plato with eastern mysticism (illumination/emanation philosophy). (illumination/emanation philosophy).

Plato’sPlato’s highest Form highest Form “Good” “Good” oror “the One” “the One” emanated everything from itselfemanated everything from itself, in , in the order of the order of diminishing completeness/perfection:diminishing completeness/perfection:

− First, created the First, created the ”nous” (mind/intelligence).”nous” (mind/intelligence).− Next, createdNext, created the the soul soul..− Then created Then created naturenature (the world of (the world of material objectsmaterial objects).).− Then Then endowed nature with life and soulendowed nature with life and soul..

The soulThe soul, being chained to the body (a lower Form), , being chained to the body (a lower Form), longs to return to its original longs to return to its original source.source.

Virtue, meditation, cleansing oneself from bodily desires,Virtue, meditation, cleansing oneself from bodily desires, and freedom from and freedom from dependence on material things can help dependence on material things can help soul ascend to reunitesoul ascend to reunite with “the One.” with “the One.”

− So, So, contemplating Godcontemplating God must be man’s mission in life. must be man’s mission in life.


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Augustine’s Augustine’s EpistemologyEpistemology (inspired by Plato’s philosophy): (inspired by Plato’s philosophy):

St. Augustine St. Augustine establishes theology as the foundationestablishes theology as the foundation for epistemology. for epistemology.

Discounting the present lifeDiscounting the present life and and physical worldphysical world (i.e., City of Man). (i.e., City of Man).

• His Theory of knowledge:His Theory of knowledge: “Have faith in order to understand the “Have faith in order to understand the truth”truth”

Faith and revelationFaith and revelation (NOT rational and autonomous human reasoning) (NOT rational and autonomous human reasoning) became the became the basis for a new epistemologybasis for a new epistemology. .

• The secular rationality of the Greek became irrelevant to salvation.The secular rationality of the Greek became irrelevant to salvation.

• The natural world The natural world (City of Man) (City of Man) held no significanceheld no significance in comparison with in comparison with the spiritual reality of the the spiritual reality of the City of GodCity of God

Natural phenomena were Natural phenomena were subservient tosubservient to “ “divine providencedivine providence” ” No urgencyNo urgency in studying/understanding it. in studying/understanding it.


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The defeated The defeated Christian Europe saw the allureChristian Europe saw the allure of the Heavenly City of the Heavenly City and and respondedresponded to to St. Augustine’sSt. Augustine’s call. call.The long The long obsession with Godobsession with God End of End of secular/creative thoughtsecular/creative thought/activity/activity

Western Europe took its Western Europe took its 600-year plunge into its Dark Ages600-year plunge into its Dark Ages..

In the Eastern Empire:In the Eastern Empire:•Emperor Justinian Emperor Justinian comes to power (6comes to power (6thth century). century).

− Active suppressionActive suppression of other religions of other religions− Full marriage of Full marriage of Church & StateChurch & State

Philosophy is considered corruptivePhilosophy is considered corruptive; libraries are ransacked, book burned, ; libraries are ransacked, book burned, centers of learning closedcenters of learning closed (e.g., (e.g., Academy of AthensAcademy of Athens). ).

− Migration of many remaining philosophers/intellectuals to theMigration of many remaining philosophers/intellectuals to theneighboring neighboring PersianPersian EmpireEmpire..


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Shortly after . . .Shortly after . . .

Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire:Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire:

• Quickly expandsQuickly expands east and west (632-750) east and west (632-750)

• Swept away enormous chunks of land Swept away enormous chunks of land including land from:including land from:

Persian EmpirePersian Empire (e.g., Iran, Mesopotamia, parts of Turkey, parts of Syria, (e.g., Iran, Mesopotamia, parts of Turkey, parts of Syria, Azerbaijan, Caucasus, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan)Azerbaijan, Caucasus, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan)

Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire (e.g., Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa)(e.g., Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa)

Spain, Sicily, and Southern Italy. Spain, Sicily, and Southern Italy.

• Arab conquerors were not great fans of philosophy and science.Arab conquerors were not great fans of philosophy and science.

• With With Roman EmpireRoman Empire falling to barbarians & falling to barbarians & Persian EmpirePersian Empire to Arabs, to Arabs, philosophy philosophy dieddied in most parts of the world (until mid-8 in most parts of the world (until mid-8thth century). century).


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Transition to the “Golden Age of Islam”:Transition to the “Golden Age of Islam”:

•A revolt in the mid 8A revolt in the mid 8th th Century:Century:– Coming to power of a Coming to power of a new ruling clannew ruling clan– New capital: New capital: BaghdadBaghdad (at that time, a part of Persia/Iran)(at that time, a part of Persia/Iran)– A A PersianPersian bureaucracy replacing the bureaucracy replacing the ArabArab ruling aristocracy. ruling aristocracy.

•By the end of the century a By the end of the century a theologically more tolerant climatetheologically more tolerant climateconducive to intellectual activitiesconducive to intellectual activities emerges emerges

•The new political-theological climate The new political-theological climate leads toleads to what is known as what is known as ”The Golden Age of Islam””The Golden Age of Islam”::

The Second Knowledge ExplosionThe Second Knowledge Explosion


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The Second Knowledge Explosion The Second Knowledge Explosion (Mid 9(Mid 9thth- 13- 13thth century): century):

i.i. The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival: The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival:

• Emergence of Emergence of a “rational” philosophical- theologicala “rational” philosophical- theological movement movement

Adherence to Adherence to liberal theological interpretationsliberal theological interpretations to justify to justifyscientific/philosophical workscientific/philosophical work

• Establishment of Establishment of House of ScienceHouse of Science/Philosophy/Wisdom/Philosophy/Wisdom

Gathering Gathering Books and scholars Books and scholars from all over the world tofrom all over the world toengage in scientific & philosophical works.engage in scientific & philosophical works.

• Translation into ArabicTranslation into Arabic of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani, of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani, Indian, and Byzantine civilizations. Indian, and Byzantine civilizations.

• Rediscovery ofRediscovery of Aristotle’s Aristotle’s works by Muslim scholars works by Muslim scholars who wrote who wrote extensive extensive commentariescommentaries on them. on them.


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• Results of Results of ““PeripateticPeripatetic”” Muslim Muslim scholars scholars (e.g., Farabi, (e.g., Farabi, Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi):Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi):

a.a. Revival of Revival of Aristotle’sAristotle’s rational philosophyrational philosophy & his & his focus on focus on science of nature.science of nature.

b.b. Development of a Development of a rational theology,rational theology, reconciling faith with reconciling faith with reasonreason & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and scientific work.scientific work.

• More importantly, over the next More importantly, over the next 300-400 years300-400 years, production, productionof a wealth of new of a wealth of new philosophicaphilosophical, l, scientificscientific, & , & encyclopedicencyclopedic worksworks in:in:

o logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry,logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, geology, optics, music, astronomy, mineralogy, geology, optics, music, politics, and psychology. politics, and psychology.

o e.g., e.g., The Book of Healing, The Cannon of MedicineThe Book of Healing, The Cannon of Medicine, etc. , etc.

Let’s see some examples of such contributions…Let’s see some examples of such contributions…


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Farabi, Abu Nasr (Latin name: Alpharabius) (Iran, 870-950)•A rationalist Aristotelian philosopher with over 100 works in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, physics, cosmology, logic, music theory, psychology, music therapy, political philosophy, and sociology. •The first to conduct experiments regarding existence of vacuum. •The first to address social psychology in his writings on political philosophy. •He “had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries.”•He was widely regarded to be second only to Aristotle in knowledge” (as is implied by his honorific title of "the Second Teacher").

Al-Kindi, Abu Yusef Ishaq (Latin name: Alkindus)(Iraq, 801-873)•Philosopher, scientist, physician, astronomer. logician, musician, pharmacologist, psychologist, meteorologist, and cryptologist•The first to introduce the Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Muslim world. But his work was eventually eclipsed by names such as Farabi and Avicenna .

Khwarazmi, Mohammad (Latin name: Algoritmi)(Iran, 780-850)•Founder of Algebra, mathematician, astronomer, geographer, & cartographer•Developer of the first systematic solution to linear and quadratic equations •An early pioneer in spherical trigonometry.•Latin translations of his work in the 12th century introduced the Hindu decimal numeral system to Europe. That was the origin of the current use of Arabic Numerals in the West.


((SourceSource: George Sarton, : George Sarton, History of ScienceHistory of Science Series, Vol. I-III, 1927-1948)Series, Vol. I-III, 1927-1948)

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Ibn Sina or Abu Ali Sina (Latin name: Avicenna) (Iran, 980-1037)•Describes as “one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,” •A poet and a statesman with 450 treatise on medicine, astronomy, chemistry, geology, psychology, logic, paleontology, mathematics, and physics. •The first to: correctly document the anatomy of the human eye (& such eye afflictions as cataracts), discover contagious and sexually transmitted diseases, introduce quarantine, describe symptoms & complications of diabetes, and describe workings of the heart as a valve. •The first to introduce experimental medicine, randomized controlled trials, and efficacy tests. •Epistemologically, he criticizes the Aristotelian method and, in its place, developed a "method of experimentation” as a means for conducting scientific inquiry. •His “The canon of Medicine,” an immense 14-volume encyclopedia of medicine,remained the standard medical text in universities throughout Europe untilthe end of the 18th century.

Biruni, Abu Rayhan (Latin name: Alberonius) (Iran, 973-1048)•Described as “one of the greatest scientists of all times.” •Pioneering contributions in philosophy, astronomy, epistemology, physics, mathematics, anthropology, comparative sociology, history, geography, medicine, and psychology.•The first anthropologist, founder of indology•The first exponents of the experimental method of scientific investigation. • Al-Biruni Crater on the moon is named in his honor for his contributions to Astronomy,


Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, 1484, P.I. Nixon Medical Historical LibraryUniversity of Texas

Razi, Mohammad Zakariya (Latin name: Rhazes & Rasis) (Iran, 865-925)•A secular physician, chemist, and philosopher•Credited with numerous “firsts” in medical research and chemistry including:•Developing the distillation process (thus the word alcohol)•Discovery of numerous compounds (e.g., kerosene, and ethanol) •The first to differentiate smallpox from measles, father of pediatrics, and a pioneer in neurosurgery and ophthalmology

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Averroes/Ibn Rushd (Latin name: Averroes) (Cordoba, Spain, 1120-1198)•An Andalusían Muslim polymath and philosopher who has been described by some scholars as the “founding father of secular thought in Western Europe” and "one of the spiritual fathers of Europe," where his school of philosophy, “Averroism,” had a strong influence on Christian philosophers through the 16 th century. •Over 20,000 pages of works covering philosophy, logic, jurisprudence, psychology, politics, music theory, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics, celestial mechanics, and medicine, including a seven-volume medical encyclopedia, known in Latin as “Colliget.” •Argued that one cannot suffer from smallpox twice, fully understood the function of the retina, and suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease.•The first to define and measure force in mechanics and to introduce into physics the notion that bodies have a inherent resistance to motion, later dubbed 'inertia' by Johannes Kepler.•Epistemology: Saw no conflict between religion and philosophy and believed in two kinds of knowledge. First, the knowledge of truth of religion based in faith, that could not be tested. Second. the knowledge that is based in philosophy, which is reserved for an elite few who have the intellectual capacity to understand it. •The asteroid "8318 Averroes" was named in his honor. •A movie depicting the life and times of Averroes was released in 1998, titled “Destiny.”

Khayyam, Omar(Iran, 1048-1131)•Recognized as “the author of the most important treatise on algebra before modern times.” •The first to derived general geometric method for solving cubic equations and equations of higher order.•Measured the length of the solar year as 365.24219858156 days and reformed the solar calendar. •His “Jalali” calendar was more accurate (error = 1 day in 5000 years) than the Gregorian calendar developed 500 years later (error = 1 day in 3300 years). •Many believe that he may have proposed a heliocentric theory well before Copernicus.•Edward FitzGerald (1809–83), made Khayyám the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation of Khayyám's quatrains (“Rubaiyat”)•Epistemologically, he supported the view that laws of nature explained all phenomena of observed life.


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ii.ii. The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World:The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World:

1.1. More conservative rulers in Baghdad who More conservative rulers in Baghdad who supportedsupported the agenda of the agenda of

fundamentalist clericsfundamentalist clerics

2.2. Emergence of an activist Emergence of an activist traditionalist theological factiontraditionalist theological faction who who concocted a concocted a theologytheology that used that used Aristotelian deductive logicAristotelian deductive logic to confirm to confirm orthodox religious dogma and combat secular philosophy.orthodox religious dogma and combat secular philosophy.

Net Results:Net Results:

a.a. Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting theological edicts theological edicts

b.b. A A complete bancomplete ban on all secular philosophical/scientific on all secular philosophical/scientific endeavors endeavors


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3.3. By the 10By the 10thth century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had migrated to Iranmigrated to Iran (in the east) (in the east) and Spainand Spain (in the west) where it flourished (in the west) where it flourished for for another 200 years or so.another 200 years or so.

4.4. InvasionsInvasions of both, of both, the Islamic and Byzantine empiresthe Islamic and Byzantine empires by Turkish tribes of by Turkish tribes of Central Asia. Central Asia.

Turks conquered Iran and Asia minor, Turks conquered Iran and Asia minor, enforcing conservative religious policiesenforcing conservative religious policies. .

Influence of Influence of “Ghazali,” “Ghazali,” a brilliant Iranian philosopher (who turned to a brilliant Iranian philosopher (who turned to conservative conservative theology/theology/mysticism).mysticism).

5.5. AttacksAttacks by by MongolMongol (1218) and (1218) and Tatar Tatar (1370) herds(1370) herds

Genghiz Khan & TamerlaneGenghiz Khan & Tamerlane


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EUROPE’S AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM:EUROPE’S AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM:

•New hope and optimism:New hope and optimism: surviving the surviving the millenniummillennium and the apocalyptic and the apocalyptic doom’s day prophecydoom’s day prophecy

•Agricultural innovations Agricultural innovations and economic boom of 11and economic boom of 11thth century: century:

a)a) Renewed confidence in the Renewed confidence in the capacity of human intelligencecapacity of human intelligence b)b) Surplus agricultural productsSurplus agricultural products and and tradetrade c)c) Enormous rise in Enormous rise in education among clergyeducation among clergy

•Rise of Gothic Churches

•Rediscovery & revival of secular Roman Law and its incorporation into canon law

• The CrusadesThe Crusades and exposure to the philosophical work of the Muslim and exposure to the philosophical work of the Muslim scholarsscholars

EMERGENCE OF EMERGENCE OF WESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISMWESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISM::

• Translations of philosophical and scientific works of Muslim scholars and Translations of philosophical and scientific works of Muslim scholars and Greek Classics from Arabic to LatinGreek Classics from Arabic to Latin

• Spread of above Latin translations in Europe Spread of above Latin translations in Europe and development of and development of Christianity’s Scholastic Theology.Christianity’s Scholastic Theology.


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• Popularity of Scholasticism & emergence of church-sponsored Popularity of Scholasticism & emergence of church-sponsored universitiesuniversities --the --the spread of learning/literacyspread of learning/literacy to people outside of the church to people outside of the church

• Establishment of Inquisition Establishment of Inquisition (1184) to combat many (1184) to combat many emerging heresiesemerging heresies prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine. prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine.

• Creation and educational rivalry of the two leading orders of friarsCreation and educational rivalry of the two leading orders of friars (1200s)(1200s)

The Platonist The Platonist FranciscansFranciscans and Aristotelian and Aristotelian DominicansDominicans

Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen:Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen:

• A movement to reconcile A movement to reconcile faith/religionfaith/religion with with reason/philosophyreason/philosophy..

• Began in the 12Began in the 12thth century century

• Peaked with Peaked with Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas (13(13thth century). century).

• PREMISE:PREMISE: Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason. Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason.


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• Early scholasticism (12Early scholasticism (12thth century)—emphasis on the century)—emphasis on the rules of logical rules of logical discourse discourse and confidence in the and confidence in the power of human intelligencepower of human intelligence

Used Used AristotelianAristotelian logic and logic and dialectics/ disputationdialectics/ disputation as the as the means to develop means to develop rational explanations/justification for the teachings of the scripture (used rational explanations/justification for the teachings of the scripture (used reasoning to defend articles of faithreasoning to defend articles of faith).).

• Later, Later, Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas addedadded Aristotle’sAristotle’s naturalistic philosophy naturalistic philosophy (interest in the working of nature) and (interest in the working of nature) and justifiedjustified pursuit of worldly pursuit of worldly knowledgeknowledge as a means as a means to appreciate God and his creationto appreciate God and his creation..

• Thus, instigated a Thus, instigated a departure fromdeparture from the the anti-physicalanti-physical, world-denying, , world-denying, Augustinian-Platonic thinkingAugustinian-Platonic thinking that had dominated earlier Christian that had dominated earlier Christian theology. theology.

• St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274):St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274): A A Dominican PriestDominican Priest and Christianity’s and Christianity’s greatestgreatest scholastic theologian scholastic theologian

Deeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especiallyDeeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especiallyearlier works of two earlier works of two PersianPersian schoolmenschoolmen Ghazali Ghazali and and AvicennaAvicenna..

•


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• Aquinas Aquinas “ “converted” converted” AristotleAristotle to Christianity, and to Christianity, and ChristianityChristianity to to Aristotelian values. Aristotelian values.

• OUTCOME:OUTCOME: For the For the next 300 yearsnext 300 years, , Aristotle & the Scripture Aristotle & the Scripture became the main became the main sources of answersources of answer to virtually all questions, to virtually all questions, worldly and divine.worldly and divine.

Thomas Aquinas’ Epistemology:Thomas Aquinas’ Epistemology:

• AquinasAquinas, was a , was a philosophical realistphilosophical realist for whom for whom sensible thingssensible things in the world in the world (i.e., (i.e., ParticularsParticulars):):

Had a substantial realityHad a substantial reality of their own of their own

Were Were NOT unrealNOT unreal shadowy replications of Platonic Ideas. shadowy replications of Platonic Ideas.

• He saw He saw no conflictno conflict between the between the natural and spiritualnatural and spiritual worlds. worlds.


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He argued. . .He argued. . .

a.a. Similarly, Similarly, intelligenceintelligence is the greatest is the greatest giftgift to man to man from Godfrom God

b.b. The natural world, having been created by God, is The natural world, having been created by God, is worthy of worthy of observation/observation/understanding understanding in its own rightin its own right

c.c. So, using one’s god-given intellect So, using one’s god-given intellect to studyto study God’s handiworkGod’s handiwork(natural world) is indeed an (natural world) is indeed an honorablehonorable human endeavor. human endeavor.

d.d. Thus, Thus, faith and knowledge enriched one anotherfaith and knowledge enriched one another

Faith is Faith is not in oppositionnot in opposition to knowledge to knowledge

With the above argument, Aquinas provided With the above argument, Aquinas provided religious legitimacyreligious legitimacy for forthe pursuit of the pursuit of worldly knowledge.worldly knowledge.

• RESULT: A surge of intellectual activity RESULT: A surge of intellectual activity (1200s-1300s)(1200s-1300s)


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Secularization of Philosophy and Science—14Secularization of Philosophy and Science—14thth Century: Century:

• Proliferation of scholastic works and Proliferation of scholastic works and irreconcilable conflictsirreconcilable conflicts between some between some philosophical reasonsphilosophical reasons with with Christian doctrine. Christian doctrine.

• Two centuries earlier, Two centuries earlier, Averroes Averroes (a prominent Muslim philosopher) (a prominent Muslim philosopher) had proposed a had proposed a doctrine ofdoctrine of ”double-truth universe.””double-truth universe.”

That perhaps That perhaps the realm of reason is outside the sphere of theologythe realm of reason is outside the sphere of theology(the two are mutually exclusive). (the two are mutually exclusive).

• Strong appeal and following of Strong appeal and following of Averroism Averroism among many 14among many 14thth century century Christian Scholastics, notably Christian Scholastics, notably William of Ockham (Occam)William of Ockham (Occam)..

A A FranciscanFranciscan friar, and best and friar, and best and most notable scholasticsmost notable scholastics after Aquinas after Aquinas

Best known for a principle called Best known for a principle called ““Occam’s Razor”?Occam’s Razor”?

− ““Nature loves simplicity.”Nature loves simplicity.”


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Ockham’s EpistemologyOckham’s Epistemology & Secularization of Science/philosophy & Secularization of Science/philosophy

William of Ockham--William of Ockham--a philosophicala philosophical “Nominalist”: “Nominalist”:

•Only the “Only the “particularsparticulars” (concrete individual beings) are ” (concrete individual beings) are realreal and and existexist..

•The The Platonic “Forms/Universals” Platonic “Forms/Universals” are just are just names/conceptual fictionsnames/conceptual fictions that that exist only in the human mind.exist only in the human mind.

Plato’sPlato’s ““Cat” (“CatnessCat” (“Catness”) is ”) is NOT a distinct real entityNOT a distinct real entity. .

Rather, “Cat” (“Catness”) is just Rather, “Cat” (“Catness”) is just a term a term referring to a referring to a shared shared similaritysimilarity among many individual cats. among many individual cats.

•KnowledgeKnowledge/science/science only pertains to only pertains to sensible thingssensible things

And, sensible things are individuals (And, sensible things are individuals (particularsparticulars).).

•There are only There are only two waystwo ways for acquiring for acquiring knowledgeknowledge about this world: about this world:

a.a. Through Through self-evident logical propositionsself-evident logical propositions (like in mathematical) or (like in mathematical) orb.b. Through Through sensory observationsensory observation of concrete particulars. of concrete particulars.


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OckhamOckham stressed stressed::

• There is There is no obligatory connectionsno obligatory connections between God’s between God’s freely created universefreely created universe and and man’s desireman’s desire for a perfect rational world. for a perfect rational world.

Mixing the two constitutes Mixing the two constitutes imposing man’s mental limitationsimposing man’s mental limitations onto God onto God

• God has absolute freedomGod has absolute freedom to create anything in anyway he pleased. to create anything in anyway he pleased.

Including imperfect particulars of the natural worldIncluding imperfect particulars of the natural world

• Man is given Man is given two distinct realitiestwo distinct realities, each with its own separate logic:, each with its own separate logic:

The reality of The reality of GodGod, given , given by revelationby revelation, and, and The reality of the The reality of the nature/empirical worldnature/empirical world, as , as experiencedexperienced by man. by man.

• Empirical and rational analysesEmpirical and rational analyses are the are the right methodologiesright methodologies for for understanding the understanding the worldly phenomenaworldly phenomena

An, this type of understanding constitutes An, this type of understanding constitutes true knowledgetrue knowledge


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The Trend Toward Expansion of Secularization (Decline of Church Influence):The Trend Toward Expansion of Secularization (Decline of Church Influence):

• Challenges to Political Power of the PopeChallenges to Political Power of the Pope

• The Black Plague The Black Plague (1347-1352)(1347-1352)

1)1) Transition to Transition to rag paperrag paper

2)2) EmpowermentEmpowerment of people with greater role in religion of people with greater role in religion

3)3) Weakening of the feudal economic systemWeakening of the feudal economic system, emergence of an, emergence of anurban merchant class. urban merchant class.

• The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacy’s Moral Authority:The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacy’s Moral Authority:


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The Broadening of the Secularization Trend:The Broadening of the Secularization Trend:

• Rebirth of Rebirth of HumanismHumanism (1300s) (1300s)??????

a.a. Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman literary classicsliterary classics

Secular writings dealing with the Secular writings dealing with the lives of ordinary peoplelives of ordinary people

b.b.Later developed into the works of Later developed into the works of socio-political humanistssocio-political humanistsof the 1500s of the 1500s

Reclaiming the dignity of man and his relevance/importance in worldly human Reclaiming the dignity of man and his relevance/importance in worldly human affairsaffairs

Man, by virtue of his rationality, Man, by virtue of his rationality, did not need to be did not need to be ““shepherdedshepherded” all the time.” all the time.

No conflictNo conflict between piety and wanting to grow/develop, live a good life, pursue between piety and wanting to grow/develop, live a good life, pursue success, appreciate beauty, live in a just society, etc.success, appreciate beauty, live in a just society, etc.


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The 1400s:The 1400s:

•Invention of the printing press Invention of the printing press

•Fall of Constantinople, Creation of Ottoman Empire, & Migration of Greeks Fall of Constantinople, Creation of Ottoman Empire, & Migration of Greeks to Western Europe to Western Europe

• ““Donation of ConstantineDonation of Constantine” proven a ” proven a ForgeryForgery

• Rise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-StatesRise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-States

• Voyages of DiscoveryVoyages of Discovery


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The Arrival of The Arrival of RenaissanceRenaissance (Mid 1400s) and Birth of Modernity: (Mid 1400s) and Birth of Modernity:

A A synthesis of the abovesynthesis of the above philosophical, theological, political, social, and philosophical, theological, political, social, and economic forces/changes, economic forces/changes, culminated inculminated in::

1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 3. Scientific Revolution 3. Scientific Revolution 4. THE Third Knowledge Explosion 4. THE Third Knowledge Explosion

• The RenaissanceThe Renaissance started in started in Italy’s independent city-statesItaly’s independent city-states

What does the word “What does the word “RenaissanceRenaissance” mean? Why is it called that?” mean? Why is it called that?

• Initially about the “Initially about the “rebirthrebirth” of the ” of the classical cultureclassical culture

• But also became about But also became about celebrating the individualcelebrating the individual. .

•Renaissance Renaissance embraced and celebratedembraced and celebrated Humanist values Humanist values of of youthyouth, , beautybeauty, , successsuccess, & , & wealthwealth. .


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Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions: Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions:

•Renaissance quickly became the Renaissance quickly became the age of intellectual & artistic creativityage of intellectual & artistic creativity..

•Art & literature began to reflect the fact that Art & literature began to reflect the fact that ManMan was once again was once again claiming claiming the center stagethe center stage in human affairs. in human affairs.

Pushing Pushing religionreligion increasingly increasingly into the backgroundinto the background..

Machiavelli Machiavelli put forth a secular political philosophy.put forth a secular political philosophy.

• Renaissance transformed the Papacy Renaissance transformed the Papacy into a virtually into a virtually secular institution.secular institution.

This greatly contributed to a This greatly contributed to a backlashbacklash against the Papacy. against the Papacy.

•Renaissance Renaissance petered out in Italypetered out in Italy, and gradually moves to , and gradually moves to Europe’s northern Europe’s northern statesstates::a.a.ReformationReformation b.b.Sack of RomeSack of Rome c.c.Counter-Reformation, Counter-Reformation, Revival of InquisitionRevival of Inquisition, and , and suppression of free thoughtsuppression of free thought..

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• Reformation (1517) Reformation (1517) of of Martin LutherMartin Luther (German, 1517), (German, 1517), John Calvin John Calvin (French, 1536 )(French, 1536 ), & , & John Knox John Knox (Scottish, 1559)(Scottish, 1559)

What was it about?What was it about?

A A revoltrevolt against the authority of the Catholic church against the authority of the Catholic church

– Rejection of the Rejection of the infallibility of the Popeinfallibility of the Pope

– Criticism of the Papacy for its practices (e.g., Criticism of the Papacy for its practices (e.g., selling indulgencesselling indulgences) )

Stressing Stressing ““personal”personal” spirituality” spirituality”

RESULT: Emergence of a new culture of RESULT: Emergence of a new culture of ““spiritual independence/ spiritual independence/ individualism” individualism” in in religious discourse,religious discourse, which gradually which gradually spilled overspilled over into a into a quest for quest for “self-determination & independence” “self-determination & independence” inin intellectualintellectual as well as as well as socio-economic-political affairssocio-economic-political affairs..

It inspiredIt inspired::a.a. 1717thth century century scientific revolutionscientific revolutionb.b. 1717thth -18 -18thth democratic revolutions democratic revolutions (English, American, French) (English, American, French) c.c. 1717thth 18 18thth century century free-market economic revolutionfree-market economic revolution. .

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Epistemologically,Epistemologically, LutherLuther was a was a nominalistnominalist . .

− Nominalism:Nominalism: Platonic “FormsPlatonic “Forms” are ” are NOT realNOT real entities. They are simply entities. They are simply conceptual conceptual fictionsfictions that are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation. that are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation.

− Realm of scienceRealm of science only includes observable material objects, i.e., only includes observable material objects, i.e., “Particulars”.“Particulars”.

− LutherLuther, like , like OckhamOckham, , believed in the believed in the separationseparation of of realm of reasonrealm of reason from from sphere sphere of faithof faith. .

– ProtestantismProtestantism became a force became a force favoring secularization of philosophy/sciencefavoring secularization of philosophy/science

• Creation of Independent Country ChurchesCreation of Independent Country Churches

Western Christianity no longer exclusively CatholicWestern Christianity no longer exclusively Catholic Monarchs more powerful at the expense of both, the Pope & emperorMonarchs more powerful at the expense of both, the Pope & emperor

• Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation:Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation: Internal reformsInternal reforms initiated by the initiated by the Church Church to stop the spread of Protestantismto stop the spread of Protestantism..

educational work of the educational work of the JesuitsJesuits..


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• Counter Reformation and Counter Reformation and Jesuit EducationJesuit Education: : To educate and To educate and create a new create a new Catholic eliteCatholic elite, the , the Society of JesusSociety of Jesus (“ (“Jesuits”Jesuits”) was founded in 1534. ) was founded in 1534.

Fused the Fused the reformed Catholicismreformed Catholicism with the with the best of the educationabest of the educational tradition from l tradition from the Renaissance. the Renaissance.

Established Established schools all over Europeschools all over Europe..

Exposed students to many works with Exposed students to many works with classical, humanist, liberal, and pluralistclassical, humanist, liberal, and pluralist viewpoints. viewpoints.

Trained a Trained a new generation of notable scientistsnew generation of notable scientists and thinker and thinker (e.g., Galileo, (e.g., Galileo, Descartes, Voltaire, and Diderot)Descartes, Voltaire, and Diderot). .


Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science

The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution:The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution:

• Discoveries in Astronomy Discoveries in Astronomy kicked offkicked off a a full-fledged full-fledged scientific revolution.scientific revolution.

Copernicus’ Copernicus’ work rejected the complexwork rejected the complex““Geocentric UniverseGeocentric Universe” ” of of Aristotle & PtolemyAristotle & Ptolemy(i.e., (i.e., Earth being the stationary center of Earth being the stationary center of the Universethe Universe))

And, in its place, proposed a much simplerAnd, in its place, proposed a much simplerHeliocentricHeliocentric vision of the universe. vision of the universe.

NOTE: Copernicus (like Ptolemy) erroneously assumed planets’ orbits to be perfect circles.•Kepler’s 3 laws of planetary motion later proved that the orbit of every planetis an ellipse (oval) with the Sun at a focus.

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Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science

Profound implications of the above works?Profound implications of the above works?

a.a. DispelledDispelled the the AristotelianAristotelian notion of notion of infallibility/constancyinfallibility/constancy of the of the heavens.heavens.

b.b. Undermined the “Undermined the “special” status ofspecial” status of Man Man (as the “(as the “crown jewelcrown jewel” of creation) ” of creation) and and Earth Earth (as (as centercenter of the universe). of the universe).

c.c. Disproved Disproved Plato’s & Aristotle’s Plato’s & Aristotle’s metaphysics metaphysics attributing movement attributing movement of living of living things to their things to their “soul”.“soul”.

And, by extension, attributing the And, by extension, attributing the unending circular movement of the unending circular movement of the planets toplanets to an eternal an eternal ““Unmoved Mover”. Unmoved Mover”.

d.d. Realization:Realization: UniverseUniverse had a had a secularsecular, , mechanisticmechanistic nature and nature and sciencescience was an was an impersonal wayimpersonal way of studying the natural world. of studying the natural world.

• The The CopernicanCopernican model was model was corroborated bycorroborated by Galileo & KeplerGalileo & Kepler and, thus,and, thus, established an indisputable established an indisputable ““HeliocentricHeliocentric”” vision for the Universe.vision for the Universe.

Their work led, eventually, to Their work led, eventually, to NewtonNewton’s’s General Laws of Motion and GravityGeneral Laws of Motion and Gravity and emergence of the modern physics.and emergence of the modern physics.

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• Shortly after, a full-fledged Shortly after, a full-fledged Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution was brought about by was brought about by 1616thth & 17 & 17thth century philosophers who: century philosophers who:

a.a. Believed that Believed that naturenature is is profoundly lawfulprofoundly lawful, and its laws are , and its laws are intelligibleintelligible..b.b. Believed the causes of Believed the causes of natural phenomenanatural phenomena are are impersonal and physicalimpersonal and physical..

a.a. Called for Called for removing all supernatural forcesremoving all supernatural forces from explanation of worldly events. from explanation of worldly events. c.c. Called for Called for abandoning the abandoning the AristotelianAristotelian scholastic scholastic method. method. d.d. DismissedDismissed the value of the value of knowledgeknowledge derived from derived from faithfaith, , authorityauthority, and , and intuition.intuition.

• They advocated the use of the They advocated the use of the human capacity to thinkhuman capacity to think, and , and to learn from to learn from experienceexperience, , as the chief criteriaas the chief criteria for distinguishing fact vs fiction, true vs for distinguishing fact vs fiction, true vs false, reality vs fallacy, right vs wrong, real vs imagined, etc.false, reality vs fallacy, right vs wrong, real vs imagined, etc.

• DescartesDescartes (father of modern philosophy) stressed the need to (father of modern philosophy) stressed the need to rid the mind of rid the mind of all preconceptions.all preconceptions. He declared: He declared:

““Everything must be doubted.” Everything must be doubted.” ““accept nothing as true until it was established accept nothing as true until it was established beyond doubtbeyond doubt.”.”

• The spirit of the new philosophy and epistemology is summed-up in theThe spirit of the new philosophy and epistemology is summed-up in thequote from quote from Descartes:Descartes: “I think, therefore I am.” “I think, therefore I am.”

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

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So, the So, the epistemological journeyepistemological journey from from St. AugustineSt. Augustine t(5 t(5THTH century): century): “Believe and you will understand.” “Believe and you will understand.”

to to Descartes Descartes (17(17thth century): century): “Everything must be doubted.” “Everything must be doubted.” was awas a1200 year1200 year philosophical, theological, and political philosophical, theological, and political evolutionevolution. .

Two Competing Schools of Thought:Two Competing Schools of Thought:

1.1.RationalistsRationalists believed that:believed that:

LawsLaws connecting fundamental elements of the universe are connecting fundamental elements of the universe are self-evidentself-evident..

Man has Man has innate/inborn ideasinnate/inborn ideas about etched in his mind before birth. about etched in his mind before birth.

So, So, knowledgeknowledge is acquired through logical is acquired through logical analysis of these innate ideasanalysis of these innate ideas..

Deductively applying basic Deductively applying basic principles of logicprinciples of logic and and systematic/rational systematic/rational reasoningreasoning, like the , like the axioms of geometryaxioms of geometry, is the best way to derive knowledge , is the best way to derive knowledge in all scientific disciplines. in all scientific disciplines.

Rene’ Descartes Baruch de Spinoza Gottfried Leibniz (France, 1596-1650) (Netherlands, 1632-1677) (Germany, 1664-1716)


• DescartesDescartes became became the firstthe first to present a view of the world that was to present a view of the world that wasdifferent from the Aristotelian-Christian outlookdifferent from the Aristotelian-Christian outlook..

The world as an The world as an impersonal mechanical machineimpersonal mechanical machine in perpetual motion in perpetual motion following following mathematical rulesmathematical rules..

A break with the tradition that saw A break with the tradition that saw nature as havingnature as having motives and feelingsmotives and feelings of of love and hate.love and hate.

• The The Aristotelian Aristotelian deductive method implied that the deductive method implied that the natural worldnatural world can only can only be be described in general terms.described in general terms.

Nature is Nature is too subtle to lend itself to exact description too subtle to lend itself to exact description and, thus, its details and, thus, its details always always elude precise analysiselude precise analysis. .

• DescartesDescartes saw saw nature as a mathematical mechanismnature as a mathematical mechanism, which can be , which can be described with exact and logical formulas.described with exact and logical formulas.

• He advocated He advocated breaking problems into piecesbreaking problems into pieces and methodically examining and methodically examining them, them, from the simplest through the most complexfrom the simplest through the most complex..

• Descartes’Descartes’ rationalism rationalism conquered Franceconquered France, but , but not Englandnot England, where , where the scientific outlook was shaped by the scientific outlook was shaped by empiricistsempiricists like like Francis BaconFrancis Bacon andandJohn Locke.John Locke.


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2.2. EmpiricistsEmpiricists believed that any claims to believed that any claims to understandingunderstanding a phenomenon a phenomenon must be measured against the must be measured against the empirical reality of concrete particularsempirical reality of concrete particulars..

• Discounted the Discounted the deductive methoddeductive method. . Francis Bacon Francis Bacon called it a “called it a “dead enddead end””

GalileoGalileo statedstated:: “Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to “Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well founded?”founded?”

• Empiricists called for Empiricists called for a new sciencea new science grounded in grounded in inductive principlesinductive principles..

Uncovering secrets of natureUncovering secrets of nature through through empirical observation/experimentationempirical observation/experimentation and and judicious interpretation of the results.judicious interpretation of the results.

That is, careful examination of That is, careful examination of shared patternsshared patterns and and regularitiesregularities(e.g., similarities, differences) in multiple occurrences/observations (e.g., similarities, differences) in multiple occurrences/observations of a phenomenon of a phenomenon


Sir Francis Bacon Galileo Galilei Thomas Hobbes John Locke Sir Isaac Newton David Hume John Stuart Mill (1561-1626) (1564-1642) (1568-1679) (1632-1704) (1643-1727) (1711-1776) (1806-1873)

John Locke John Locke rejected the rationalist viewrejected the rationalist view that man comes to the world with that man comes to the world with a a prioripriori (inborn) knowledge (inborn) knowledge that he simply has to rediscover. that he simply has to rediscover.

• He maintains: The He maintains: The mind arrivesmind arrives at the world stage at the world stage entirely blankentirely blank and andall knowledgeall knowledge is to be is to be discovered only through experiencediscovered only through experience..

• Traditionally, philosophy was about developing speculative, but very holistic belief systems that presented integrative (all-embracing) explanations for many issues.

• Locke, on the other hand, called on scientists to seek less ambitious, but empirically-grounded, thus more realistic, explanations that were more relevant in their applications.

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Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes the the firstfirst to propose a to propose a materialistic theory of causalitymaterialistic theory of causality..

In the medieval mindIn the medieval mind, world was sustained by , world was sustained by a perpetuala perpetual

chain of miracleschain of miracles..

• He saw cause-and-effect links as He saw cause-and-effect links as temporal relationships:temporal relationships:

Every effect has a Every effect has a material causematerial cause, so that , so that effects alwayseffects always““have their necessity in things antecedenthave their necessity in things antecedent.” .”

• He asserted that He asserted that effects follow their causeseffects follow their causes by by “inner necessity”“inner necessity” Their connection is Their connection is inherent in the nature of the phenomenoninherent in the nature of the phenomenon and, and,

thus, transcends our experience.thus, transcends our experience.

Irrespective of whether we can perceive those connections.Irrespective of whether we can perceive those connections.

That is, an effect has to follow its cause That is, an effect has to follow its cause by natural necessityby natural necessity(it is in its nature).(it is in its nature).

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David HumeDavid Hume (18(18thth Century Scottish Philosopher) Century Scottish Philosopher)

• ChallengedChallenged Hobbes’Hobbes’ doctrine of causality. doctrine of causality.

• Asserted: Cause and effect are Asserted: Cause and effect are NOT connected by logical necessityNOT connected by logical necessity

– Such connections (as we perceive them) do Such connections (as we perceive them) do NOT reflect NOT reflect a necessity in nature.a necessity in nature.

• Rather, they are merely Rather, they are merely expected as a result of our experience and habitexpected as a result of our experience and habit..

– The sequence from cause The sequence from cause AA to effect to effect BB seems necessary to usseems necessary to us only only because because repetitionsrepetitions of of AA being followed by being followed by B B become a familiar patternbecome a familiar pattern to to us, so we us, so we get used to expectingget used to expecting BB to follow when we observe to follow when we observe AA..

– The apparent The apparent necessity exist in our mindsnecessity exist in our minds, not in nature., not in nature.

• HIS CONCLUSION:HIS CONCLUSION: Empirical evidence/knowledge Empirical evidence/knowledge DOES NOTDOES NOT really give really give us any us any insight into the real inner workings of natureinsight into the real inner workings of nature..


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Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (18(18thth Century Century IdealistIdealist German Philosopher) German Philosopher)

• HisHis epistemologically epistemologically, , bridged the gapbridged the gap between between RationalistsRationalists and and EmpiricistsEmpiricists and, thus, and, thus, today’s scientific enterprisetoday’s scientific enterprise can be described as can be described as”logico-empirical.””logico-empirical.”

• Like Like PlatoPlato, believed in the duality of , believed in the duality of NoumenalNoumenal vs vs Phenomenal Phenomenal world.world.

There is a There is a reality which is independentreality which is independent of man’s perceptions of man’s perceptionsand is and is NOT experientially knowableNOT experientially knowable (a “thing-in-itself”) (a “thing-in-itself”)..

Implication: it is Implication: it is impossibleimpossible to have any to have any empirical knowledgeempirical knowledgeof the supernatural world.of the supernatural world.

• Like Like AristotleAristotle, believed that , believed that the natural (phenomenal) world is knowable.the natural (phenomenal) world is knowable. And, it is knowable And, it is knowable through observationthrough observation/sense perception./sense perception.

• Thus, Thus, scientific knowledgescientific knowledge pertains only to the pertains only to the natural/perceptible world.natural/perceptible world. Events and objects that are in Events and objects that are in timetime and and spacespace..

• But, man is But, man is NOT simply a passive bystanderNOT simply a passive bystander in receiving impressions from in receiving impressions from the outside world.the outside world.


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• Our Our mind helps give meaningmind helps give meaning to our observations/experiences. to our observations/experiences.

HOW does it do that?HOW does it do that?

• Central to the workings of nature areCentral to the workings of nature are some rational some rational “inner necessities” “inner necessities” to to which all empirical observations must conformwhich all empirical observations must conform..

That is, without which natural phenomena will not workThat is, without which natural phenomena will not work

− (e.g., mathematical relationships and necessities of (e.g., mathematical relationships and necessities of time and spacetime and spacesuch as implausibility of travelling back in time, being in two placessuch as implausibility of travelling back in time, being in two placesat the same time, mutually exclusive propositions, or “being” andat the same time, mutually exclusive propositions, or “being” and“not being” at the same time.)“not being” at the same time.)

• We are born with We are born with an an innate/innate/a priori rational framework/knowledge a priori rational framework/knowledge that that help us:help us:

a.a. Understand Understand the above inner necessities the above inner necessities of the natural world, andof the natural world, and

b.b. Thus, Thus, help us interprethelp us interpret our experiences and give accurate meaning our experiences and give accurate meaningto our to our empirical knowledgeempirical knowledge..


• In short, according to In short, according to Kant:Kant: What is knownWhat is known is, in part, is, in part, imposed by the knower.imposed by the knower.

The knower plays an The knower plays an active and creative roleactive and creative role in the in the knowing processknowing process(i.e., partly (i.e., partly enactsenacts his/her known reality), through operations of the mind. his/her known reality), through operations of the mind.

• CONCLUSION: CONCLUSION: Since Since knowledgeknowledge results from the results from the interactioninteraction between the between the knower and the known, the rational knower and the known, the rational mind of the knower must be given a mind of the knower must be given a rolerole in the process of undertaking scientific investigations. in the process of undertaking scientific investigations.

Result of Kant’s influence:Result of Kant’s influence: Scientific method must be Scientific method must be an an interactive process interactive process that rests on the that rests on the interplay of bothinterplay of both::

a.a. The The new inductive empiricismnew inductive empiricism (i.e., observation/experimentation), & (i.e., observation/experimentation), &

b.b. The The old deductive reasoning old deductive reasoning (i.e., rational analysis/inquiry)(i.e., rational analysis/inquiry)

• In short, if science is In short, if science is to be both realistic & orderlyto be both realistic & orderly, scientific , scientific explanations must be supported by “explanations must be supported by “sound” empirical evidencesound” empirical evidence,,but also by but also by rational/reasoned analysisrational/reasoned analysis..

Key characteristics of the modern scientific method: Key characteristics of the modern scientific method: 65


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CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE EmpiricismEmpiricism

• Science is NOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be Science is NOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be anchored in realityanchored in reality, NOT , NOT just in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment.just in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment. That is:That is:

– Propositions must Propositions must appeal to evidenceappeal to evidence, and not just to beliefs or even , and not just to beliefs or even reason.reason.

• Newton’sNewton’s “4“4thth rule of reason in science rule of reason in science” states:” states:– ““We are to look upon propositions inferred by general We are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomenoninduction from phenomenon

as accurately or very true, . . . till such time as other phenomena occur, by which as accurately or very true, . . . till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.

• John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill argues that:argues that:– The The only groundsonly grounds that we have that we have for inferring for inferring from a sample to a population, or from from a sample to a population, or from

the past to the future, are given by the past to the future, are given by present experience or memorypresent experience or memory. .

• Francis Bacon Francis Bacon who was an advocate for who was an advocate for a worldly utilitarian sciencea worldly utilitarian science argued: argued: – The only The only knowledge of importanceknowledge of importance to man is knowledge that is to man is knowledge that is rooted in the rooted in the

natural/physical worldnatural/physical world (which can be experienced in (which can be experienced in timetime and and spacespace).). o As opposed to the As opposed to the meta-physical/supernaturalmeta-physical/supernatural phenomena phenomena that that

pertain topertain to (are in the realm of) (are in the realm of) forces beyond this world forces beyond this world

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Empiricism in Empiricism in social/behavioral sciencessocial/behavioral sciences::

Result of pioneering works of:Result of pioneering works of:• Auguste ComteAuguste Comte , the , the founder of founder of PositivismPositivism in social sciencesin social sciences::

PositivistsPositivists believe that scientific research should believe that scientific research should NOT be compelledNOT be compelledto to start with a deductivestart with a deductive theory-building process. theory-building process.

Maintained that the Maintained that the goal of knowledgegoal of knowledge is simply to is simply to describedescribe the the phenomenon experiencedphenomenon experienced, and NOT necessarily to , and NOT necessarily to justifyjustify it. it.

That is, scientific knowledge must receive its That is, scientific knowledge must receive its positive affirmation from positive affirmation from datadata/evidence and does not have to be rationally justifiable./evidence and does not have to be rationally justifiable.

Maintained that Maintained that untestable/unverifiable metaphysical untestable/unverifiable metaphysical propositions propositions are are without meaningwithout meaning; are not scientific. ; are not scientific.

Sought to apply Sought to apply observation observation and and experimentationexperimentation to what we today to what we today know as know as sociologysociology..

• GaltonGalton developed a mathematical formula for measuring developed a mathematical formula for measuring correlations,correlations, thereby thereby facilitating empiricism in behavioral/social sciencesfacilitating empiricism in behavioral/social sciences that do not that do not easily lend themselves to experimentation. easily lend themselves to experimentation.

Also was the inventor of Also was the inventor of fingerprintingfingerprinting, & cousin of Charles Darwin. , & cousin of Charles Darwin.

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• Propositions must be Propositions must be testable/verifiabletestable/verifiable against observed evidence. against observed evidence.

• Science is not a belief system; it Science is not a belief system; it seeks objective knowledgeseeks objective knowledgeabout about naturalnatural phenomena phenomena (i.e., phenomena that are o(i.e., phenomena that are observable/ testable bservable/ testable in space and timein space and time.).)

As such: If As such: If NOT testableNOT testable, then , then NOT scientificNOT scientific

• Speculative propositionsSpeculative propositions/explanations that delve into the /explanations that delve into the supernaturalsupernatural (issues beyond this world) have (issues beyond this world) have no placeno placein sciencein science..

They are They are metaphysical speculations metaphysical speculations about about abstractabstract ssupernatural upernatural ideasideas that cannot be measured, quantified, tested, that cannot be measured, quantified, tested, confirmed/disconfirmed by observation.confirmed/disconfirmed by observation.

Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thought.Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thought.

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE TestabilityTestability

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CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

Rigor & Regulated MethodologyRigor & Regulated Methodology• It is NOT a belief system. It is a It is NOT a belief system. It is a deliberatedeliberate and and disciplined intellectual disciplined intellectual

processprocess based on carefully based on carefully planned observationsplanned observations, that is: , that is: WhatWhat is observed, is observed, how many timeshow many times, and , and howhow are all carefully decided. are all carefully decided.

• QuantificationQuantification of variables, of variables, precise measurementprecise measurement using using instruments/procedures that enhance the range of one’s senses, instruments/procedures that enhance the range of one’s senses, mathematical/statistical analysismathematical/statistical analysis methods, and use of methods, and use of probabilityprobability theory in theory in inferences are all aimed at inferences are all aimed at providing clarity/precisionproviding clarity/precision and minimizing and minimizing vagueness.vagueness.

Precise Language/RhetoricPrecise Language/Rhetoric• People People understand words in slightly different waysunderstand words in slightly different ways..

This can lead to This can lead to distortionsdistortions and flaws and flaws in knowledgein knowledge..

• Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an exact and universal languageexact and universal language, , such as such as mathematics/statisticsmathematics/statistics..

The standard of writing scientific works in The standard of writing scientific works in clear/simple and straightforward clear/simple and straightforward languagelanguage was also established by the founding members of was also established by the founding members of thethe Royal SocietyRoyal Society shortly after it was officially established in 1660.shortly after it was officially established in 1660.

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CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE Assumption of DeterminismAssumption of Determinism

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3.3. Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective):Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective):

There is order in nature and the world around us does There is order in nature and the world around us does NOTNOT operate operate randomlyrandomly/accidentally./accidentally.

Baruch Spinoza: Baruch Spinoza: “Everything that happens occurs “Everything that happens occurs through the through the operation of operation of NECESSITYNECESSITY,,”?”?

• Everything Everything must necessarily happenmust necessarily happen the way that it does. the way that it does. Every object/phenomenon has Every object/phenomenon has explainable causesexplainable causes

inherent in the natureinherent in the nature of that object/phenomenon. of that object/phenomenon.

• Nature is lawfulNature is lawful and all phenomenon is governed by and all phenomenon is governed by logicallogical and and intelligible intelligible LAWS OF NATURELAWS OF NATURE..

• Human intellectHuman intellect and judgment is capable of discovering nature’s order. and judgment is capable of discovering nature’s order.

CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature.CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature. By discovering the laws of nature, we By discovering the laws of nature, we find mastery find mastery

over our worldover our world and control over our destiny. and control over our destiny.

As As FrancisFrancis BaconBacon stated: stated: The The universeuniverse must be viewed must be viewed as a problem to be solvedas a problem to be solved, , “rather than as an “rather than as an eternally fixed stageeternally fixed stage, upon which man walked”., upon which man walked”.

•

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• Scientific Determinism is Scientific Determinism is NOT exactNOT exact, but , but statistical/probabilisticstatistical/probabilistic..

As As John Locke John Locke maintains:maintains: It is It is often NOT possibleoften NOT possible to establish knowledge/truth to establish knowledge/truth with absolute certainty.with absolute certainty.

Thus, Thus, truthtruth is is a function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidencea function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidence..

Therefore, the “Therefore, the “degree of assentdegree of assent” that we give to a proposition should depend ” that we give to a proposition should depend on the on the grounds of probabilitygrounds of probability in its favor. in its favor.


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TentativenessTentativeness• Unlike religion, science is Unlike religion, science is not a belief systemnot a belief system..• Science does Science does NOTNOT subscribe to subscribe to certitude and absolutismcertitude and absolutism. . Scientific findings are Scientific findings are NOTNOT to be considered to be considered final/completefinal/complete..

Human Human knowledge is relative and fallible;knowledge is relative and fallible; must be constantly must be constantly revisedrevised in light of new evidence.in light of new evidence.

• KantKant had had stressed the mind’s active rolestressed the mind’s active role in giving meaning to in giving meaning tohuman experiences/observations. human experiences/observations.

• Karl Popper Karl Popper took the argument to its took the argument to its logical conclusionlogical conclusion:: Science CANNOT produceScience CANNOT produce knowledge that is knowledge that is certain or absolutecertain or absolute..

• Corroborating data CANNOT confirm a theory since there may always be

other plausible explanations that trump the current theory.

– PopperPopper states:“Corroboration gives only the comfort that the theory has been tested and survived the test, that even after the most impressive corroborations of predictions, it has only achieved the status of not yet disconfirmed.“

– In other words, "not proven false" is not the same as "being true.“


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• Popper, therefore, maintains that:

"The only process available for establishing a scientific theory is one of eliminating plausible rival hypotheses.“

• As such, As such, scientific enterprisescientific enterprise should be . . .: should be . . .:

. . . a continuous attempt to . . . a continuous attempt to falsify prevailing theoriesfalsify prevailing theories. .

• By ruling out competing plausible explanationsBy ruling out competing plausible explanations, one continues to , one continues to learn more about a subject and learn more about a subject and get increasingly closer to the get increasingly closer to the truth.truth.

• Thus, Thus, even undisputable explanationseven undisputable explanations, those highly corroborated , those highly corroborated by empirical evidence (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, by empirical evidence (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, etc.), etc.), are still referred to as aare still referred to as a “ “THEORYTHEORY” ” . .


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Investigations must Investigations must start WITHOUTstart WITHOUT any any pre-suppositions /beliefpre-suppositions /beliefregarding the regarding the truth/falsitytruth/falsity of the proposition/explanation. of the proposition/explanation.

•Propositions must Propositions must not onlynot only have the potential to have the potential to be verifiedbe verified, but also the , but also the potential to be falsified/refuted.potential to be falsified/refuted.

•Science is an honest attempt to Science is an honest attempt to seek answers that we don’t haveseek answers that we don’t have..

•In science, it is the In science, it is the evidenceevidence that is supposed to that is supposed to lead us to our conclusionslead us to our conclusions, , whatever those conclusions may be.whatever those conclusions may be.

Ideologically-chargedIdeologically-charged propositions/assumptions pursue questions for which propositions/assumptions pursue questions for which answers are already given/assumedanswers are already given/assumed..

Dogmatic ideologies Dogmatic ideologies don’t tolerate rejectiondon’t tolerate rejection of their assumptions/beliefs. of their assumptions/beliefs.

• Thus, whenever we believe Thus, whenever we believe answers/explanationsanswers/explanations are: are:

a.a. known known (i.e., (i.e., completecomplete and and finalfinal vs tentative), and/or vs tentative), and/orb.b. externally fixedexternally fixed (i.e., are (i.e., are absoluteabsolute and and not refutablenot refutable),),

the question being considered the question being considered will NOT be a scientific onewill NOT be a scientific one..

Example:Example: Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution

In Short:In Short: If If NOT testable, tentative, or refutableNOT testable, tentative, or refutable, then , then NOT scientificNOT scientific


FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

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Parsimony Parsimony • Is based on the notion that the Is based on the notion that the elegance, beauty , and harmonyelegance, beauty , and harmony

ofof nature nature emanates from its emanates from its simplicitysimplicity..

• This principle was This principle was originally expressedoriginally expressed by by William of OckhamWilliam of Ockham and, thus, and, thus,is known as the is known as the “Occam’s/Ockham’s Razor.”“Occam’s/Ockham’s Razor.” It stated:It stated:

“What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.”“What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.” • CopernicusCopernicus applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe.applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe.• Kepler Kepler repeatedly writes: “Nature loves simplicity.”repeatedly writes: “Nature loves simplicity.”• Newton’sNewton’s single law of gravitationsingle law of gravitation holding each planet to the sun represents this holding each planet to the sun represents this simplicitysimplicity..

• Newton’sNewton’s “first rule of reasoning in Science” is “first rule of reasoning in Science” is a restatement a restatement of Occam’s Razor:of Occam’s Razor:

““Nature does nothing in vainNature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when, and more is in vain whenless will serve; for less will serve; for nature is pleased with simplicitynature is pleased with simplicity, , and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.”and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.”

• Therefore, Therefore, theories and explanationstheories and explanations of natural phenomena of natural phenomena should notshould notbe made more complicatedbe made more complicated than necessary (frugality/succinctness). than necessary (frugality/succinctness).

• This means, This means, what is superfluouswhat is superfluous and unnecessary in the intellectualand unnecessary in the intellectualjudgment of the scientist judgment of the scientist should be cut awayshould be cut away.. That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts,That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts,

the simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be usedthe simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be useduntil more evidence comes along.until more evidence comes along.

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NOTE: NOTE: Method of scienceMethod of science is often (especially in more mature stage is often (especially in more mature stage of a fields) of a fields) based on thebased on the NomotheticNomothetic (rather than(rather than IdiographicIdiographic))method of explaining phenomenamethod of explaining phenomena..

•Idiographic ResearchIdiographic ResearchIs concerned with examining and identifying Is concerned with examining and identifying many uniquemany unique

considerations that lie behind considerations that lie behind a particular phenomenona particular phenomenon/ event/action / event/action (e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research).(e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research).

•Nomothetic ResearchNomothetic ResearchIs aimed at discovering the Is aimed at discovering the relatively fewrelatively few, but very important, , but very important,

considerationsconsiderations that explain that explain a general class of events/actionsa general class of events/actions..

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CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE GeneralizabilityGeneralizability

• AsAs Newton’s Newton’s 22ndnd rule of reason in science asserts: rule of reason in science asserts:

“To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same “To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. “As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in causes. “As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in America….”Europe and in America….”

Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms—Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms—Checks and balances that provide an Checks and balances that provide an objective and fair playing fieldobjective and fair playing field..

• Public scrutiny:Public scrutiny: Public dissemination of scientific works and their Public dissemination of scientific works and their independent independent reviewreview by other scientists is a by other scientists is a 1717thth century invention century invention..

It was initiated by the founding members of the It was initiated by the founding members of the British Royal SocietyBritish Royal Society..

• Replications:Replications: Ro be considered valid, scientific findings must be Ro be considered valid, scientific findings must be reproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists. reproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists.

This is why replications are encouraged.This is why replications are encouraged. And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their

proceduresprocedures. .

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To Describe:To Describe:Specifying Specifying whatwhat makes a phenomenon occur and makes a phenomenon occur and howhow..What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)

To Explain:To Explain:WhyWhy? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and ? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and

dynamics?dynamics?

To Predict:To Predict:What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given

condition? condition? Under what conditionsUnder what conditions is a phenomenon likely to is a phenomenon likely to occur?)occur?)

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ?SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ?““Scientific” knowledge is our Scientific” knowledge is our tentativetentative and and falsifiable explanationsfalsifiable explanations about about naturalnatural phenomena developed on the basis of careful phenomena developed on the basis of careful logical logical analysisanalysis and objective and objective examination examination of of publically reviewablepublically reviewable observational evidenceobservational evidence..

FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?

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• It is It is estimated that it took 12,000 years until the beginning of the century industrial estimated that it took 12,000 years until the beginning of the century industrial revolution, for world’s per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) to double.revolution, for world’s per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) to double.

• By contrast, in only the 250 years between the industrial revolution and year 2000, per By contrast, in only the 250 years between the industrial revolution and year 2000, per capita GDP rose capita GDP rose more than 36 folds.more than 36 folds.

Despite the worldwide Despite the worldwide population explosion population explosion from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000. from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000.

But, it is fair to ask if this But, it is fair to ask if this material prosperitymaterial prosperity been achieved at the expense of a been achieved at the expense of a diminishing quality of lifediminishing quality of life? ?

Did the Medieval life involve greater Did the Medieval life involve greater richnessrichness, , spiritualityspirituality, higher , higher general happinessgeneral happiness, or a , or a

higher higher sense of subjective wellbeingsense of subjective wellbeing??

The answer is an emphatic NO; all the evidence points to the contrary . . .The answer is an emphatic NO; all the evidence points to the contrary . . .

What has been the What has been the contributionscontributions of this of this new sciencenew science to our to our prosperityprosperity and socio-economic and technological and socio-economic and technological progressprogress??

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QUESTIONS OR QUESTIONS OR COMMENTSCOMMENTS

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