برنامج الترجمة لغة انجليزية

TRANSLATION ثانىفصل دراسى – ثانىالمستوى ال

(222كود )

Compiled By

Dr. Iman A. Hanafy

Banha University

Faculty of Arts

Code (224) TRANSLATION

For university students

(Open Education)

Compiled By

Dr. Iman A. Hanafy

2012-2013

1

Introduction

Translation is as old as the art of writng or as old as history of

education in general.It is occasioned by the social needs of

people. Whenever, for instance, two linguistic groups interact

as neighbours to each other, translation from and to each

other’s languages becomes inevitable if they must

meaningfully communicate with each other in matters of

commerce, intermarriage, education, legal issues, etc.

Religious books like the Bible and the Qur’an, have been

essentially translated to numerous languages in different parts

of the world as a facilitator of missionary activities. In this unit,

therefore, we shall study the concept of translation and

various types of translation.

Translation consists of changing from one form – of language

in this regard – to another. Talking about form, reference is

made to the actual words, phrases, sentences, clauses,

paragraphs etc which are spoken or written. They (i.e. the

forms) are the surface structure of a language.

2

Technically, the form from which the translation is made will

be called the source language and the form into which it is to

be changed will be called the receptor language.

Translation, then, consists of studying the lexis, grammatical

structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the

source language text; all these are analyzed in order to

determine its meaning. This same meaning is then

reconstructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure

which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural

context. For example, if we use Arabic as a source language

and English as the receptor, Ana Muslim becomes the text

whose lexicon, grammatical structure, communication

situation and cultural context are analyzed in order to

determine its meaning. The meaning is then reconstructed

using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are

appropriate in the receptor language. To that extent, Ana

Muslim is restructured thus: ‘I am a Muslim’.

3

Various Types of Translation

There are four types of translation:

Literal translation or word for word

Idiomatic translation

Unduly free translation

Inter linear translation

1- Literal Translation/ Word for Word Translation

We shall begin this unit with a discussion of literal translation

while the other types of translation shall be discussed in

subsequent sub-sections.

Literal translation is a kind of translation that has to do with

form based translation of the source language, and it is also

known as word for word translation. This kind of translation is

very useful for purposes related to the study of the source

language and it is of little help to the speakers of the receptor

language who are very interested in the meaning of the source

language text. A literal translation of words, idioms, figures of

4

speech etc. results in unclear, unnatural and sometimes

nonsensical translations and has little communication value.

2. Idiomatic Translation

Idiomatic translation is the kind of translation that is meaning -

based and which communicates the meaning of the source

language in a natural form of the receptor language. In

translating an idiom, the translator’s goal should be to

reproduce in the receptor language a text, which

communicates the same message as the source language but

using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the

receptor language. However, the main essence is that an

idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source

language (that is, the meaning intended by the original

communicator) in the natural form of the receptor language

using the natural form of the receptor language in the

grammatical constructions and in the choice of lexical items. A

truly idiomatic translation sounds like it was written originally

in the receptor language. Therefore, a good translator must

endeavor to translate idiomatically.

5

3. Unduly Free Translation

Unduly free translation is the kind of translation that has

additional extraneous information which is not included in the

source text, whether the meaning of the source language has

been changed or the fact of the historical and cultural setting

of the source language text has been distorted. However, this

kind of translation is not totally considered acceptable and

normal. It is, however, usually used to bring a kind of humor

and special response from the receptor language speakers.

And it also emphasizes on the reaction of those reading or

hearing it and the meaning is not necessarily the same as that

of the source language.

4. Interlinear Translation

It is a completely literal translation for some special purpose. It

is preferable to reproduce the linguistic features of the source

text as, for example, in a linguistic study of that language.

Although these literal translations may be very useful for

purposes related to the study of the source language, they are

of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are very

interested in the meaning of the source language text.

6

The Translation Cycle

1. Preparation

The preparation phase includes:

a. Preparing necessary references and dictionaries.

b. Unifying terminology and making it available to the

translators through the network.

c. Translating samples from the translation texts to anticipate

any problems the translators might face in their work.

d. Defining the task required from every translator.

2. Translation

The process of translation includes:

a. Undertaking the translation task, complying with available

terminology databases.

b. Commitment to the manuals on Transliteration,

Capitalization, Punctuation, etc.

c. Reporting any mistake in the Arabic text, and any problems

in the terminology or consistency issues.

7

d. Undertaking ample investigation in case the text contains

any ambiguities.

e. Checking the grammar and spelling.

3. Revision

The process of revision includes:

a. Insuring that the translation is sound and correct.

b. Eliminating structural mistakes.

c. Checking the spelling.

d. Reporting on the performance of translators.

4. Editing

The process of editing includes:

a. Guaranteeing the readability and understandability of

English texts.

b. Insuring the soundness and correctness of style.

c. Revision and editing by a native speaker.

d. Excluding vague words and words with double-cross

meaning.

8

Translation as Process and Product

Translation can be viewed from two different perspectives,

that of a „process‟ and that of a „product‟. As a process,

translation consists of turning a message from one language

into another. The transmitted message can be in the form of

an expression, an utterance or even a piece of music. Seen

from another perspective, translation can be seen as the end

product of this process, i.e., the translated text.

In addition to this twofold division, there exists a third variable,

namely that put forward by Bell. He (1991: 13) differentiated

between “the abstract concept which encompasses both the

process of translating and the product of that process”, i.e.,

translation proper, translating (the process), and a translation

(the product).

Meaning in Translation

As a linguistic activity, translation is concerned with all the

language components: vocabulary, grammar, style and

phonology. Each of these divisions has, in turn, its own

subdivisions as shown in the following figure.

9

The Relationship between Language, Language Components,

Meaning and Translation

In this sense, translation implies translating the language units

and not the language words. Each of these units can take

different linguistic forms: a word, a phrase, a clause or two

clauses, or a sentence.

Types of Meaning

Yule (2006) distinguishes between two types of meaning:

Denotative meaning, or the conventionally called conceptual

or referential meaning, is the one which is associated with the

literal sense of a word. This type is a worldly entity that a

linguistic unit can be used to denote. For example, the word

needle denotes the property of being a needle, i.e., its

common physical features which are shared between peoples.

The second type is called connotative meaning which is purely

associated with the non-literal senses of a word. That is, a

word can convey more than its literal meaning. To take the

same example, the various shades of meaning that the word

„needle‟ may acquire are “pain” , “illness” , “knitting” or even

10

“hard to find”. These connotations, in fact, are not the only

ones since they may differ from one language user to another.

Importance of Style

Style, as the framework in which the content of a given text is

brought to readership, is no longer regarded of secondary

importance as far as meaning making is concerned. It is

defined as “the different, several choices made in a text from

language stock in regard to layout (or shape), grammar, words

and phonology" (Ghazala, 1995:201). Accordingly, it has a lot

to do with conveying meaning of the text. Hence, style has a

striking influential role to play in understanding and grasping

the essence of a given message.

Since the task of a translator is to transmit meaning from the

ST to the TT, he should recognize the close relationship which

content and style enter into to construct that meaning. In

other words, if the translator wants to achieve an appealing

and effective translation, he is not only supposed to focus on

content but also to adopt the so-called stylistic

accommodation strategy by which neither his style nor the

original one is to be neglected to achieve stylistic equivalent

11

(Shi,2004.Stylistic Accomodation,para.1). For example, it is

preferable to preserve the English style when translating an

English text into Arabic. However, there are some cases where

the English style is impossible to be retained and then the

translator is forced to make a shift and adopt the equivalent

Arabic style.

12

Translation problems

There are some particular problems in the translation process:

problems of ambiguity, problems that originate from structural

and lexical differences between languages and multiword units

like idioms and collocations. Another problem would be the

grammar because there are several constructions of grammar

poorly understood, in the sense that it isn't clear how they

should be represented, or what rules should be used to

describe them.

The words that are really hard to translate are frequently the

small, common words, whose precise meaning depends

heavily on context. Besides, some words are untranslatable

when one wishes to remain in the same grammatical category.

The question of whether particular words are untranslatable is

frequently debated.

For example, it isn't easily to translate a poetry because you

need to analyze the words and meaning and after the flow and

rhythm (or rhyme). Poetry's most translations are bad. This is

principally because the translator knows the foreign language

too well and his or her native language too poorly. Some

13

English poetry translations are robotic, do a great disservice to

the originals.

Translation Problems:

Problems with the source text:

Text difficult to read or illegible text

Spelled incorrectly or printed incorrectly

Unfinished text

Badly written text

Language problems:

Idiom terms and neologisms

Unsolved acronyms and abbreviations

Proper name of people, organizations, and places.

Slang difficult to understand

Respect to punctuation conventions.

14

How to Translate Academic

Style in Arabic

In its social sense the term denotes large groups among which

unequal distribution of economic goods and/or preferential

division of political prerogatives and/or discriminatory

differentiation of cultural values result from economic

exploitation, political oppression and cultural domination,

respectively; all of these potentially lead to social conflict over

the control of scarce resources. In the tradition of social

thought, social class is a generic concept utilized in studying

the dynamics of the societal system in terms of relational

rather than distributional aspects of social structure. In this

sense, classes are considered as not merely aggregates of

individuals but as real social groups with their own history and

identifiable place in the organization of society. However, the

idea that social classes can be equated ith aggregates of

individuals distinguished on the basis of similar level of

education, income or other characeristics of social inequality

still persists and leads to confusion of this concept with Social

Stratification. Therefore, the meanings attached to the term

15

social class vary and refer to different types of societal

Structuration. In theoretical and historical sociology various

types of structuration appear in substantive discussions of

economic classes, political classes and cultural classes.

Jan Waclaw Machajski (1904) outlined a theory of future

society in which the ‘educated class’ or ‘intelligentsia’ of

bourgeois society gives rise to a new class that dominates

manual workers. Writing from an anarchist perspective, he

said that the elimination of capitalists is not enough to change

society. Reading Marx's Capital (1867, 1885, 1894) he finds the

thesis that work which is more skilled, hence requiring more

education, should be better paid than work requiring less

education. Machajski emphasizes that the Marxist and social

democratic programmes for the future socialist society imply

the survival of educational inequality and, consequently,

economic inequality.

Max Weber indirectly influenced the formation of the concept

of cultural class. He proposed that we investigate ‘status

groups’ which have developed a specific style of life. Some

status groups clearly do not belong to class-type phenomena,

but some do, emerging on the basis of common economic

16

situations or common position within the power structure, or

both (such as feudal lords) : ‘Status groups are often created

by property classes.’ From Weber's writing one can infer that

social classes show an affinity to status groups because both

develop their own culture or style of life. Weber considered

the bourgeoisie of rising modern towns a ‘social class’ and

attributed to it three characteristics : property, citizen's rights

and‘culture’. In the Weberian perspective, culture may be seen

as an active, integrative force in class-formation processes.

Alvin Gouldner (1979), inspired directly by Machajski,

formulated, a theory according to which the ‘new class’ of

humanistic intellectuals and technical intelligentsia, the class

of the bearers of knowledge, is on the way to social

domination. Members of the new class are owners of ‘cultural

capital’ which exists primarily in the form of higher education.

They have begun to replace the ‘old moneyed class’ in the

process of social development as well as in the functioning of

the postindustrial societal system.

According to Gouldner, the future belongs to them, not to the

‘working class’ as Marx supposed. Members of the new class

will guard their own material and non-material interests —

17

higher income and higher prestige for those with knowledge —

but simultaneously, they will represent and promote the

interests of the society as a whole, to a much higher degree

than any other class hitherto known in history. The new class

subverts the old-type hierarchy and promotes the culture of

critical discourse, but at the same time introduces a new social

hierarchy of knowledge.

Since it is both emancipatory and elitist, he says, it is a ‘flawed

universal class’.

Consider the following use of the term by Taha Hussein

himself, the exponent of modern thought and learning : (10 ص

Al-Azhar was an أوراق مجهولة للدكتور طه حسين ( 1997 -،

educational institute where knowledge was imparted, simply

because it was knowledge. No limits were set to the pursuit of

knowledge, apart from the capacities of both learner and

teacher. The freedom of learning in Al-Azhar was ideal in its

freedom and unrestricted scope. Opinions clashed and

doctrines jostled, with the outcome confined to heated

conversations and cogent arguments. This promoted better

research, richer minds, deeper insights, and sharper faculties.

18

Today we tend to distinguish knowledge المعرفة from science;

as well as between the adjectives معرفى (cognitive) and علمى

(scientific) as the former has gained an unrivalled place in

philosophy (epistemology المعرفة نظرية ) and semantics داللة علم

while the latter remains confined to the natural sciences , األلفاظ

and those human sciences which aspire to the same level of

certainty which characterizes the findings of, say, the physicist.

We talk of scientificmethod العلمى المنهج in psychology in the

hope that our experiments will be as laboratory-controlled and

the results as absolutely certain as those of the genetic

engineering specialist. And we talk of the scientific method in

economics, in politics and in language learning — and in

literary scholarship !

Consider the following paragraph which is taken from a book

published as recently as 1998 : 393- 392 د. محمود عرفة ص -

اإلسالم قبل العرب

When Marwan Al-Quraz Ibn Zinba' invaded the tribe of Bakr

Ibn Wa'il, he was captured and taken prisoner. He asked his

captor to take him to (Lady) Khom'ah bint Awf ibn Muhlim, to

whom he had once done a favour; and when he was taken to

her she declared that he would be under her protection and

19

that she would shield him from any possible threats.

Meanwhile, the Arab King and tyrant of Al-Heerah, Amr Ibn

Hind, had once been wronged by Marwan and had taken an

oath never to forgive him until Marwan surrendered to him.

Amr was known, however, to be in the habit of killing his

captives. Learning from Awf about Marwan's whereabouts, he

sent word to him asking for Marwan to be handed over. “Well,

my daughter has

حازم الببالوى، االستقرار أجل من التغيير ، (1401998 ص -141)

The Public Sector (public production) is not the only form of

state intervention. It may not even be the ideal form of the

role of the state in socio-economic activities. Within the limits

that justify it, a reduction of the role of the public sector is not

necessarily a reduction of the role of the state. It may, on the

contrary, result in a recovery of the prestige and effectiveness

of the state, as it would help the state perform its proper

functions, namely to use its sovereign powers in policy

formulation, establishing codes of ethics, and in employing

expenditure (rather than production) policies as a means of

achieving its objectives.

20

To avoid the undesirable impact of unfamiliar abstractions the

translator may have to ‘simplify’ by paraphrasing — but then

he must also introduce the new terminology regardless of

comprehensibility — hence the dilemma.

Take the prime example from a recent text on the World Trade

Organization. A writer tells us :

Any anti-dumping measures, such as quota-restrictions,

tariffication or other countervailing measures, notwithstanding

the difficulty of enacting the relevant enforcible legislation,

should be internationally sanctioned.

Another example from a recent glossary of sociological terms

should further illustrate the dilemma :

Aristotle saw the state as a community involving

communication between a multiplicity of individual

perspectives. Whereas this concerns individual purposive

action in the political sphere, Aquinas introduced into

medieval Christian thought a broader theoretical conception in

which God's nature is communicated in the creation of his

creatures. This model led to the generalization of the concept

21

of communication to all human beings and at the same time to

a differentiation, which became central for modernity,

between the particular (political) and the universal (social)

communication community.

To read on is to find confirmation of this interpretation; and

‘read on’is what every translator should do before opting for a

given interpretation :

Marx, in the Grundrisse, uses the differentiation between

political and social communication to turn Aristotle's zoon

politikon into a ‘society’ of individuals ‘acting and speaking

together’. C.S. Peirce analyses the scientific community from

the perspective of an (idealized) communication community

and G.H. Mead brings the social processes of individualization

by means of socialization into the framework of a ‘universal

discourse’.

One last word : the present writer sees no great difference

between a society that had accepted, in ages long gone,

relations of slavery, and a society which allows, organizes and

taxes prostitution as a recognized service, or, indeed a society

whose members receive no more than subsistence wages.

22

The status of a slave girl does not differ much from that of a

harlot. The status of a worker who receives from his employer

enough wages for survival, so as to resume work in the

following day, cannot be different from that of slave supported

by his master for the same purpose. The world is as yet

uncivilized.

23

Passages for translation

A tiring day

It had been a tiring day and I was looking forward to a quiet

evening. My husband would not be back until late and I had

decided to settle down in a comfortable armchair in the living-

room and read a book. I put the children to bed early and

prepared a cold supper and some coffee. Soon I was sitting

comfortably with a tray full of food before me and a book at

my side.

I was just beginning to eat when the telephone rang. I

dropped my knife and fork and hurried to answer it. By the

time I got back to the living-room, my coffee had got cold.

After I finished my supper, I began drinking cold coffee with

my book open at page one. Suddenly there was a loud knock at

the door. It gave me such a surprise that I spilt the coffee and

made an ugly stain on my skirt. Some stranger had lost his way

and wanted me to direct him. It took me ages to get rid of him.

At length I managed to sit down again and actually read a

whole page without further interruption-until the baby woke

up. He began crying loudly and I rushed upstairs. The baby was

still awake at 11 o'clock when my husband came home. I could

24

have screamed when he asked me if I had spent a pleasant

evening!

25

Learning A Language

Linguists are interested in the abilities to understand and

use language that people have. One of the abilities that people

have is the ability to learn language. You are using this ability

right now in your efforts to learn English as a second language.

Most students would like to know how to learn a language

more easily. Most linguists and language teachers would also

like to know this. Linguists are working on this problem in two

ways. First, they are trying to understand how children learn to

speak and understand their native language. They are also

trying to learn how people learn a second language.

Linguists are not sure how children learn to speak some

linguists think that children are born with an ability to learn

and use a language. This does not mean that you came into the

world knowing your native language. It means that, along with

many other things, you were born with the ability to learn your

native language. One group of linguists feels that with just a

little exposure to language, and a little help from your parents,

you wearable to learn to speak. Another group of linguists

does not think this is correct.

26

This second group of linguists thinks that children learn to

use a language from their parents. They believe that a child's

parents teach their child to say sounds and words in their

language. When the child knows some words, the parents

begin to teach their child to say sentences. The linguists do not

think that parents teach their children in the same way that

people are taught a second language. Instead, parents

probably teach their children by talking to them and

correcting their use of language. These linguists feel that you

learn your language mainly from your environments your

family and your home. As you see, the group of linguists

disagrees.

There are some other theories about how children learn

language. Many people are studying the process of language

learning by children. This word is being done in many

countries. Linguists are not the only people who are interested

in these questions. Many psychologists, doctors, and parents

are also interested. People who teach foreign languages are

interested in this process, too.

Foreign language teachers are interested in how children

lean to speak their native language for a very important

27

reason. If we knew how children learn their native language,

perhaps we would have an easy way to teach adults, as well as

children, a second language. This is a very interesting idea.

Some foreign language teachers believe that adults learn a

second language the same way children learn their native

language. These teachers try to make their students lives

similar to the life of a child just learning to speak. These

teachers speak only the foreign language in the classroom.

They will not speak to the student in the native language. They

try to expose the student to as much of the spoken language

as possible. They do not teach the student any rules for using

the language. Most parents don't teach their children rules for

language usage, either. They simply tell the child how to say

something correctly. Foreign language teachers using this

spoken language method do the same thing. For some

students, this method is successful. They learn to speak quickly

and feasibly. They seem to enjoy using the language, and they

do not worry about using exactly the right rule for everything

they say. Some students, however, cannot learn a language

this way. Linguists are trying to find anther way to teach them

a language.

28

A second method, the rule-learning method, sometimes works

better with these students. Some linguists believe that learning

a foreign language is different from learning to speak your

native language. They feel that a student must learn the rules

for using the language by memorizing them. The students must

practice saying things in the language, using the rules correctly.

These linguists try to each the students the rules of the

language they want to learn. Then they give the students many

sentences in the language to say over and again.

The students are encouraged to make up new sentences

using the rules that they have learned and other words that

they know.

Some students are very successful with this second, rule-

learning method. They team the language quite quickly and

can use it well. They know the rules for using the language, and

can speak it and understand it too. For many students, this is

the best way to team a foreign language. For some students,

both of these to methods may work. Sometimes teachers use a

combination of these methods in a class, hoping that everyone

will be able to learn the language with one method or the

other. Some people can go to a country and "pick up" me

29

language simply from hearing it and trying to communicate.

These people are rare.

Most people try to learn a language by taking classes and

studying it in some way. Most teachers will try different ways

of teaching to help me students learn the language quickly and

easily. Linguists and psychologists are trying to understand

how people learn and use a language. Perhaps language

learning will be easier for everyone when we have a clear

understanding of how people learn and use language.

30

Open Education

When people give their opinion about something, they give

their feelings about the subject. In an opinion, person says

either that he or she likes an idea or thing, or she or he does

not like it, and says why. This essay gives an opinion abut open

education. First, a definition of open education will be given.

Then, some of the good things about open education and

some of the bad things about open education will be

described. And then an opinion will be given. You may agree

with the opinion, or not. You may agree with the opinion

partly. You will have your own opinion.

This look at open education has two parts. The first part has

to do with me teacher feels about the students. The second

part has to do with how teacher does in the classroom. Each

part of the definition can be explained open education with

traditional education.

In traditional education, the teacher may feel that the

students are not very grown up. Usually, teachers are older

than students, and teachers feel that students are young and

do not know very much about me world. The teachers feel mat

they must tell the students what to do most of the time, and

31

that they must make the students study specific things. In

open education, the teacher's feelings are very different.

These teachers feel that the students are individuals first, and

students second. They expect the students to be responsible

for the things that they do, just as adults are. A student's ideas

and feelings are just as important as the teacher's .The teacher

allows the students to decide what they want to do, and does

not make them study specific subjects or things. The teacher

least them decide what to study and how much to study. It is

very important for the teacher to show how he or she feels

about the students.

The second part of the idea of open education has to do

with what the teacher does in the classroom. In the traditional

classroom, the students are told what to do. There is a list of

things that the students must do to finish the class. There are

rules made by the teacher that the student must follow, even

if the student sees no reason for the rules. In open education,

the teacher allows the students to choose what to do. They

may study, or talk or do nothing at all if they want to. There

are no specific things for the students to do. There are no

traditional rules made by the teacher. The only rules in an

32

open classroom are rules for everyone's safety. The students

are allowed to discover subjects in the open classroom.,

instead of being made to study them. Open education is a

really complex idea.

There are some very good things about open education.

This way of teaching allows the students to grow as people,

and to develop their own interests in many subjects. Open

education allows students to be responsible for their own

education, as they are responsible for what they do in life.

Some students do badly in a traditional classroom. The open

classroom may allow them to enjoy learning. Some students

will be happier in an open education school. They will not

have to worry about grades or rules. For students who worry

about these things a lot, it is a good idea to be in an open

classroom. But many students will not do well in an open

classroom.

For some students, there are too few rules. These students

will do little in school. They will not make good use of open

education. Test students will do little in school. They will not

make good use of open education. Because open education is

so different from traditional education, these students may

33

have a problem getting used to making so many choices .For

many students it is important to have some roles in the class-

room. They worry about the rules even when there are no

rules. Even a few roles will help this of student. The last point

about open education is that some traditional teachers do not

like it. Many teachers do not believe in open education.

Teachers who want to have an open classroom may have many

problems at their schools.

You now know what open education is. Some of its good

points and bad points have been explained. You may have your

own opinion about open education. The writer thinks that

open education is a good idea, but only in theory. In actual

fact, it may not work very well in a real class or school. The

writer believes that most students, but of course not all

students, want some structure in their classes. They want and

need to have rules. In Some cases, they must be made to study

some subjects. Many students are pleased to find subjects

they have to study interesting. They would not study those

subjects if they did not have to.

Some of the ideas of open education can be applied very

easily. The teacher's feelings about the students can be

34

changed in any kind of class. The teacher's feelings are

important to the students. The teacher can apply some of the

ideas of open education to a class easily, easily. But changing

the way the classroom is run is more difficult to do.

The writer thinks that some of the ideas of open education

are very good, but that some are not good, and that it is hard

to do some of the things open education suggests. Several

ideas of open education as a different way of teaching

students and a different way of running a class have been

given. Some of the good and bad points about open education

have mentioned. The author has given one opinion about open

education. What is your opinion?

35

Women's Liberation

Have you heard of the women's liberation movement? It

began in the 1960s. It was started by women who were

concerned about their role in society, and their work and

about the view of women that people help. Now many

American women are deeply concerned about these things.

These women would like better and more interesting lives for

all women everywhere.

There are many aspects of the women's liberation

movement. Some women agree with all of the goals of

women's liberation. They want full equality with men in every

aspect of life. In marriage, they want husbands and wives to

share all of the work and responsibilities of a home and family.

In work, they want women and men to have the same jobs and

the same chance to succeed. They want women to be paid just

as men are for the same work. Other women agree with some

of the ideas of women's liberation. They want the same pay if

they hold the same job as a man. At home, however, they do

not expect their husbands to share in the cleaning, cooking,

and other household jobs.

36

It is important to remember that the women's , liberation

movement is not concerned only with concrete issues. The

movement is also concerned with attitudes and beliefs. One

example of this concern is the issue of a woman's identity. A

woman's identity is what she thinks of herself an person, who

she thinks she is, and what she thinks she can do. Some

women do not think they are capable of doing anything

important. The women's liberation movement would like to

help these women improve their view of themselves. Many

women who are concerned with women's liberation have

taken jobs, have helped others, have raised healthy children,

and have done many other things to contribute to their

communities. They have shown that they are capable of being

good leaders and of doing many important things.

A second issue of the women's liberation movement is the

question of women's roles. Should a woman work outside the

home? Should she work if she is married and has children? Or

should she stay home to take care of her husband and

children? What will the rest of society think of she enters a

profession or has a career? What will other people think if she

wants to stay home and raise a family? These questions do not

37

have just one correct answer. Every woman must decide her

own her own role. The women's liberation movement is trying

to make it possible for a woman to decide what she-wants to

do. The movement also wants to make it possible for her to do

the best arid the most she possibly can.

If a woman decides to take a job outside the home, there

are many important questions which are raised. Can she get

any job she is capable of and qualified for? Or-are some jobs

closed to her because she is a woman? If she gets a job and

some of her fellow workers are men doing the same work, will

she be paid, as much as they are? This issue is considered

important in the United States. The government has passed

some laws to try to help women get any job for which they are

qualified, and to help them get the same pay as a man for

doing the same work. The government has also passed a law

encourage businesses that get money from the government to

be fair to women and minority groups. This is called the

Affirmative Action law. It says that if a company is not fair to

women and other minority groups, the government will not do

business with that company. This encourages businesses to

provide equal opportunity for women.

38

Many people are with-the- ideas and goals of women's

liberation. They feel that women ought to be considered equal

to men in every way. They feel that a woman should be able to

decide to stay home and raise a family, or to stay home and

not raise a family or to go out and work, or to have a job

outside the home and a family as well. They feel a woman

should be to do anything that she wants to do and can do.

Other people are opposed to' women's liberation. They do not

think that women should have the same jobs and the same pay

as men. They believe that men should do all of the important

work. They feel that women belong at home, taking care of

men and children. Many husbands do not want their wives to

work outside the home. Some women agree with these men,

people who believe in women's liberation do not feel that it is

bad for a woman to remain at home if she wants to. They

believe that work in the home is important and should be

respected. But they want to make sure that a woman works at

home because she wants to, and not because she can't get a

job outside the home, or because she does not believe that

she can do anything useful in her community.

39

The women's liberation movement is trying to give women

a chance to show what they can do. Perhaps a woman will find

the cure for our most serious disease. Perhaps woman will

solve the energy crisis. Perhaps women and men, working

together, will be able to accomplish important things better

and sooner than men would if men were working alone. If the

women's liberation movement is successful, we will have a

chance to find out.

Each man and each woman must decide whether he or she

agrees with the ideas of the women's liberation movement

completely, partly, or not at all, Whether you agree or disagree

with women's liberation, you know that it has begun to change

our lives.

40

Smoking

Now that smoking is considered to be very dangerous to

the healthy it is especially difficult for children to buy

cigarettes or tobacco. Our tobacconist, Mr Soames, has always

been very careful about this. If his customers are very young,

he always asks them whom the cigarettes are for, One day, a

little girl whom he had never seen before walked boldly into

his shop and demanded twenty cigarettes. She had the exact

amount of money in her hand and seemed very sure of herself.

Mr Soames was so surprised by her confident

manner that he forgot to ask his usual question. Instead, he

asked her what kind of cigarettes she wanted. The girl replied

promptly and handed him the money. While he was giving her

the cigarettes, Mr Soames said laughingly that as she was so

young she should hide the packet in her pocket in case a

policeman saw it. However, the little girl did not seem to find

this very funny. Without even smiling she toolc the packet and

walked towards the door. Suddenly she stopped, turned

round, and looked steadily at Mr Soames. There was a

moment's deathly silence and the tobacconist wondered what

she was going to say. All at once, in a clear, solemn voice, the

41

girl declared, 'My dad is a policeman/ and with that she walked

quickly out of the shop.

42

Kassam Amin

The Egyptian woman is indebted to Kasam Amin because

he is the first who calls for her emancipation from the bonds of

traditions and opens the closed doors in front of her. This was

at a time, where the Egyptian Woman was like a large tent

moving in silence and feeling embarrassed if man’s eyes fall

upon her.

When Kassam Amin started his call for the emancipation

of woman at the beginning of the 19-century, he issued his

book “ the emancipation of women”. At that time, the storms

of discontent and indignation irrupted him from all the

different directions in Egypt. The Egyptian woman had

expressed her gratitude and support to this when the students

of Saniha secondary school get out at this book was published.

This was when they get out unveiled for the first time and

walked in the street.

At that time, the press reacted strongly against them and

called them whores. The people also walked after them,

throwing stones. It was not fated for the brave supporter of

women to survive till he saw the result of his call as it

43

flourishes since he died in 1908 when he was receiving in the

club of the high schools the delegation of the Roman students

who were visiting Egypt for the first time. His last words were:

“ If woman is liberated, then the man is too.”

44

TAHA HUSAIN

Taha Husain was born into a home which preserved all

the traditional features of up-river village life. At an early age

his sight was completely lost, and he was destined for a

theological career. After the usual elementary instruction in

the village kuttab he was entered as a student at al-Azhar and

spent some years there, in the course of which he acquired a

thorough grasp of Arabic from the linguistic side. Under the

guidance of Shaikh Sayyid b, Ali al-Marsafi he began to show a

special partiality for Arabic literature, and subsequently

continued his studies under European professors in the newly-

founded Egyptian University. Here he was initiated into

modern western methods of literary criticism and historical

study, and he rapidly threw off the prejudices and cramped

outlook of the Azharite. The first fruits of these studies was a

thesis on Abul-Ala al-Maarri, in the introduction to which he

already displayed his characteristic audacity by attacking the

methods of teaching Arabic literature in Egypt. During the war

years he studied at the Sorbonne, specializing in French

literature and literary criticism, and in classics. His university

career, after a narrow escape from disaster on account of an

45

impetuous criticism which gave some offence in Egypt, closed

in 1919, with the production of a doctoral thesis on Ibn

Khaldun. On his return to Egypt he was appointed to the chair

of Classical (Greek and Roman) History at the Egyptian

University, and on the reconstitution of the university was

transferred to the Professorship of Ancient Arabic literature.

At the very outset of his teaching career the new

professor had need of all his natural courage. His appointment

gave the signal for the opening of a campaign directed against

him and his work on the part of all the conservative

educational elements in Egypt. The main attack was directed

against the new chair, probably the first of the kind in any

Muslim institution. For although every student of the Middle

Ages is aware of the debt which Islamic civilization owed to

Hellenism, it was a debt which the Islamic world never

recognized, and in any case that aesthetic legacy of Greece

which so profoundly influenced the evolution of modem

Europe had found no acceptance in the Orient. Even when the

modern westernizing movement gained momentum in Egypt

and Syria and passed from the stage of translation to that of

imitation and closer study, it was only the outward modem

46

manifestations of western thought and literature that were

studied. Gradually the history of European thought began to

be better appreciated, but the foundations still remained

unknown. The first attempt to familiarize the Arabic world with

something of the classical literary background was made by

Sulayman al-Bustani in his translation of the Iliad. The attempt

was perhaps premature, and the subject ill- chosen. Epic

poetry has never attracted the Arab, whose language lacks

even a suitable metrical scheme for poems of such length and

quality, and the technical difficulties were enhanced by the

necessity of transliterating and fitting into Arabic meter all the

Greek name?. The result was that Bustani's translation was

appreciated more as a tour de force than for the intrinsic

qualities of either the original or the Arabic version. Egypt,

striving, after western democracy and western science,

remained ignorant of and indifferent to, even a little

contemptuous towards, they’re source.

This paradox was brought vividly home to Dr. Taha

Husain. His students at first showed some hostility to the new

imposition as they regarded it, but gradually his eloquence and

enthusiasm began to effect a change. Now he came boldly

47

forward with the claim that if Egypt was to gain self-respect

and was to progress in the ways of modern life, she must go to

school and begin again with, the foundations. In a series of

works intended for the general public he stressed, again and

again the necessity of classical studies as the basis of a living

culture. "We cannot live in this age demanding all the political

and intellectual independence enjoyed by the peoples of

Europe, while we remain dependent on them for all that

nourishes the intellect and the feelings in science, philosophy,

literature, and the arts. It might perhaps have gone hard with

him had the attention of Egypt not been distracted by the

political crisis through which it was passing: as it was. however,

he found strong support in a section of educated opinion and

especially among his own colleagues. Indeed, at this very time.

the Director of the University, Ahmad Lutfi Bey al-Sayyid. was

engaged in a translation, from the French,, of the

Nlcomachean Ethics, which appeared in 1924. But if the

political situation eased his path, it also affected the success of

his propaganda, and with his transference to the chair of

Arabic literature, the projected, continuations of his classical

studies came to an untimely and regrettable end. It is too soon

yet to say that the effort to bring classical studies to bear on

48

Arabic literature has failed; it is to be hoped at least that the

professor's example of enthusiasm for learning and

intellectual, courage: has not been lost on the rising

generation.

Even after his transference to Arabic studies, however. Dr.

Taha Husain was not to find himself in smoother waters.

Following up his principle of introducing modern French

methods of critical study into Egypt, he began to apply a sort

of Cartesian analysis to Arabic literature, with results which

became more and more radical. So far from emulating Dr.

Haykal’s cautious adaptation of European methods to the

existing level of general education in Egypt, he jumped down

the throats, of the conservatives, and at length carried the

method of philosophic doubt to a point for which Egyptian

opinion was totally unprepared. His gradual progress towards

radicalism can be traced in the first two series of studies which

he published on Arabic poets: on the publication of the third,

however, entitled On Pre-Islamic Poetry, such an outcry was

raised that the book had to be withdrawn, and a process for

heresy was begun against the author. Again his good fortune

saved him from the worst effects of his audacity, and the result

49

of the attempted persecution of the conservatives was only to

enhance his popularity and prestige with the liberals and make

him the idol of the students. Not daunted, there- fore. he

republished the work, slightly revised as a concession to public

opinion, and considerably enlarged, under a different title (On

Pre-Islamic Literature) in the following year.

Scholastic though all these works are, they form an

important contribution to contemporary Egyptian literature,

not only by their qualities of style and method, but by the

skilful way in which the needs of a wider public are kept in

view. The style is peculiar in the sense that. being dictated, not

written, it presents characteristics, such as frequent repetition

of phrases, which belong to oratory rather than to prose. Yet

the happy choice of words, the smoothness and facility of the

argument and the humorous and masterly handling of the

subject, give it an attractive quality which is rarely equaled in

Egyptian writing. Nevertheless, it is in their educational aspect

that the main value of these studies lies, and whether or not all

the conclusions to which Dr. Taha Husain has come are

accepted, the wide influence which he enjoys must in due

50

course lead to the strengthening in Arabic thought and

literature of the principles for which he stands.

It is not only in virtue of these works, however, that Dr.

Taha Husain occupies an outstanding position in contemporary

letters. Outside the sphere of his professional studies, he has

found the time to make fairly extensive contributions to

periodical literature, among which may be mentioned the

lengthy critical analyses of modem French plays, published in

al Hilal, a number of which have been reprinted in bock form.

In 1922 he issued a translation of Gustave le Bon's Psychologie

de l’ Education. Much more important from every point of

view is the literary autobiography, entitled Al'Ayyam ( “Days"),

a work which is justly praised for its depth of feeling and for

the truth of its descriptions, and has a good claim to be

regarded as the finest work of art yet produced in modem

Egyptian literature.

51

Digging into the past

" Why do I have to study history ? " Have you ever asked

yourself this question ? It is a good question to think about .

Did you ever listen as your grandparents told you about

the "old day" ? Learning about the old ' days helps you to learn

why you are the kind of person you are. Most people have

deep desire to know where they came from, who their

ancestors were, and what went on before they themselves

were born. History is the study of past events.

Learning about the past helps you to be better in the

present and to prepare for the future. By studying how people

acted in the past, you can get ideas about how you would act

in similar conditions. This is how you learn the lessons of

history. It has been said, "Those who fail to learn the lessons of

history are destined to repeat themselves ".

History will also help you to understand ways of life

different from your own. History tells not only about other

times, but also about other countries and other customs, you

can compare your life and ideas with those you study about.

52

This makes it easier to understand why you live the way you

do.

To write about the past, the historian needs facts. Usually

his best source for facts is books and other documents that

were written during the period of history he is studying.

Inscriptions on monuments, seals, coins medals and works of

art from that period are also helpful. When the historian is

writing about a period when there were not yet any written

accounts of what happened, he must get help from

archeologists or anthropologists. Archeologists dig up the

ruins of ancient people to find what they left behind.

Anthropologists study the development of man as a distinct

being and of the different races of man. The historian puts

together his collection of facts in step - by - step accounts. He

also makes general statements about what the facts mean and

what we can learn from them.

There are many kinds of history to be studied. According

to the Western tradition, studying history is usually divided

into ancient, medieval, and modern history. Most of the events

discussed during these periods in history books took place in

53

the Middle East, Europe, and North America. There is also

interesting history about the civilizations of Asia and Africa.

According to subject, history can be divided into social

history, military history, cultural history etc.

54

The Interaction Between Arabo-Islamic and European

Cultures

From its early days, Arabo-Islamic culture had realized that

only through communication and interaction with other

cultures could it hope to be enriched and prosper in all fields

and disciplines. As early as the Umayad Dynasty (starting in

687 AD) a translation effort had helped the incipient culture-

transfer, reaching its apex in the Abbasid period. The Umayad

rulers gave it an unprecedented encouragement, so that the

Arabs were able to read the works of the Persian and Greco-

Roman writers, both in literature and in science. Particularly

commendable in this respect was the poet that the Arabs did

not transfer scientific theories in isolation from practical

application. They had the acumen to realize that Greek

knowledge had passed through two stages : the first was an

era of theory and theorization which dominated the classical

period until the fifth century BCE; the second was the stage of

practical applications which prevailed in the Hellenistic period

in the three centuries BCE. The most prominent centre of the

55

latter was ancient Alexandria, Egypt, since it was established

by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E. The Muslim Arabs had

done what we have done in modern times when we embarked

on an effort in technology transfer from the advanced nations,

and what the Japanese did at the turn of this century : they

succeeded in acquiring European technology then proceeded

to improve on it. Theyare today serious competitors to the

very originators of that technology and have developed it to

reach admirable levels. So did the Arabs who had required the

latest scientific knowledge of the Greeks and developed it in

exquisite and stunning fashion : so much is that the Europeans

had to show admiration for the Arab ability to transfer,

assimilate and develop it quickly.

56

Philosophy and Logic

The first field which attracted the attention of the Muslim

Arabs had been that of philosophy and logic. As to why logic

was given such prominence, the reason is that logic had in

ancient times occupied the position of modern scientific

method. It was the means of organizing thought, ordering

evidence, and establishing a common basis of understanding.

Logic could, furthermore, provide Muslim philosophers with

the rational proofs required to establish the existence of God,

with the ability to refute other philosophies, and to disprove

the ideologies of their opponents or enemies.

Though initially relying on the works of Greek philosophers,

such as Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, and Zeno, and, though

drawing in the beginning on translated works, such as the

translations from syriac by Hunayn Ibn Ishaaq, Arab

philosophers were eventually able to create a distinctly Islamic

philosophy. They were also able to establish Aristotleian logic

as the basis for every system of thought and for every theory.

As has been said, logic was tantamount to scientific method,

without which no theory could stand. It may be sufficient to

refer in this context to the fact that Al-Farabi, the second most

57

celebrated teacher after Aristotle; Ibn Sina, (Avicenna) the

author of the Canon of Medicine; and the philosopher Ibn

Rushd (Averroes) had rivalled in stature the ancient

philosophers and came to be regarded as pioneers for all

modern philosophers. It may be added that the modern

empirical method, as established by Francis Bacon, owes a

great deal of its essentials to the Arabo-Muslim scientists who

had founded thestudy of science on observation, experiment

and deduction (analogy).

Their method was applied in the study of all natural sciences,

such as medicine, physics, chemistry and geography; and they

took mathematics a step forward, from theory to practice.

58

THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE FEMALE

The changing face of society has been minutely recorded

in the course of the Arabic novel. One of its most interesting

aspects is the change in the social and domestic position of

women. The role played by female characters in the novel

reflects the current attitude towards women at the time. The

fact that this role remained unchanged for many decades, is a

sign of the force of social customs involving the relation

between the sexes. This particular area of social relations is

one of the last strongholds of conservative opinion. Female

characters were naturally depicted in their usual roles of

mothers, sisters, etc., but it is the character of the sweet-heart

or love-object that is the most significant.

The heroine in the early novels ranges from the type of

the passive victim of social customs and parental tyranny, like

Zeinab who dies of frustrated love, to the idealized female,

courted or rather worshipped by the sensitive artist or thinker

in the novels of Tawfik al-Hakim. He was probably responsible

for the cult of the heroine as 'idol', prevalent in many of the

early novels. Saneyya, the heroine of Awdat al-Roh well

represents his ideal of the new woman half a century back. She

59

is a great advance on her mother for she can read and write;

she reads novels and plays the piano and waits for a proper

husband. Behind the backs of her parents, she takes a hand in

encouraging a particular suitor, with whom she conducts a

clandestine but safe relationship across windows and

balconies. Her role is mainly that of 'inspiration'. She inspires

her suitor with the strength to work in trade rather than seek a

safe but obscure government job. Tawfik al-Hakim's beautiful,

intelligent and rather enigmatic women have touches of

Scheherazade and of Isis. Each of them is a kind of Goddess but

we hardly see them as wives or as fulfilled lovers. They seem

inaccessible as far as the narrator is concerned and so we are

never allowed to see them off their pedestal.

The work of Naguib Mahfouz gives a much more realistic

picture of Egyptian female characters. The novels of his middle

period would provide any sociologist with valuable information

on the place of women in Egyptian society. The mother is

probably the most important female character in his novels.

She is often presented as a tower of strength, physically gentle

or fragile, ignorant and uneducated, but showing unsuspected

resources of firmness and strength of character. The younger

60

women present different aspects; they live sheltered within

the family circle, protected by male despotism from any

contact with the world out- side the home. They may inspire

love in the heart of a relative or a neighbour and fancy

themselves in love, but it is the father who finally arranges the

match and decides whom they may marry. When the

protective shadow of the father disappears through death or

because the girl has to go out to work for any reason, the

female is at once in danger of falling.

Another side of the picture is the world of cheap artistes

and prostitutes, who provide the men with entertainment and

companionship away from the domestic circle in a severely

segregated society. The ranks of this class are regularly

replenished by women, who lose their male supporters or by

flighty girls, easily seduced by wicked or simply irresponsible

lovers, or just by their love of finery or greed for money.

In the last part of the Trilogy, first published in 1958,

Mahfouz presents for the first time an idealized image of the

new woman, Sawsan, a girl of working-class origin who works

in the office of a progressive newspaper. She is handsome,

modest and independent. Her marriage is based on a full

61

understanding between equal partners. We get further

glimpses of the new woman in his later novels, serious girls,

who resolutely take a hand in shaping their own destiny. Their

characters are still rather sketchy, however, they are not to be

compared to the vivid portraits of the old types we find in his

earlier works.

The truth is, the new woman was an established fact, long

before she could win the sympathy of Egyptian novelists. Apart

from militant partisans like Qasim Amin, who very early in the

century advocated the emancipation of women, men of letters

were generally hostile to the feminist claim for equality.

The forties and fifties witnessed an unprecedented

growth of female education. An equally increasing number of

middle-class women graduates seeking careers in medicine,

teaching, administration, engineering and journalism were

bound to upset the old pattern of relations between the sexes.

The rising cost of living has progressively run to the advantage

of the working woman in the marriage market. The old split

between marriage and a girl's career has disappeared, and

even reactionary fathers had to agree to their daughters

seeking education and later a career, as the best means of

62

insuring their future. This, together with the new tide of

progressive thought, introduced here during the Second World

War, has made a visible change in the attitude of many writers

towards the working woman.

The female in her new role as breadwinner was depicted

in the work of some authors like Abdul-Rahman al-Sharqawi

and Yussef Idris. The latter was particularly fascinated by this

subject. His novel al-Haram, The Sin (1958) was one of a

number of analytical novels depicting women in their new role.

For peasant women and for the poor urban classes, it was far

from new. Only the sympathetic light shed on it was new.

63

Literature

The second field conquered by the early Arabs was that of

literature: they began by translating Aristotle's Poetics and

Rhetoric, which subsequently contributed to the evolution of

the indigenous Arab discipline of Rhetoric and its development

by Qudamah Ibn Ja‘far, and Abu Hilal Al-Askari. As Persian

literature came to be known to the Arabs, in translation, such

as the pioneering translation of Kalilah wa Dimnah by Ibn Al-

Muqaffa’, so was Greek literature through the translation of

the Homerian epics — the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Arabs,

knowledge of Greek literature was incomplete, however, as it

was in the main confined to the critical scholarship initiated by

Aristotle.

Eloquence being an almost inbred quality of the Arab

character, the Arabs avidly read the works of the Greeks in

literary criticism, as well as the contributions of the scholars of

the ancient Alexandrian school, such as Dimitrius of Phalareus,

Zenodotus, Aristarchus the Grammarian, Aristophanes of

Byzantium, and Didymus in the field of literary study, as well as

the editing and publication of ancient texts.

64

Arab scholars aped their Greek counterparts in this field : like

them they relied on deduction, on rejecting an oral account

transmitted by an unreliable reporter, and on the need to

consult primary sources in support of their views.

To the Arab scholars goes most of the credit in translating the

works of Aristotle and the other Greek philosophers. It was

thanks to their translations that some original Greek texts, now

lost, could stillbe read. During the Renaissance these texts

were translated from Arabic into Latin, and the scholars were

then able to compare them with extant fragments before

translating the re-constructed manuscripts back into Greek. It

may suffice to mention the fact that Aristotle's Poetics had

been first known in its Arabic translation, before appearing in

its Greek version. Certain works by Aristotle are lost : the

original version of Aristotle's Phrase exists now only in its

Arabic translation. So do others by the same author.

65

Science, Mathematics and Astronomy

In the field of science, the Arabs were particularly prominent in

medicine and mathematics. They created Algebra as a new

branch of mathematics, and a new science with which the

world came to be acquainted only through them — chemistry.

In physics and optics they had remarkable achievements. The

Arabs showed interest in studying the sciences established by

the School of Alexandria in the ten centuries before the advent

of Islam. The empirical trend of that school was in harmony

with their culture, based as it was on equilibrium and

correlation among the various systems of thought. They could

not allow a single system to dominate all others; hence the

insistence by Arab scholars that theory should never outweigh

practice, or that a theory be accepted until proven valid in

practice. It is this empirical trend that had been established by

the ancient school of Alexandria, where the scholars did their

best to divorce science from philosophy. The tendency later

developed and prospered, acquiring distinct features and

characteristics.

66

In mathematics the Arabs admired the Euclid-based geometry,

so much so, in fact, that they believed he had been of Arab

extraction.

They showed interest in the Archimedean geometrical

applications and the contributions of Diophantus of Alexandria

who was the first to use Algebraic symbols in mathematics. He

was among the first to pave the way for the Arabs to establish

Algebra later on, at the hands of the famous Arab scientist —

Al-Khwarazmi.

In astronomy, the Arabs received a whole Greek legacy,

beginning with Conon the astronomer, who was followed by

Aratus of Alexandria, Aristarchus the astronomer who had

discovered before Copernicus that the sun, not the earth, was

the “centre”; he had also tried to measure the circumference

of the globe. There was also Hipparchus the astronomer who

had proved that the planets revolved about the sun in an

elliptical rather than a circular orbit. A number of muslim —

Arab scholars brilliantly developed this discipline, foremost

among them was Ishaq Ibn Nur-ed-Din, who came to be known

as Al-Petragius, having been born in Petrgia near Cordova. He

actually opposed some of the ideas of Ptolemy, the Greek, and

67

amended them, particularly in connection with the fact that

the planets went round the sun in an elliptical orbit, as has

been mentioned. The works of Al-Petragius were translated

into Latin in about 1217 AD. Al-Zirqali (Arzachel) (1028-1078)

was another Arab astronomer who lived in Toledo, Spain; he

proved that the zenith of the sun at midday was equal to its

apex at midnight. His works were translated by Gerard of

Cremona into Latin. Copernicus refers to him by name in his

works, which Shows that he had read his studies. Known in

Europe as Arzachel, Al-Zirqali is credited with the invention of

the stronomical instrument of the astrolabes.

68

Medicine

There were tendencies in medicine to undertake experiments

on animals and dissect the human body which had started

since Herophilos, the physician — surgeon who first discovered

the nervous system, and Erasestratos, the physiologist, both of

the ancient Alexandrian school. When the Arab civilization

rose, the help was enlisted of the famous physicians of the

time, both Syriac and Greek, who had inherited the medical

expertise of their predecessors.

Thereafter the Arabs enriched the practice of surgery so much

that they secured a position of prominence down the

centuries. The medical achievements of the Arabs are due, I

believe, to the fact that they continued to rely on experiments,

the anatomy of the human body, the invention of medical

instruments, and the establishment of links, for the very first

time, between medicine and the Arab disciplines. Stars of the

first magnitude shone in the sky of medicine, notable Arab

physicians led by Abu Bakr Al-Razy (864-925). He was the first

Arab physician to record his clinical observations during

treatment, following in the footsteps of the famous Greek

physician Hippocrates. Al-Razy was able to distinguish measles

69

from smallpox, in terms of symptoms, to discover sulphuric

acid, extract alcohol from carbohydrates, and was the first to

use a special dressing in surgery.

Al-Razy wrote more than two hundred books, the most

important of which is Al-Hawy (“The Comprehensive”) which is

tantamount to a medical encyclopedia containing all the

medical achievements since the days of the Greeks. Abul-

Qasim Al-Zahrawi (936-1013) was aphysician-surgeon who

introduced basic amendments in surgery and the treatment of

wounds. He managed to invent a drug capable of

disintegrating renal stones, practised anatomy, undertook

surgical operations, and devised a method for stopping any

hemorrhage by canterization. Gerard of Cremona translated

his works into Latin.

There was also the Arab medical scientist Ibn Zohr (Ibn

Sochr)(1094-1168) who was born in Seville, Spain, and was

regarded by Ibn Rushd as the second greatest physician after

Galinos.

In the field of optics, there rose a famous Arab scientist, Al-

Hassan Ibn Al-Haytham (965-1039) who was able to prove

70

that,rather than transmitting the light needed for vision, the

human eye received the reflected light from objects. Ibn Al-

Haytham's Optica was translated many times into Latin.

Indeed, the scope of Ibn Al-Haytham's knowledge was not

confined to optics : he had an astronomical theory on the

movement of planets in interplanetary space, and discovered

that all the stars and heavenly bodies transmitted the light

which made it possible for them to be seen, with the exception

of the moon which did not radiate any light of its own but only

reflected the light of the sun. Ibn Al-Haytham was also well-

versed in geometry and geography. He made copies of Euclid's

Stoicheia and Ptolemy's Almagest, criticizing some of their

opinions.

71

Mediterranean Culture 1

The Mediterranean Sea, once described by the Romans as their

own “mare nostrum” (our sea) is in effect a lake linking the

oriental culturals of Asia, the southern cultures of Africa, with

the northern cultures of Europe. It is the factor that unites all

the peoples of the region, develops their relations and

consolidates their links. No ancient civilization could prosper

without an outlet on that sea, or a port on its coast. Those

cultures that has no Mediterranean outlet, such as those land-

locked cultures of the Tartars or the Mogols, ended up, I

believe, by developing a tradition of destruction rather than

construction. Maritime cultures, however, such as those of

ancient Egypt, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the

Portugese and the English, are characterized by an interest in

the brotherhood of mankind, a devotion to culture, the spread

of civilization, and the growth of the human reservoir of

knowledge. Excesses or deviations in the history of such

cultures have been, I believe, the exception that confirms the

rule : indeed, they do show that such cultures did vindicate

ultimately all that was quintessentially human, making the

civilized outweigh the uncivilized, proceeding from faith in

72

peaceful coexistence, working for construction and averting

violence and bloodshed whenever possible.

Our Arabo-Islamic culture has, therefore, many features in

common with the cultures of Europe. It has particularly close

links with the Iberian Peninsula which had seen the longest

period of Arab presence in Europe. It has had links too with

southern Italy, with theisland of Sicily and the Anatolian

Peninsula where ancient Byzantium flourished. It is in the best

interests of the Mediterranean nations to make concerted

efforts for construction rather than destruction, for civilization

rather than war and conflict, for science, knowledge and

culture rather than vendettas, fragmentation, transitory

material interests or the sterile passion for suzerainty. What

remains for the peoples in the end is a dignified life based on

just peace, on mutual respect, and on upholding the value of

man.

It is beneath us, having covered such a long distance in history,

to relapse on the threshold of the twenty-first century into the

old ways of the barbarians. We could not revive their method

of conversing in the language of the sword, substituting

violence for rational dialogue, resorting to devastation in

73

attempting to establish dominance rather than forcing others

to respect them. They had shattered the noblest human values

for material gain alone.

The prospects we face are, in spite of everything, are vast and

limitless : through fruitful cooperation nations can prosper and

wax stronger. There is a place for every man under the sun

where he may live in dignity, and cooperate with his fellow

men for a better future for all mankind.

74

Mediterranean Culture 2

It is never a bad thing, never a thing to be feared, I believe, to

be different in geographical position, in religion, in language or

in customs and traditions. Indeed, such a difference is required

and may be hoped for, as it works for the achievement of

complementarity, for identifying that which we lack but which

the others have. This is the way to development, to the

complementarity of knowledge. It is hardly beneficial or worth

our while to have all people adopt our mode of thinking or go

our own way. What is really useful is for each to respect the

‘other’ and give him his due. What we have in common is more

universal, more comprehensive and more viable : the areas of

our differences are too limited to preclude understanding,

communion, dialogue, sympathy or fraternity.

God, exalted be His name, has decreed that this earth be given

to all people, whatever the differences among their tongues,

colours and creeds. Their unity had been decreed originally in

having descended from one man — Adam, peace be upon him;

and they share a unified destiny — the return to God alone.

God has ordained in His wisdom that religious, tongues and

colours be different, while hearts beat in unison. God Almighty

75

has given each man a mind capable of thinking : it grows richer

when directed to perform its proper function, but is blunted

when left to lethargy and laxity.

76

The Death Car

It was a cold night in September. The rain was drumming on

the car roof as George and Marie Winston drove through the

empty country roads towards the house of their friends, the

Harrisons, where they were going to attend a party to

celebrate the engagement of the Harrisons' daughter, Lisa. As

they drove, they listened to the local radio station, which was

playing classical music.

They were about five miles from their destination when the

music on the radio was interrupted by a news announcement:

"The Cheshire police have issued a serious warning after a

man escaped from Colford Mental Hospital earlier this

evening. The man, John Downey, is a murderer who killed six

people before he was captured two years ago. He is described

as large, very strong and extremely dangerous. People in the

Cheshire area are warned to keep their doors and windows

locked, and to call the police immediately if they see anyone

acting strangely."

Marie shivered. "A crazy killer. And he's out there

somewhere. That's scary."

"Don't worry about it," said her husband. "We're nearly

77

there now. Anyway, we have more important things to worry

about. This car is losing power for some reason -- it must be

that old problem with the carburetor. If it gets any worse, we'll

have to stay at the Harrisons' tonight and get it fixed before we

travel back tomorrow."

As he spoke, the car began to slow down. George pressed

the accelerator, but the engine only coughed. Finally they

rolled to a halt, as the engine died completely. Just as they

stopped, George pulled the car off the road, and it came to

rest under a large tree.

"Blast!" said George angrily. "Now we'll have to walk in the

rain."

"But that'll take us an hour at least," said Marie. "And I have

my high-heeled shoes and my nice clothes on. They'll be

ruined!"

"Well, you'll have to wait while I run to the nearest house

and call the Harrisons. Someone can come out and pick us up,"

said George.

"But George! Have you forgotten what the radio said?

There's a homicidal maniac out there! You can't leave me

alone here!"

"You'll have to hide in the back of the car. Lock all the doors

78

and lie on the floor in the back, under this blanket. No-one will

see you. When I come back, I'll knock three times on the door.

Then you can get up and open it. Don't open it unless you hear

three knocks." George opened the door and slipped out into

the rain. He quickly disappeared into the blackness.

Marie quickly locked the doors and settled down under the

blanket in the back for a long wait. She was frightened and

worried, but she was a strong-minded woman. She had not

been waiting long, however, when she heard a strange

scratching noise. It seemed to be coming from the roof of the

car.

Marie was terrified. She listened, holding her breath. Then

she heard three slow knocks, one after the other, also on the

roof of the car. Was it her husband? Should she open the

door? Then she heard another knock, and another. This was

not her husband. It was somebody -- or something -- else. She

was shaking with fear, but she forced herself to lie still. The

knocking continued -- bump, bump, bump, bump.

Many hours later, as the sun rose, she was still lying there.

She had not slept for a moment. The knocking had never

stopped, all night long. She did not know what to do. Where

was George? Why had he not come for her?

79

Suddenly, she heard the sound of three or four vehicles,

racing quickly down the road. All of them pulled up around

her, their tires screeching on the road. At last! Someone had

come! Marie sat up quickly and looked out of the window.

The three vehicles were all police cars, and two still had

their lights flashing. Several policemen leapt out. One of them

rushed towards the car as Marie opened the door. He took her

by the hand.

"Get out of the car and walk with me to the police vehicle.

miss. You're safe now. Look straight ahead. Keep looking at the

police car. Don't look back. Just don't look back."

Something in the way he spoke filled Marie with cold

horror. She could not help herself. About ten yards from the

police car, she stopped, turned and looked back at the empty

vehicle.

George was hanging from the tree above the car, a rope

tied around his neck. As the wind blew his body back and forth,

his feet were bumping gently on the roof of the car -- bump,

bump, bump, bump.

80

Thomas Edison 1847-1931

Thomas Edison was born on 11 February 1847. He was one of

the outstanding geniuses of technology and he obtained

patents for more than one thousand inventions including the

electric light bulb, the record player and an early type of film

projector. He also created the world's first industrial research

laboratory.

He was born in Milan, Ohio and he was always an inquisitive

boy. By the time he was 10 he had set up a small chemical

laboratory in his house after his mother had shown him a

science book. He soon became fascinated with electrical

currents and it remained the main interest of his life.

In 1869, he borrowed a small amount of money and became a

freelance inventor. In the same summer, there was a crisis in

the New York financial district called Wall Street when the new

telegraphic gold-price indicator broke down. Edison was called

in to repair it and he did it so well that he was given a job as

supervisor with the Western Union Telegraph Company. They

later commissioned him to improve the Wall Street stock ticker

that was just coming into use. He did so and produced the

81

Edison Universal Stock Printer, which immediately brought him

a fortune of $40,000. With this money, he set up as a

manufacturer in order to produce electrical machines.

In 1876 he built a new laboratory so that he could spend all his

time inventing. He planned to turn out minor inventions every

ten days and a 'big trick' every six months. Before long he had

40 different inventions going at the same time and was

applying for as many as 400 patents a year. The following year,

Edison moved to New Jersey in order to build the Edison

Laboratory (now a national monument) which was 10 times

bigger than his first laboratory. In time it was surrounded by

factories employing 5,000 people and producing many new

products. Edison died on 18 October, 1931 having had a

remarkably productive life.

82

The following passage is from a 2003 novel about a young woman named Angela who at age eight left China with her family to move

to San Francisco.

Our parents had known each other in China; we’d even

taken

the same boat to America. However, within five years of

our

arrival in San Francisco, Norman and I had become

strangers.

Line Relatives already established in the city helped Norman’s

parents

(5) assimilate. Within a year, they had not only learned

English, but

had also become real estate moguls. I learned all this from

the

Chinese American gossip machine that constantly

tabulated every

family’s level of success. The machine judged my family

lacking.

My parents ran a grocery store and, unlike Norman’s

83

family,

(10) gravitated to the immigrant subculture. They never learned

English, but they respected that I tamed that beast of a

language. I was my parents’ communication link with the

“outside

world.”

My parents denied themselves in order to ensure that I

could

(15) attend Baywood, a top private high school. That was where

Norman

and I crossed paths again. However much my relative

mastery of

English had elevated my status at home, at Baywood I

remained a

shy and brainy outsider. Norman was very popular: he

played

football and was elected class president. He and gorgeous

Judy

(20) Kim were named King and Queen of the Winter Ball; their

portrait

adorned every available bulletin board. I scoffed at the

84

celebrity silently. Back then, I did everything silently.

Compared to Norman, who had already achieved the

American teenage

ideal, I was anonymous. From the sidelines I observed his

(25) triumphs with barely acknowledged envy.

In May of our freshman year, Norman approached me

after our

chemistry class.

“Hey, Angela,” he said as my heart leapt into my throat.

“I

missed class a couple of days ago. Can I copy your notes?”

(30) “Sure,” I said. I was horrified to find myself blushing.

We soon became study buddies. It was all business—no

small

talk beyond the necessary niceties. But the hours we piled

up

studying together generated an unspoken mutual respect

and an

unacknowledged intimacy. Judy noticed this and took an

increasing

(35) dislike to me. This relationship continued throughout high

85

school.

One day in eleventh grade, without looking up from the

math

problem he was working on, Norman asked: “What schools

are you

applying to?”

(40) It was the first time he had shown any real personal

interest in me. “Berkeley, if I’m lucky,” I said.

“You could probably get in anywhere.”

“What do you mean?”

He looked up from his math problem and met my gaze.

(45) “Berkeley is just across the bay. Don’t you want to

experience something new for once? I’m applying to

schools back

East,” he said. “You should, too.”

Not for the first time, an exciting vision of ivy-covered

walls and perhaps even a new identity swept over me and

was

(50) almost immediately subsumed by a wave of guilt.

“But what about my parents?”

“But what about you?”

86

Norman had broken a taboo. I launched into a self-

righteous

refutation of the possibility he had dared to voice. I told

him

(55) that even though I wasn’t popular and my family wasn’t as

successful as his, I at least hadn’t forgotten that it was my

parents who had brought me here and who had struggled

so much for

me. How could I make them unhappy?

Norman had expected this outburst. He smiled. “We’re

not so

(60) different, you know. We started out in the same boat. Now

we’re

in the same boat again.” He laughed. “We’ve always been

in the

same boat. Our parents might be kind of different, but they

want

us to succeed and be happy.”

“You’re so American,” I said in a tone hovering between

(65) approval and reproach. “You’re not even worried about

leaving

87

your parents to go to school back East.”

“That’s not what being American means,” he insisted.

“Well, what does it mean, then?” I demanded. Surely, I,

and

not this superficial football player who needed my

academic help,

(70) knew what it meant to be American. That very day I had

received

an A on my American History term paper.

“It means, Angela,” he said gently, “that our parents

brought us here so we could have the freedom to figure

out for

ourselves what to do with our lives.”

(75) He smiled at my speechlessness and then returned to

his math

problem.

Without looking up from his notebook, he said, “If I can

decide to go to school back East, so can you.”

For thousands of years,

88

people believed that owls

were more

like gods than animals. Even in

modern times they have been

used

to signify wisdom, magic, and

power, but the simple truth is

that

Line owls are no more divine than

other birds. The large, round

heads

(5) and huge, forward-facing eyes

that inclined ancient observers

to

believe that owls possessed

divine intelligence are simply

natural adaptations developed

to help the predators catch the

small animals that make up their

food supply.

Although owls do not possess

89

any of the mystical powers

(10) often attributed to them in

mythology, they are formidable

hunters whose skill surpasses

that of other birds of prey. Their

acute senses ensure that owls

rarely fail to notice a potential

meal, and their ability to fly

silently means that the

unfortunate mouse identified by

the owl as its next snack never

(15) realizes it is the object of an

attack until too late.

The world's nuclear plants have accumulated vast stocks of

highly radioactive waste. Worldwide, high-level waste is

currently stored above ground, and no government has a

clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most experts

believe that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long

term, the problem is finding sites that everyone can agree are

geologically stable. Decaying radioactive isotopes release

90

heat. As a result, high-level waste must be constantly cooled;

otherwise, it becomes dangerously hot. This is why many

experts want to store waste above ground until it has

decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed

repositories several hundreds of metres below ground.

According to one recent theory, however, waste should be

lowered down boreholes drilled to 4 kilometres. The trick is to

exploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding

rock and contain any leaking radioactivity.

Researches suggest that there are creatures that do not know

what light means at the bottom of the sea. They don't have

either eyes or ears; they can only feel. There is no day or night

for them. There are no winters, no summers, no sun, no

moon, and no stars. It is as if a child spent its life in darkness

in bed, with nothing to see or hear. How different our own

life is! Sight shows us the ground beneath our feet and the

heavens above us - the sun, moon, and stars, shooting stars,

lightning, and the sunset. It shows us day and night. We are

able to hear voices, the sound of the sea, and music. We feel,

we taste, we smell. How fortunate we are!

91

Official records state that the Pueblo Indians lived in New

Mexico and Arizona . The word "Pueblo" comes from the

Spanish word "pueblo," meaning town or village. The

Spaniards found these Indians living in apartment houses,

some of them on the side of a cliff in order that they could be

reached only by ladders. Whenever they were attacked by

Apaches, the Pueblos would pull up the ladders. They grew

corn, which they watered with water flowing down in ditches.

They wove cloth, made wonderful baskets, and created jars

and pots out of clay proving how skilful they were at hand-

craft.

Have you ever wondered whether fishes drink or not? All

living things must drink, and they require a fresh supply of

water often. A person can go without food for many days, but

he or she cannot go for long without water. Fishes drink, and

fishes that live in salt water must drink salt water. However,

when we watch them in an aquarium and see them opening

and closing their mouths, we must not assume that they are

drinking. Fishes need water for its oxygen. The water that

they seem to be gulping gives them oxygen, which is in the

water. On the other hand, when a fish drinks, it swallows

water, just in the way we do.

92

The poetic expressiveness and creativity of Japanese women

poets of the Manyoshu era is generally regarded as a

manifestation of the freedom and relatively high political and

economic status women of that era enjoyed. During the Heian

period (A.D. 794-1185) which followed, Japanese women

became increasingly relegated to domestic roles under the

influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, which excluded

women from the political and economic arenas. Yet, since

poetry of the period came to be defined solely as short lyrical

poetry, known as waka, and became the prevailing means of

expressing love, women continued to excel in and play a

central role in the development of classical Japanese poetry.

Moreover, while official Japanese documents were written in

Chinese, the phoenetic alphabet kana was used for poetry.

Also referred to as onna moji ("women's letters"), kana was

not deemed sufficiently sophisticated for use by Japanese

men, who continued to write Chinese poetry, increasingly for

expressing religious ideas and as an intellectual pastime.

Chinese poetry ultimately yielded, then, to waka as the

mainstream of Japanese poetry.

93

The world's nuclear plants have accumulated vast stocks of

highly radioactive waste. Worldwide, high-level waste is

currently stored above ground, and no government has a

clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most experts

believe that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long

term, the problem is finding sites that everyone can agree are

geologically stable. Decaying radioactive isotopes release

heat. As a result, high-level waste must be constantly cooled;

otherwise, it becomes dangerously hot. This is why many

experts want to store waste above ground until it has

decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed

repositories several hundreds of metres below ground.

According to one recent theory, however, waste should be

lowered down boreholes drilled to 4 kilometres. The trick is to

exploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding

rock and contain any leaking radioactivity.

Erosion is regarded not merely as the physical removal of soil

by water and wind, but rather as the deterioration of all the

component parts of the habitat in which man and his crops

and livestock have to exist. Since there is no conclusive

evidence for any major climatic change in historic times to

94

explain this deterioration, we must conclude that the eroding

of the total environment has been due primarily to

thoughtless destruction of the vegetative cover. This has led

to deterioration of the microclimate above and below the

surface, generally in the direction of a general drying out of

the soil which has exposed it to erosive action of wind and

rainfall of high intensity or frequency, and to the loss of

organic matter in the soil, thus reducing its capacity to resist

erosion by conserving the water that falls on the surface. If

everything possible is done within the total environment to

conserve the naturally planted or cultivated vegetation, this

will also ensure optimal conservation of soil and water.

95

John Locke's 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding

An essay is a short piece of writing which is often written from

an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a

number of elements, including: literary criticism, political

manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life,

recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition of

an essay is vague, overlapping with those of an article and a

short story. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but

works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g. Alexander Pope's

An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity

usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas

Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population provide

counterexamples.

In some countries (e.g., in the United States), essays have

become a major part of formal education. Secondary students

are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing

skills, and admission essays are often used by universities in

selecting applicants and, in the humanities and social sciences,

as a way of assessing the performance of students during final

exams. The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other

96

mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a movie that often

incorporates documentary film making styles and which

focuses more on the evolution of a theme or an idea. A

photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked

series of photographs; it may or may not have an

accompanying text or captions.

97

Descriptive

Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which

appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a

reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities.

Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a

dominant impression, using descriptive language, and

organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be

considered when using a description. A description is usually

arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic.

The focus of a description is the scene. Description uses tools

such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative

language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant

impression.[7] One university essay guide states that

"descriptive writing says what happened or what another

author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic".[8]

98

Tecnology Park And Their Role In National Development

A science park or science and technology park is an

area with a collection of buildings dedicated to scientific

research on a business footing. There are many approximate

synonyms for "science park", including research park,

technology park, technopolis and biomedical park. The

appropriate term typically depends on the type of science and

research in which the park's entities engage, but many of these

developments are named according to which term gives the

park the best profitability and naming advantages. Often,

science parks are associated with or operated by institutions of

higher education (colleges and universities).

These parks differ from typical high-technology business

districts in that science parks and the like are more organized,

planned, and managed. They differ from science centres in

being concerned with future developments in science and

technology. Typically businesses and organizations in the parks

focus on product advancement and innovation as opposed to

industrial parks that focus on manufacturing and business

parks that focus on administration.

Besides building area, these parks offer a number of shared

99

resources, such as uninterruptible power supply,

telecommunications hubs, reception and security,

management offices, restaurants, bank offices, convention

center, parking, internal transportation, entertainment and

sports facilities, etc. In this way, the park offers considerable

advantages to hosted companies, by reducing overhead costs

with these facilities.

Science and technology parks are encouraged by local

governments, in order to attract new companies to towns, and

to expand their tax base and employment opportunities to

citizens. Land and other taxes are usually waived off or

reduced along a number of years, in order to attract new

companies for the science and technological parks.

100

Why TV lost

About twenty years ago people noticed computers and TV

were on a collision course and started to speculate about what

they'd produce when they converged. We now know the

answer: computers. It's clear now that even by using the word

"convergence" we were giving TV too much credit. This won't

be convergence so much as replacement. People may still

watch things they call "TV shows," but they'll watch them

mostly on computers.

What decided the contest for computers? Four forces, three of

which one could have predicted, and one that would have

been harder to.

One predictable cause of victory is that the Internet is an open

platform. Anyone can build whatever they want on it, and the

market picks the winners. So innovation happens at hacker

speeds instead of big company speeds.

The second is Moore's Law, which has worked its usual magic

on Internet bandwidth. [1]

The third reason computers won is piracy. Users prefer it not

just because it's free, but because it's more convenient.

Bittorrent and YouTube have already trained a new generation

101

of viewers that the place to watch shows is on a computer

screen. [2]

The somewhat more surprising force was one specific type of

innovation: social applications. The average teenage kid has a

pretty much infinite capacity for talking to their friends. But

they can't physically be with them all the time. When I was in

high school the solution was the telephone. Now it's social

networks, multiplayer games, and various messaging

applications. The way you reach them all is through a

computer. [3] Which means every teenage kid (a) wants a

computer with an Internet connection, (b) has an incentive to

figure out how to use it, and (c) spends countless hours in front

of it.

This was the most powerful force of all. This was what made

everyone want computers. Nerds got computers because they

liked them. Then gamers got them to play games on. But it was

connecting to other people that got everyone else: that's what

made even grandmas and 14 year old girls want computers.

102

After decades of running an IV drip right into their audience,

people in the entertainment business had understandably

come to think of them as rather passive. They thought they'd

be able to dictate the way shows reached audiences. But they

underestimated the force of their desire to connect with one

another.

Facebook killed TV. That is wildly oversimplified, of course, but

probably as close to the truth as you can get in three words.

The TV networks already seem, grudgingly, to see where things

are going, and have responded by putting their stuff,

grudgingly, online. But they're still dragging their heels. They

still seem to wish people would watch shows on TV instead,

just as newspapers that put their stories online still seem to

wish people would wait till the next morning and read them

printed on paper. They should both just face the fact that the

Internet is the primary medium.

They'd be in a better position if they'd done that earlier. When

a new medium arises that's powerful enough to make

103

incumbents nervous, then it's probably powerful enough to

win, and the best thing they can do is jump in immediately.

Whether they like it or not, big changes are coming, because

the Internet dissolves the two cornerstones of broadcast

media: synchronicity and locality. On the Internet, you don't

have to send everyone the same signal, and you don't have to

send it to them from a local source. People will watch what

they want when they want it, and group themselves according

to whatever shared interest they feel most strongly. Maybe

their strongest shared interest will be their physical location,

but I'm guessing not. Which means local TV is probably dead. It

was an artifact of limitations imposed by old technology. If

someone were creating an Internet-based TV company from

scratch now, they might have some plan for shows aimed at

specific regions, but it wouldn't be a top priority.

Synchronicity and locality are tied together. TV network

affiliates care what's on at 10 because that delivers viewers for

local news at 11. This connection adds more brittleness than

strength, however: people don't watch what's on at 10

because they want to watch the news afterward.

104

TV networks will fight these trends, because they don't have

sufficient flexibility to adapt to them. They're hemmed in by

local affiliates in much the same way car companies are

hemmed in by dealers and unions. Inevitably, the people

running the networks will take the easy route and try to keep

the old model running for a couple more years, just as the

record labels have done.

A recent article in the Wall Street Journal described how TV

networks were trying to add more live shows, partly as a way

to make viewers watch TV synchronously instead of watching

recorded shows when it suited them. Instead of delivering

what viewers want, they're trying to force them to change

their habits to suit the networks' obsolete business model.

That never works unless you have a monopoly or cartel to

enforce it, and even then it only works temporarily.

The other reason networks like live shows is that they're

cheaper to produce. There they have the right idea, but they

haven't followed it to its conclusion. Live content can be way

cheaper than networks realize, and the way to take advantage

105

of dramatic decreases in cost is to increase volume. The

networks are prevented from seeing this whole line of

reasoning because they still think of themselves as being in the

broadcast business—as sending one signal to everyone. [4]

Now would be a good time to start any company that

competes with TV networks. That's what a lot of Internet

startups are, though they may not have had this as an explicit

goal. People only have so many leisure hours a day, and TV is

premised on such long sessions (unlike Google, which prides

itself on sending users on their way quickly) that anything that

takes up their time is competing with it. But in addition to such

indirect competitors, I think TV companies will increasingly

face direct ones.

Even in cable TV, the long tail was lopped off prematurely by

the threshold you had to get over to start a new channel. It will

be longer on the Internet, and there will be more mobility

within it. In this new world, the existing players will only have

the advantages any big company has in its market.

That will change the balance of power between the networks

106

and the people who produce shows. The networks used to be

gatekeepers. They distributed your work, and sold advertising

on it. Now the people who produce a show can distribute it

themselves. The main value networks supply now is ad sales.

Which will tend to put them in the position of service providers

rather than publishers.

Shows will change even more. On the Internet there's no

reason to keep their current format, or even the fact that they

have a single format. Indeed, the more interesting sort of

convergence that's coming is between shows and games. But

on the question of what sort of entertainment gets distributed

on the Internet in 20 years, I wouldn't dare to make any

predictions, except that things will change a lot. We'll get

whatever the most imaginative people can cook up. That's why

the Internet won

107

Two Kinds of Judgment

April 2007

There are two different ways people judge you. Sometimes

judging you correctly is the end goal. But there's a second

much more common type of judgement where it isn't. We

tend to regard all judgements of us as the first type. We'd

probably be happier if we realized which are and which aren't.

The first type of judgement, the type where judging you is the

end goal, include court cases, grades in classes, and most

competitions. Such judgements can of course be mistaken, but

because the goal is to judge you correctly, there's usually some

kind of appeals process. If you feel you've been misjudged, you

can protest that you've been treated unfairly.

Nearly all the judgements made on children are of this type, so

we get into the habit early in life of thinking that all

judgements are.

But in fact there is a second much larger class of judgements

where judging you is only a means to something else. These

108

include college admissions, hiring and investment decisions,

and of course the judgements made in dating. This kind of

judgement is not really about you.

Put yourself in the position of someone selecting players for a

national team. Suppose for the sake of simplicity that this is a

game with no positions, and that you have to select 20 players.

There will be a few stars who clearly should make the team,

and many players who clearly shouldn't. The only place your

judgement makes a difference is in the borderline cases.

Suppose you screw up and underestimate the 20th best player,

causing him not to make the team, and his place to be taken

by the 21st best. You've still picked a good team. If the players

have the usual distribution of ability, the 21st best player will

be only slightly worse than the 20th best. Probably the

difference between them will be less than the measurement

error.

The 20th best player may feel he has been misjudged. But your

goal here wasn't to provide a service estimating people's

ability. It was to pick a team, and if the difference between the

20th and 21st best players is less than the measurement error,

109

you've still done that optimally.

It's a false analogy even to use the word unfair to describe this

kind of misjudgement. It's not aimed at producing a correct

estimate of any given individual, but at selecting a reasonably

optimal set.

One thing that leads us astray here is that the selector seems

to be in a position of power. That makes him seem like a judge.

If you regard someone judging you as a customer instead of a

judge, the expectation of fairness goes away. The author of a

good novel wouldn't complain that readers were unfair for

preferring a potboiler with a racy cover. Stupid, perhaps, but

not unfair.

Our early training and our self-centeredness combine to make

us believe that every judgement of us is about us. In fact most

aren't. This is a rare case where being less self-centered will

make people more confident. Once you realize how little most

people judging you care about judging you accurately—once

you realize that because of the normal distribution of most

applicant pools, it matters least to judge accurately in precisely

110

the cases where judgement has the most effect—you won't

take rejection so personally.

And curiously enough, taking rejection less personally may

help you to get rejected less often. If you think someone

judging you will work hard to judge you correctly, you can

afford to be passive. But the more you realize that most

judgements are greatly influenced by random, extraneous

factors—that most people judging you are more like a fickle

novel buyer than a wise and perceptive magistrate—the more

you realize you can do things to influence the outcome.

One good place to apply this principle is in college applications.

Most high school students applying to college do it with the

usual child's mix of inferiority and self-centeredness: inferiority

in that they assume that admissions committees must be all-

seeing; self-centeredness in that they assume admissions

committees care enough about them to dig down into their

application and figure out whether they're good or not. These

combine to make applicants passive in applying and hurt when

they're rejected. If college applicants realized how quick and

111

impersonal most selection processes are, they'd make more

effort to sell themselves, and take the outcome less personally.

112

How to be a genius

Geniuses don’t exist in the present. Think of all the people

you’ve met: would you call any of them a genius, in the

Mozart, Einstein, Shakespeare sense of the word? Even the

commonly called genius grants, from the MacCarthur

foundation, shy away from actually calling their recipients

geniuses. Most people throw the g-word around where it’s

safe: in reference to dead people. Since there’s no one alive

who witnessed Mozart pee in his kindergarten pants, or saw

young Picasso eating crayons in kindergarten, we can call them

geniuses in safety, as their humanity has been stripped from

our memory of them. Out of respect, and worship, we allow

ourselves to believe the 2% of our heroes we find superhuman

is the entirety of who they were.

Even if you believe geniuses exist, there’s little consensus on

what being a genius even means. Some experts say genius is

the capacity for greatness, while others believe it’s that you’ve

accomplished great things. Frankly I don’t care. Chasing

definitions for a final, argument ending answer is a waste of

time, since the interesting questions defy finality. Worse, you

can’t accomplish much as a maker of things if your time is

113

spent arguing about the meaning of words. To the core of my

point, the chase for definitions never provides what we want: a

better understanding of how to appreciate, and possibly

become, interesting people.

I will now take a wild, manic, run through the history of genius.

I make no commitment to be definitive in any way. However, I

do promise to avoid easy answers, to use facts to support pet

opinions, and to state the obvious and the contradictory,

especially when they best define the truth.

114

Have a great, or horrible, family

Picasso, Mozart, Beethoven, Einstein and Goethe are five

popular geniuses and they all had parents who took an interest

in their creative lives. Mozart and Beethoven had fathers who

were professional musicians, and at young ages they were

taught by Pops how to read and play various instruments. Can

you guess what Picasso’s dad did? Yes, he was a painter, and

spent many hours with young Pablo, showing him the ropes.

One popular legend around Einstein is his young obsession

with a compass from his dad, but more potent in his

development was family friend Max Talmud, who taught

Albert science, philosophy and other intellectual pursuits

throughout his boyhood. And of course there’s Van Gogh and

his brother Theo, the only healthy relationship he ever had.

But lousy families can make for geniuses too. Beethoven’s dad

was abusive and cruel, torturing him during childhood practice

sessions. Unlike what happens to most child prodigies (burnout

at age 15 and complete hatred for their gifts and

micromanaging self-centered parents) somehow Beethoven’s

passion for music survived. Leonardo Da Vinci was a bastard, a

child not of his father’s wife, and the little we know doesn’t

115

paint a picture (ha ha) of a healthy child-parent dynamic. Isaac

Newton was also born to a single parent home, his father dying

several weeks before Isaac entered the world. His mother

remarried, Isaac didn’t like it, and perhaps found a seed of

unrest to fuel his pursuit of an independent life.

I’m for independence, free will and the belief anyone can do

anything, but when it comes to being a genius it’s hard to

ignore the role of family, country, and era, all things out of an

individual’s control. If Mozart’s dad were an electrician, or

Beethoven’s a plumber, what would have happened? Had

Emily Dickinson’s mother not been seriously ill for decades,

forcing Emily to live mostly in seclusion, would we know her

name? Whether positive or negative, opportunities in

children’s development create potential, but their work has to

surface at a time when their particular talents are valued in the

world (demonstrated by the number of posthumously

appreciated geniuses, including Kafka, Van Gogh and

Dickenson).

116

Be obsessed with work

Show me a genius and I’ll show you a workaholic. Van Gogh

produced 2000 works of art between 1880 and 1890 (1100

paintings and 900 sketches). That’s 4 works of art a week for a

decade, and he didn’t start making art until his mid twenties.

DaVinci’s famous journals represent decades of note taking,

doodling and observations, and it’s a good guess that work was

the center of his life: no spouses or children are mentioned in

any of our records of him (though he likely had lovers in his

studio). Picasso made over 12,000 works of art (“Give me a

museum and I’ll fill it he said, and he was right) in his lifetime,

including sculptures, paintings and other mediums.

Shakespeare wrote more than 40 plays, not to mention dozens

of sonnets, poems and of course, grocery lists. These are

people who practiced their crafts daily and sacrificed many

other ordinary pleasures in life to make their work possible.

Every math or music prodigy practiced to produce the work

they are famous for (See the ten year rule).

117

And of course very few of these works are considered

masterpieces, by their creators or anyone else. Sure, today,

any coffee stained sketch by Picasso or Van Gogh garners

millions, but that has more to do with the signature that’s on

the painting, than the quality of the painting itself. No matter

the field, the productive have more failures to show than

successes by ratios of 10 or more to 1. Hemingway is noted for

his belief that writing is rewriting, and that dozens, or

hundreds, of attempts are required to write anything well

(“The first draft of anything is shit“). Most painters, from Dali

to Turner made sketches and studies to experiment and

explore before committing themselves to the final versions of

the amazing works we see in museums.

Whatever their talents or genetic gifts, most everyone who

earned the label genius was dedicated to their work: the list of

lazy geniuses is short. Certainly there are burnouts, suicides,

and those who spent unproductive years in retreat (or rehab),

but none could be called petrified of work. The debate over

talent vs. work ethic is moot in history: without the work, we’d

never heard of most of these people.

118

Have emotional or other serious problems

A high percentage of geniuses weren’t particularly happy, well

adjusted people. It’d be unfair to say it’s a requirement, but

there’s sure evidence for a correlation. For all their brilliance, it

doesn’t seem like most of these people led stable lives.

Picasso, Van Gogh, Edison, Einstein, and Nietzsche (not to

mention almost every major modern philosopher) had difficult,

if not disastrous, personal lives. Every one of them either never

married or married many times, had children they abandoned

or became estranged from, and had episodes of great

depression and turmoil. Isaac Newton and Tesla spent many of

their days in isolation, and had enough eccentricities and

personality disorders to earn a cabinet full of pharmaceuticals

today.

Michelangelo and Da-Vinci were troublesome employees,

abandoning commissions from Popes and bishops, fleeing

cities for threats of war and personal debts. Kafka and Proust

were both notable hypochondriacs, each spending years of

their lives in bed or in hospitals for medical conditions, some of

which we’re psychological in nature or origin. Voltaire,

Thoreau, and Socrates all lived in various kinds of exile or

119

poverty, and used their response to these conditions in the

works they are famous for. Positive emotions and experiences

can work as fuel too, there just don’t seem to be as many

genius stories that center on happy, well adjusted lives. John

Coltrane, C.S. Lewis, and Einstein had deeply held, and mostly

positive, spiritual beliefs that fueled their work. Stephen King

seems like a happy guy at his core, despite all the horror that

passes through his mind.

Emotions of any kind, positive or negative, provide fuel for

work, and many geniuses were simply better at converting

their emotions into work than their peers. The need to express

feelings, escape suffering, or prove the possibility of an

imagined world was stronger in these people than the

challenges of the work itself, enabling them to spend more of

their waking hours searching for expression, or solving

problems, than most people choose to. Creativity and self-

expression are hard work for anyone, but perhaps a lesson we

can learn from the prolific is to widen our sources of fuel and

raise our tolerance for hard work.

120

Good, evil and technology: a fun philosophical inquiry

Are you a good person? How do you know? Most of us set a

low bar. Unless we’re kicking puppies and stealing lunches

from homeless children, we think we’re doing all right. But not

being bad is not the same as being good. And when it comes to

making things like software and websites the same rules apply.

Good and evil demystified

A quick trip to the dictionary yields the following basic terms.

Good: Being positive, desirable or virtuous; a good person.

Having desirable qualities : a good exterior paint; a good joke.

Serving the purpose or end; suitable: Is this a good dress for

the party?

Evil: Morally bad or wrong; wicked: an evil tyrant. Causing ruin,

injury, or pain; harmful: the evil effects of a poor diet.

Characterized by anger or spite; malicious: an evil temper.

But how does this apply to technology? Are there good

websites and evil websites? Rarely. Most things we know and

use fall in between: tools are amoral. They don’t prevent

someone from using them for bad or work better when used

121

for good. Great software performs just as well when you’re

drafting praise for homeless shelter volunteers as when you’re

writing recipes for orphan stew. If we want to claim that the

things we make are good or bad, we have to go beyond their

function. Goodness, in the moral sense, means something very

different from good in the engineering sense.

Focusing on engineering alone, technology makers are not far

from arms-dealers: we provide tools to the world with

indifference for how they are used. This doesn’t make us evil,

but it doesn’t make us good either.

What is the point of technology?

But what is the alternative? The answer depends on how you

view the value of technology. There are (at least) 5

alternatives:

There is no point. The universe is chaos and every

confused soul fends for themselves. Therefore

technology, like all things, is pointless. Software and it’s

makers are just another chaotic element in the random

122

existential mess that is the universe. (Patron saint:

Marvin the robot from Hitchhikers guide to the galaxy).

There might be a point, but it’s unknowable (same as

above only more depressing). Technology has value but

we are incapable of understanding it, therefore our

attempts at making things will tend to be misguided and

even self-destructive, but that’s ok. (Patron saint: Tyler

Durden, Fight club).

The point is how it’s used (the pragmatic moral view).

The point is that technology enables people to do things.

How the technology is used, and the effect it has on

people in the world. In this line of thought a good

technology is one that enables good things to happen

for people and helps them live satisfying lives and what

we make should be built on the tradition of shelter, fire,

electricity, refrigeration and vaccination (Patron saint:

Victor Papanak, author of design for the real world).

The point is how it makes the creator feel (the selfish

view). What matters is how the creator of the thing feels

about the thing. This is an artistic view of technology in

that programming or building is an act of expression

123

whose greatest meaning is to the creator themselves.

(Patron saint: Salvador Dali)

The point to technology is its economic value. The free

market decides what good technology is, possibly giving

creators resources for doing morally good things. But

the the moral value of the technology itself is

indeterminate or unimportant. (Patron saint: Gordon

Gekko)

I’m not offering any of these as the true answer: there isn’t

one. You have to figure it out for yourself. But I am pointing

out that without a sense of the purpose of technology it’s

impossible to separate good from bad: there has to be some

underlying value system to apply to the making of things. I

admit I’m partial to the pragmatic view, that technology’s

value is in helping people live better lives (or even further, that

a goal of life is to be of use to people, through technological or

other means), but I’m well aware that’s not the only answer.

Technological value

But if you do identify a personal philosophy for technology,

there are ways to apply it to the making of things. Assuming

124

you see good technology as achieving a moral good, here’s one

approach.

For any technology you can estimate its value to help

individuals. Lets call that ability V. Assuming you know how

many people use the technology (N), V * N = the value of the

technology. Here’s two examples:

A heart defibrillator can save someone’s life (V=100). But may

only have a few users (N=1000).

V * N = 100,000.

A pizza website allows me to order pizza online (V=1). It may

have many users (N=50,000).

V * N = 50,000.

We can argue about how to define V (or the value of online

pizza delivery), but as a back of the envelope approach, it’s

easy to compare two different technologies for their value,

based on any philosophy of technology. Should you happen to

be Satan’s right hand man, change V to S (for suffering) and

you’re on your way.

125

However, one trap in this is the difference between what

technology makes possible and what people actually do. I

could use a defibrillator to start my car, or use the pizza

website to play pranks on my neighbors. Or more to my point, I

might not actually use the technology at all, despite purchasing

it and being educated in its value. So the perceived value of a

thing, by the thing’s creator, is different from the actual value

the thing has for people in the real world.

Here are some questions that help sort out value:

What is possible with the technology?

How much of that potential is used? Why or why not?

Who benefits from the technology?

How do they benefit?

What would they have done without the technology?

What are the important problems people have? Is a

technological solution the best way to solve them?

The implications of things

Every tool has an implied morality. There is a value system that

every machine, program, or website has built into it that’s

comprehendible if you look carefully. As two polarizing

126

examples, look at these two things: a machine gun and a

wheelchair.

Both of these have very clear purposes in mind and behind

each purpose is a set of values. The wheelchair is designed to

support someone. The machine gun is designed to kill

someone (or several someones).

Many of the products we make don’t have have as clearly

defined values. However as I mentioned earlier, the absence

of value is a value: not being explicitly evil isn’t the same as

being good. If I make a hammer, it can be used to build homes

for the needy, or to build a mansion for a bank robber. I can be

proud of the hammer’s design, but I can’t be certain that I’ve

done a good thing for the world: the tool’s use is too basic to

define it as good or bad.

It’s common to see toolmakers, from search engines to

development tools, take credit for the good they see their

tools do, while ignoring the bad. This isn’t quite right: they are

equally involved in the later as they are in the former.

127

The conclusion to this is that to do good things for people

requires a more direct path than the making of tools. Helping

the neighbor’s kid learn math, volunteering at the homeless

shelter or donating money to the orphanage are ways to do

good things that have a direct impact, compared to the

dubious and sketchy goodness of indifferent tool making.

The creative responsibility (Hacker ethics)

Computer science has no well established code of ethics. You

are unlikely to hear the words moral, ethical, good and evil in

the curriculum of most degree programs (However some

organizations are working on this: see references). It’s not that

computer science departments condone a specific

philosophical view: it’s that they don’t see it as their place to

prescribe a philosophical view to engineering students. (The

absence of a philosophy is in fact a philosophy, but that’s not

my point). But the history of engineering does have some

examples of engineering cultures that took clear stances on

ethics.

Freemasons, the ancient (and often mocked) order of builders,

has a central code that all members are expected to uphold. It

128

defines a clear standard of moral and ethical behavior and

connects the building of things to those ideals.

More recently, the early hacker culture at MIT defined a set of

rules for how hacks should be done.

A hack must:

be safe

not damage anything

not damage anyone, either physically, mentally or

emotionally

be funny, at least to most of the people who experience

it

The meaning of the term hacker has changed several times,

but the simplicity and power of a short set of rules remains. Do

you bind the decisions you make in creating things to a set of

ideals? What are they?

Defining our beliefs

Even if we don’t define rules for ourselves, we we all believe

one of three things about what we make:

129

I have no responsibility (for how it’s used)

I have some responsibility

I have total responsibility

Most of us fall into the middle view: we have some

responsibility. But if that’s true, how do we take on that

responsibility? How do our actions reflect that accountability?

Nothing prevents us from making sure the tools we make, and

skills we have, are put to good use: donated to causes we

value, demonstrated to those who need help, customized for

specific purposes and people we think are doing good things.

It’s only in those acts that we’re doing good: the software,

website or machine is often not enough. Or more to my point,

the best way to do good has less to do with the technology,

and more to do with what we do with it.

“The purpose of technology is to facilitate things. On the

whole, I think, technology can deliver, but what it is

asked to do is often not very great. “ – Neil Postman

“Let the chips fall where they may” – Tyler Durden

130

“I think the technical capabilities of technology are well

ahead of the value concepts which we ask it to deliver. “

– Edward De Bono

“If you want to understand a new technology, ask

yourself how it would be used in the hands of the

criminal, the policeman, and the politician” – William

Gibson

“With great power comes great responsibility” –

SpiderMan

“Our technology has surpassed our humanity” – Einstein

131

Air Pollution

With the great concern surrounding the destruction of the

earth's atmosphere due to air pollution, the immediate and

direct harm caused to the human body is often over

shadowed. While many are aware that our careless use of

hazardous chemicals and fossil fuels may leave the planet

uninhabitable in the future, most over look the fact that they

are also cause real damage to our bodies at this moment. Such

pollutants cause damage to our respiratory system, leading to

the fluctuation of the life span of an individual depending on a

number of conditions. Amongst these conditions are the

individuals specific geographic location, age, and life style. This

paper is structured as a series of relevant questions and

answers to report on the description of these pollutants there

affects on our bodies. In order to understand how air pollution

affects our body, you must under stand exactly what this

pollution is. The pollutants that harm our respiratory system

are known as particulates. Particulates are the small solid

particles that you can see through a ray of sunlight. They are

products of incomplete combustion in engines (example:

132

automobile engines), road dust, and wood smoke. Billions of

tons of coal and oil are consumed around the world every

year. When these fuels burn they produce smoke and other

by-products into the atmosphere. Although wind and rain

occasionally wash away the smoke given off by power plants

and automobiles, much still remains. Particulate matter (soot,

ash, and other solids), usually consist of unburned

hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, various

nitrogen oxides, ozone, and lead. These compounds undergo a

series of chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight, the

result is smog (a term used to describe a noxious mixture of

fog and smoke) The process by which these pollutants harm

our bodies begins by simply taking a breath. Particulates are

present every where, in some areas they are as dense as

100,000 per milliliter of air. The damage begins when the

particulates are inhaled into the small air sacs of our lungs

called alveoli. With densities such as 100,000 per milliliter a

single alveolus may receive 1,500 particulates per day. These

particulates cause the inflammation of the alveoli. The

inflammation causes the body to produce agents in the blood

that in crease clotting ability, which leads to the decreased

functionality of the cardiovascular system, resulting in diseases

133

and increased mortality. In the blood, carbon monoxide

interferes with the supply of oxygen to all tissues and organs,

including the brain and heart. Particulates accumulate on the

mucous linings of the airways and lungs and impair their

functioning. Continued exposure to particulates damages the

lungs and increases an individual's chances of developing such

conditions as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. While you

may see pollutants such as particulates, other harmful ones

are not visible. Amongst the most dangerous to our health are

Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur dioxide, and Ozone.

If you have ever been in an enclosed parking garage or a

tunnel and felt dizzy or light-headed then you have felt the

effect of carbon monoxide(CO). This odorless, colorless, but

poisonous gas is produced by the incomplete burning of fossil

fuels, like gasoline or diesel fuel. Carbon Monoxide comes

from cars, trucks, gas furnaces and stoves, and some industrial

processes. CO is also a toxin in cigarettes. Carbon Monoxide

combines with hemoglobin in the red blood cells, so body cells

and tissues cannot get the oxygen they need. Carbon

Monoxide attacks the immune system, especially affecting

anyone with heart disease, anemia, and emphysema and other

lung diseases. Even when at low concentrations CO affects

134

mental function, vision, and alertness. Nitrogen Oxide is

another pollutant that has been nicknamed a jet-age pollutant

because it is only apparent in highly advanced countries.

Sources of this are fuel plant, cars, and trucks. At lower

concentrations nitrogen oxides are a light brown gas. In high

concentrations they are major sources of haze and smog. They

also combine with other compounds to help form ozone.

Nitrogen Oxides cause eye and lung irritation, and lowers the

resistance to respiratory illness, such as chest colds, bronchitis,

and influenza. For children and people with asthma, this gas is

can cause death. Nitrogen Oxides maybe the most dangerous

of these pollutants because it also makes nitric acid, when

combine with water in rain, snow, fog, or mist. This then

becomes the harmful acid rain. Sulfur Dioxide is a heavy,

smelly, colorless gas which comes from industrial plants,

petroleum refineries, paper mills, and chemical plants. When

combined with water it becomes sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid

dissolves marble, turns plants yellow, and eats away at iron

and steel, you can imagine the possible damage to human

tissue. It's effect on people with asthma, heart disease, and

emphysema is devastating. It is also a major contribute to acid

rain. There are numerous cases displaying the grave danger of

135

particulate air pollution. One popular example occurred in

London, England in the year 1952. In this case excessive deaths

were caused as a result of respiratory and cardiovascular

problems in that year. The research at that time revealed an

association between particulate and sulphur dioxide

concentrations in the air and risk of respiratory disease and

death. The excessive problems are thought to have been

caused by "winter smogs". Winter smogs were frequent

problem during the 1940s through the 1950s when coal was

the main fuel for both domestic and commercial use. Winter

smogs are caused by temperature inversions which trap

particulates close to the ground. The air and smoke trapped

contained high concentrations of soot, sulphur dioxide, and

other pollutants. This winter smog took the lives of over 3,500

people. A similar incident in the United States came about as a

result of the same type of temperature changes and smog. In

1948 six thousand people became drastically ill and twenty

died as a direct result of winter smog in Pennsylvania. More

recently an even greater tragedy occurred. One of the great

human and environmental disasters of the 1980s occurred on

December 3, 1984, in Bhopal, India. About 50 tons of methyl

isocyanate escaped into the air from a pesticide company

136

owned by the American corporation Union Carbide. Estimates

of the death toll in surrounding neighborhoods were as high as

2,500. About 100,000 others were injured by the gas leak.

Since the in industrial revolution city dwellers have always

been exposed to higher levels of particulate air pollution. As I

have mentioned, the fuels use in the urban factories release

large amounts of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and soot.

Another main factor is the heavy use if motor vehicles by the

city population. In the city, where many people and objects

occupy a small area the problem is amplified. Depending on

the weather conditions the threat can become even greater.

Another major factor is the individual. While sex does not

matter age and health history do. It has been proven that

death or illness from air pollution is more likely in young

people, old people, and people that smoke. Children are often

more vulnerable to those pollutants for two main reasons. The

first being that because of their small size their heartbeats and

metabolic rates are faster. Therefore all reactions within their

bodies including the harmful ones of pollutants (chiefly the

replacement of oxygen with carbon monoxide in the blood

stream) take place at an accelerated pace. The second is the

relatively weak immune systems of young children.

137

Particulates that act as irritants take a greater toll on their still

developing bodies. The same threats that air pollution pose to

young people effect older members of society. Although their

metabolic rates not high, their immune systems maybe equally

as weak. An investigation conducted by the Helen Dwight Reid

Educational Foundation on the joint effects of air pollution and

smoking showed that smokers in Beijing, China suffered from

greater problems in their pulmonary artery functions. They

also had a vital lung capacity decrease of over 10%. It is

apparent that our careless use of fossil fuels and chemicals is

destroying this planet. And it is now more than ever apparent

that at the same time we are destroying our bodies, proving

that our pollution is not just a problem that we can pass on to

our children.

138

Environmental Ethics

Establishing an environmental ethic is of utmost concern to

the human species to better comprehend our place in the

world and our potentials for the future. In doing so, we must

extend our thinking of rights and responsibilities. I believe we

must incorporate not only a temporal component, but also a

spatial understanding of the world as an organic biotic

community and how consumption is a part of the natural

order. Aldo Leopold believes that conservation ethics must be

rooted in a determination: "A thing is right when it tends to

preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic

community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise." I would like

to start with Leopold's statement, and further explore how the

definitions of integrity, stability and beauty can be better

understood given three corollary's: 1. All organic entities must

consume to survive – it is not only a right, but a responsibility

2. There are limited resources to be consumed by organic

entities on the planet 3. The human species has the ability,

through rational thought, to conserve ever-depleting resources

Leopold's ethic attempts to extend what is of human, moral

139

concern to include animals, ecosystems, and endangered

species. How can this concern be expressed in today's society?

I see one problem with this argument in that there is little

discussion about power and influence that is inherent in

current definitions of rights. Therefore, I will introduce the

notion that organic entities, those that depend on the

consumption of energy for survival, must retain the right to

consume resources to survive. Notions of right and wrong now

have no standing – it is a fact that organic entities must

consume to maintain life. I will turn to Callicott for some

discussion of limits and to the Second Law of Thermodynamics

as a moral decree to conservation. The resources for survival

are diverse and limited, and we must explore more fully the

components of a biotic community as a whole to explore our

moral limits. Community components Organic entities exist

(i.e. live) in an interdependent organic community. This

viewpoint will examine components of the world which are

necessary to maintain organic life. Biological entities are not

the only things that require consumption in these organic

communities: Fire consumes oxygen as well as organic entities,

the atmosphere consumes radiation from the sun, water

consumes through the removal of essential oxygen to those

140

that require it, and the earth consumes through convection.

The earth, itself, does nothing more than recycle energy.

Inorganic earth, water and air are also methods of

transportation within the consumption community.

Temporally, to better understand the interconnectedness with

other entities we must look at humanities history through the

ancestry of the land. Leopold described the rings on a fallen

tree to show where, at different points in time, it may have

been affected by other forces of consumption. We can see this

in a ring that is charred black due to a fire over one hundred

years ago, or where romantic lovers etched their names in its

sturdy frame. However, when we examine things at the

microscopic level, a rich picture emerges that relates our

biological history with nature. Leopold writes of this through

the Odyssey of "Particle X": In the flash of a century the rock

decayed, and X was pulled out and up into a world of living

things. He helped build a flower, which became an acorn,

which fattened a deer which fed an Indian, all in a single year.

The human sensory methods of discovery tend to miss many

relationships between organic entities. We tend to miss a lot

of things when we are not actually living in nature as well. The

modern market-driven consumer society is very different from

141

the consumer community of the totality of organic entities on

the earth – and quite possible less complex. We tend not only

to consume resources, but technology allows us to build things

that consume resources just in the production process itself.

These, in turn, produce forms of energy that can then be

consumed by human beings as a species. Finite energy

resources Up until now, I have neglected the inorganic life that

abounds on the planet. I will now turn to the Second Law of

Thermodynamics which states that in any closed system,

entropy is always increasing. Organic entities require energy

for survival, and entropy, which is a measure of the amount of

energy unavailable for work during a natural process, is

constantly increasing. That is, the more we consume, the more

waste is produced that is not available to organic entities to

survive. Organic entities and communities do nothing more

than recycle energy throughout the planet – from the flower,

to the wolf, to the ocean. It is our consumption, in relation to

the community as a whole, that we must keep in mind.

Community stability The stability of the land is crucial to

maintain the recycling of energy for living communities. We

run into problems with the realization that energy can take on

different forms, and those types available may not be able to

142

be consumed by the individual entities that inhabit it.

Reductions in the number of species, and their interdependent

relationships, over time will result in unstable systems which

can no longer recycle usable energy due to the lack of entities

that can consume it. The human relevance here is that our

actions, which are currently removing entire organic

communities, will have dramatic effects on the stability of the

organic community. Here, it is important to see that individuals

contribute to and affect the stability of the community as a

whole. Community integrity The integrity of the organic

community is a difficult concept to address in an ever-changing

natural world. I would like to relate it to the spatial component

of interconnectedness between organic entities within and

between the organic community. Here, organic entities are but

a process within the recycling process of the earth as a whole.

The individual components, aside from extremely damaging

human events, will normally not put a dent in the community

as a whole. The recycling processes of the community here

include weather phenomena, natural land movements, and

ocean sinks and these have little concern for the individual

entities of the organic community. It is the integrity and

interconnectedness of the whole that can be compromised

143

most easily by human hands. Community beauty "The trend of

evolution is to elaborate and diversify the land [sea and air]

biota." Dr. Leopold emphasizes the diversity of the landscape

and its contribution to the beauty that exists there. It is this

component that combines the abstract and rational thought in

the human species. I believe the saying is beauty is in the eyes

of the beholder. This is probably the most difficult points to

discuss because of that. I don't believe beauty can be

subjected to the objective sciences of today, where it would

just be thrown within the current institutional power structure.

We must come to grips with our consumption patters, in

relation to the amount of energy that is required for ourselves,

and other entities, to exist. Callicott believed that the scope

and rate of extinction could be used as well, by examining the

rate of species extinction, and compare it with previous

sources of information on the subject. This diversification that

Leopold discusses can allow us to frame beauty in an energy-

consumption view. The human species, and its endless

creation of energy consuming and transforming machines, has

found ways to take away the rights of other organic entities to

consume. We have removed not only energy sources for other

organic entities, but have removed the entities altogether.

144

Ecological Education Beyond the ethical prowess, and more

importantly, we need to change how people think about the

environment through education. The citizen-conservationist

needs an understanding of wildlife ecology not only to enable

him (her) to function as a critic of sound policy, but to enable

him (her) to derive maximum enjoyment from his (her)

contacts with the land. The jig-saw puzzle of competitions and

cooperations which constitute the wildlife community are

inherently more interesting than mere acquaintance with its

constituent species, for the same reason that a newspaper is

inherently more interesting than a telephone directory. It is

only through this democratic education process that we can

truly, as a consumer species, come together in moral

environmental thought. The virtual realities available to us

today only provide virtual experiences. Leopold believed

experiential learning was the only way to overcome and to do

this was to get out into nature and get first-hand experiences.

"Schools and Universities need nearby pieces of land on which

conservation problems and techniques can be shown, and

researches performed." The Moral call This process of

consumption and waste production is repeated over and over

until there is no energy, usable by organic entities, left. The

145

human species is the only organic entity that can realize,

through rational thought, this global process which will result

in the end of organic life on this planet. Really, that is why this

paper is being written! In essence, the amount of energy that

can be consumed is finite, naturally decreasing, and only

realized by the human species. It seems a fatalistic point of

view, but in terms of human lifetimes, the end of usable

resources may still be thousands of generations away. A re-

examination of the primary consumption entities of today are

not even organic. They are mechanical devices, driven by a

materialistic ethic, meant to transform energy into types that

our species can then consume. Cars consume oil, power plants

consume coal, and our packaging consumes trees. Not to

mention all of the conversions directly to unusable energy,

such as plastics or even the processes of material production

itself. Of course, by removing the potential energy base for

other organic entities, this can lead to instability in the organic

community as a whole. Therefore, we must not ask too much

of nature and conserve the limited resources of the life giving

Earth.

146

Global Warming

What happens when too much carbon dioxide gets

omitted into the Earth’s atmosphere? The condition known as

Global Warming occurs. Global Warming is the rising of the

Earth’s surface temperature due to chemicals in the

atmosphere. Global Warming has many threats on the climate

and even the health of the people on this planet. Some of

these threats include the altering of crop seasons and even

effect the way organisms survive on the planet. The first thing I

think I should discuss when talking about global warming is

what causes it to occur. Gases such as carbon dioxide,

methane and nitrous oxide, which are known as greenhouse

gases, all build up in the atmosphere of the earth. All these

gases make it so that it becomes harder for the radiation that

the sun shines into the atmosphere to escape. The heat

continues to build up and this is what causes the temperatures

to increase. I know this seems like the temperatures increase

massively but in the last hundred years the average

temperature of the Earth has gone up between 0.8 and 1.0

degrees farenheight. Also in the last fifteen years, we have had

147

the ten warmest years in record. Global Warming also helps

the Earth and it has been for many years. Without global

warming, the Earth’s temperature would be a lot lower than

the 60-degree average. Unfortunately due to there being many

more harmful “greenhouse gases” being placed into the

atmosphere, instead of the temperature staying at a constant,

its rising. What are many of the dangers of the Earth’s

temperature rising? First of all it cause many of the glaciers

that are floating in the Arctic and Greenland to melt. This in

turn causes the sea levels to rise around the world. In the last

hundred years alone the seas around the planet have risen

anywhere from four to ten inches. I know it does not sound

like a massive change but being able to raise all the seas in the

world a whole ten inches is a huge problem. Sea levels also

continue to rise is because the hotter temperature cause the

ocean water to expand. An example of the sea level causing

problems could happen on a little Native Island in the middle

of an Ocean. On these islands usually where native tribes live,

if the sea level rises three fourths of a meter then half of the

island will sink. This could happen in many different islands

around the world and if the water keeps on rising as it is, then

farming land near the seashores will be flooded and the crops

148

will be destroyed and many farmers will be left without much

to live off of. The melting of the glaciers are also causing some

problems in the Himalayas. Many of the tips of the mountain’s

in that area. Massive flooding and rivers that are well above

their normal levels are threatening the crops and homes in the

area. Many of the locals that live in the area and many of the

scientists that are surveying the area are saying that the

glaciers are melting at a phenomenal rate. Another danger that

comes with the changing of the climate is that the increased

heat causes more evaporation to occur in the hotter climates.

This causes there to be more precipitation in many other

climates that are not used to handling massive rainfalls. The

increased rainfall also leads to speeding up the process of the

sea levels rising. Health is also something that becomes

threatened because of global warming. Heat becomes a huge

factor in the health of humans, especially the elderly. Incidents

such as heat stroke head exhaustion and diseases increase

drastically. The heat makes it possible for mosquitoes and

other insects to transmit diseases. This is something that

happened in New York during this summer. A very rare disease

called St. Louis Emphyitis (spelling?) that would spread in

puddles of water that mosquitoes would drink out of due to

149

the heat. These mosquitoes would then bite humans and infect

them with this disease. I don’t recall how many people, if any

died due to this, but it did cause a bit of a panic in the New

York Metropolitan area. Heat is not the only weather problem.

Global Warming doesn't only increase temperatures in hot

areas. It also decreases temperatures in cold areas. An

example of this has been the cold spell that struck the

Midwest. In Montana, temperatures plummeted to 30 degrees

below and stayed there. The coldest weather ever recorded

plagued our country's heart for over three weeks and still

hasn't returned too normal. A related incident has been the

blizzards of the East Coast. Some places in New York State got

over twenty feet of snow. So what is in store for Earth in the

future? Possible nothing. There are many people that believe

global warming is nothing more than the normal rise of

temperature around the world. So if this is the case, we have

nothing to really worry about. Unfortunately, this scenario of

normal raise in temperature might not be the case. If it isn’t,

Scientists estimate that the global temperature will rise

between five and nine degrees by the middle of the 21st

century accompanied by a sea-level rise of one to four feet.

Once the temperature reaches a certain threshold, the polar

150

ice caps will began to melt. While those living in the Arctic may

find that a nice surprise, the implications for the rest of the

world are serious. Even a partial melting of the polar ice caps

will cause sea levels to rise so much as to completely wipe out

most coastal cities. This includes such big cities such as San

Francisco and New York. Those cities that are not totally wiped

out by the water will eventually be hit with hurricanes much

more severe than any other one in history. Of course, inland

cities are not safe either. Rather than surging seawaters and

hurricanes, they will face drought. So what can be done in

order to keep from all of that from happening? We need to

stop putting so much pollution in to the air. No matter what

there will always be a little bit of Carbon Dioxide omitted into

the atmosphere. If we could just limit all the coal and fossil

fuels that we burn, there will not be so much “greenhouse

gases” and it would keep all of that from happening so quickly.

There have also been many attempts by the United States

Presidents Administrations in order to help slow down the

effect. In my lifetime I know that I won’t see anything too

drastic happen due to global warming, but there is a chance

that my children and grandchildren will.

151

Anemia

What is Anemia? Anemia is a deficiency of red blood cells

or hemoglobin in the blood. The word anemia comes from two

Greek roots, together meaning “without blood.” At the

beginning of the nineteenth century, “anemia” referred to the

pallor of the skin and mucous membranes. After medical

science advanced, blood cell counts could be done. Anemia

became the disease we know today. Symptoms of Anemia Mild

anemia may have no outer symptoms. Weakness, fatigue, and

pallor are very common symptom. Symptoms of severe

anemia are shortness of breath, rapid heartbeat,

lightheadedness, headache, ringing in the ears, irritability,

restless leg syndrome, mental confusion, dizziness, fainting,

and dimmed vision. Types of Anemia Iron deficiency anemia-

the most common type of anemia; occurs because of low iron

levels. Folic acid deficiency anemia- levels of folic acid are low

because of inadequate dietary intake or faulty absorption.

Pernicious anemia- inability of the body to properly absorb

vitamin B12. Hemolytic anemia- red blood cells are destroyed

prematurely. Sickle cell anemia- inherited abnormality of

152

hemoglobin; occurs mainly in people of African or

Mediterranean decent. Thalassemia anemia- inherited

disorder in the synthesis of hemoglobin. Aplastic anemia-

decreased bone marrow production. Diagnosis of Anemia

Determining the cause of anemia is very important because it

may be the sign of a very serious illness. A physician should ask

about family history of anemia, gallbladder disease, jaundice,

and enlarged spleen. A stool test should be done and the

physician should check for swollen lymph nodes, an enlarged

spleen, and pallor. Laboratory tests can test both the numbers

of red blood cells as well as look at their appearance.

Treatments of Anemia Because there are so many different

types of anemia as well as causes, treatments vary widely. If

the type of anemia results from a vitamin deficiency and there

is no underlying cause, treatment is simple. Vitamin

supplements can be taken or a change in diet can be made.

Transfusions and bone marrow transplants for some other

types of anemia can be made. New drugs are currently being

tested to help anemic patients.

153

Alzheimer`s Disease

It's normal to occasionally forget assignments,

colleagues' names or a business associate's telephone number,

but generally remember them later. Those with a dementia

like Alzheimer's disease, may forget things more often, and not

remember them later. They may repeatedly ask the same

question, not remembering either the answer, or that they

already asked the question. Difficulty Performing Familiar

Tasks Busy people can be distracted from time to time and

leave the carrots on the stove, only remembering to serve

them at the end of the meal. People with Alzheimer's disease

could prepare a meal, forget to serve it, and even forget they

made it. Problems with Language Everyone has trouble finding

the right word sometimes, but can finish the sentence with

another appropriate word. A person with Alzheimer's disease

may forget simple words, or substitute inappropriate words,

making their sentence incomprehensible. Disorientation of

Time and Place It's normal to forget the day of the week or

your destination for a moment. But people with Alzheimer's

disease can become lost on their own street or in a familiar

154

shopping mall, not knowing where they are, how they got

there or how to get home. Poor or Decreased Judgment

People can become so immersed in an activity or telephone

conversation they temporarily forget the child they're

watching. A person with Alzheimer's disease could entirely

forget the child under their care and leave the house to visit a

neighbor. Problems with Abstract Thinking People who

normally balance their checkbooks may be momentarily

disconcerted when the task is more complicated than usual,

but will eventually figure out the solution. Someone with

Alzheimer's disease could forget completely what the numbers

are and what needs to be done with them. Misplacing Things

Anyone can misplace their wallet or keys, but eventually find

them by reconstructing where they could have left them. A

person with Alzheimer's disease may put things down in

inappropriate places -- an iron in the freezer, or a wristwatch in

the sugar bowl -- and not be able to retrieve them. Changes in

Mood or Behavior Everyone has a bad day once in a while, or

may become sad or moody from time to time. Someone with

Alzheimer's disease can exhibit rapid mood swings for no

apparent reason: e.g. from calm to tears to anger to calm in a

few minutes. Changes in Personality People's personalities

155

ordinarily change somewhat at different ages, as character

traits strengthen or mellow. But a person with Alzheimer's

disease can change drastically, becoming extremely irritable,

suspicious or fearful. Loss of Initiative It's normal to tire of

housework, business activities or social obligations, but most

people regain their initiative. The person with Alzheimer's

disease may become very passive and require cues and

prompting to get them involved in activities. These ten

warning signs also may apply to dementias other than

Alzheimer's disease. People concerned about these warning

signs should see a physician for a complete examination. The

"Is It Alzheimer's? Ten Warning Signs" campaign has been

funded through an educational grant from Parke-Davis.

156

Baseball

Understanding why we are here on this place called earth

is a mystery. Life has so many obstacles, so many hardships. It

is the success that we accomplish that allows us to survive;

everyone wants to be the best at what they do. Being a

success shows others that we can do it. We are just as good as

the next person. We are all equal. Life is like baseball. There

are your chances to get a hit and field the ball with perfection.

Make the best of every chance you get because those chances

may not be there the next time. I made the best of baseball,

and it all started in little league. Through the hardships that I

faced I overcame a lot. Baseball has helped me deal with

mockery. People will find something they don’t like in an

individual, and pick it out. Those who mock others have low

self-esteem, and it makes them feel better to point out other’s

flaws. I got made fun of in little league by many people

including one parent. I was only ten years old when all this

mockery was taking place. My feelings were obviously hurt.

Hurting a ten year old’s feeling is downright low. I wanted to

be good at baseball, but I was not getting my chance to play. I

practiced and practiced each day. My parents supported me

157

dearly. I knew things would get better because I wanted them

to. Another way baseball has helped me is that it made me

determined. Determination was what I had to search for deep

down inside. Right before opening day, my grandfather

passed. I was so close to him; it hurt me really bad. I made it a

point that I would dedicate my final little league year, 12 year

olds, to him. I feel that my grandfather watched over me every

game. He made me a new player with a new attitude. I finally

got my chance, and made the most of it. I was the first pick

overall, and would be the ace of the pitching staff. Before I

would pitch, I would look up into the sky and give a little wink

to my grandfather, who was my biggest fan. I never lost my

faith. I received the M.V.P. award that year. I struck out 67 of

69 batters faced along with a reported 77 M.P.H. fastball as a

12 year old. I was also the M.V.P. of the all-star team. I had

many one-hitters, and a no-hitter. All this happened because I

never lost my faith. My parents taught me to also strive toward

your goals, and don’t let anyone tell you that you that you

can’t. Throughout my life I have dealt with so much. Baseball

has really helped me. I used to be the “goat,” and turned into

the “hero,” overnight as it seemed. Little league was just the

start; grade school and high school were just the same. Faith

158

applies to everything that you do in life. If the individual

doesn’t have belief in who they are, and what they do, they

are not going to be a success. Believe in yourself, and never be

ashamed of anything. My family has helped me so much.

Without my family, I would not be anything because I would

have given up. Being rich and famous is what everyone wants

as it seems. In reality, however, they just want to be happy.

Right now I am happy, but I cannot say if I will be tomorrow.

Baseball has helped me deal with people, and to not take

things people say seriously. If I would sit in my room and cry

everyday that means I gave up. That is not going to happen.

My mom always said to always to my best, and that would be

good enough for her. Tomorrow my life could change. It may

be in a positive way or a negative way; I must be ready for

either one. The success I had in baseball is astronomical.

However, an injury a year ago destroyed my baseball career.

They said scholarships were waiting for me. I realize what

baseball did for me, however. It not only kept me out of

trouble, but also gave me self-esteem. Self-esteem is key these

days. If you really want something you have to go out and get

it. Success will only come to those whom choose to be

successful. I had many fears in life then. I overcame them.

159

People must laugh at fear, and realize they can overcome it.

When I stepped up to the plate, I would hear boos. Nobody

thought I could be the player I was; they were wrong. I never

let what people said bother me; it only made me want to do

better. Baseball was my life, and helped me throughout it.

160

Alice Walker

Knowing the meaning of heritage in Everyday Use The story

“Everyday Use”, is being told by a mother who describes

herself as a big boned woman, with a second grade education.

She had always had to do the work of a man to provide for her

family. A mother of two girls with different views on the family

culture. Dee, a light skinned girl with nice hair and a full figure.

Dee has always scorned the way the family lived. She comes

home to visit and wants to take back some of the family

heritage, such as Grandma Dee’s quilts. Maggie, a dark

skinned, slim and shy girl, who has never been away from

home. Maggie has a different love for the family heritage she

will continue to carry it on, like quilting. While Dee and Maggie

lived in the same house growing up, they have different

believes about their heritage. Two women sat in the yard

awaiting a visit from the older daughter, Dee, and a man who

may are may not be husband. Dee, was very hard on the

family’s way of life, has gone to college and now seems to be a

distant memory. Her mother imagines of being reunited with

her daughter on television. She visions the perfect reunion

someone would tell her what a fine daughter she has raised.

161

Dee would come out in tears embracing her mother and

pinning and orchid on her dress. Maggie, who is not bright and

bears scars from a server house fire many years ago still,

remains intimidated by her glamorous sibling. Her mother was

astonished; Dee arrive wearing an ankle-length, gold and

orange dress, bracelets and gold earrings hanging down to her

shoulders. Her hair “it stand straight up like hair the wool on a

sheep”(Walker 283). Dee greets her family with a Swahili good

morning. Her companion offers a Muslim greeting and tries to

show Maggie a ceremonial handshake that she does not

understand. Dee mother tried to start a conversation with Dee

by calling her name. Dee explain that she’s change her name to

Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo, because “I couldn’t bear it any

longer, being named after the people who oppress

me”(Walker 283). Wangero mother attempted to explain to

her how far back her name go into the family history. Dee had

been embarrass of her mothers house and possessions when

she was younger (the mother believe she was happy when the

old house burn down), but now she seem to be happy with the

old way of life. With her newfound joy with her cultural

heritage, she takes photographs of the house, including her

mom, sister, and a wandering cow. Dee, while eating,

162

remembered she wanted to ask her mother if she could have

the butter churn top whittled by her Uncle Buddy, do she may

use it as a centerpiece for her table. Dee, after getting the

churn top, she then ask for the dasher. Now her attention

turns to a trunk at the foot of her mother’s bed. After she goes

through the trunk, she returns with two quilts. “The quilts

become symbolic of the story’s theme; in a sense, they

represent the past of the women in the family”(Master Plots

733). Dee asks if she can have the quilts. Maggie in disbelief

that Dee asked for the quilts slammed the kitchen door. The

mother offers some other quilts that were in the trunk to her,

she refused because the quilts because they were made with a

machine. Then she tells Dee that she had promised the quilts

to Maggie a wedding present. Dee tells her mother that

Maggie would not appreciate the quilts and that she would use

them in “everyday use”. Dee’s mother says she hope Maggie

would use the quilts. “The two sister’s values concerning the

quilt represent the two meaning approaches to art

appreciation in our society. Art can be valued for financial and

aesthetic reasons, or it can be valued for personal and

emotional reasons”(Jokinen)

163

1984 And Big Brother

1984 shows how our lives will not be as secret as they are

now. Oceania has no privacy and America is turning into that.

In some ways America already is like Oceania. There are many

elements in the book to compare with aspects in American

society today. So in many ways George Orwell was right and

maybe there soon will be a government very similar to the one

in 1984. One element in the book 1984 is Big Brother. He is the

ruler of Oceania. He is not one person but a name for the

whole government. Big Brother could represent our

government today. We may not know it but the government

knows everything about us. All they need is our name and

social security number and they could learn a lot about us. The

government has our previous jobs, where we went to school

and where we live. Big Brother is also like that in the book,

probably even worse. Big Brother is even more intruding than

our government today and the only way to get away with

things is by thinking them. It even says on a sign, “BIG

BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU” (5). Another element in the

book is the Thought Police. They are much different than the

police in our society today. The police in American society can

164

arrest you for things you only do while the thought police can

arrest you for things you think. “It was even conceivable that

the Thought Police watched everybody all the time” (6). If they

don’t see you getting involved or screaming during the two

minute hate they will arrest you. The only similarity is that they

both enforce the law. Otherwise they are totally different. The

telescreen in the book watches almost every move you do. It

invades your privacy and you have no way of getting away

from it except by thinking. “Any sound Winston made, above

the level of a very low whisper, would be picked up by it” (6).

Today we have surveillance cameras, which watch you too, but

these are for safety purposes so no one can rob a store or

commit a crime. These cameras are not everywhere either,

only in stores, banks, buildings, etc. So I don’t think

surveillance cameras and the telescreen are comparable.

Another element is The Brotherhood, “an underground

network of conspirators dedicated to the overthrow of the

state” (15). This can be compared to God. It is the people’s

hope. This is the only way the people will overthrow the

government. God is our hope in society while Big Brother was

their hope. Only some people knew it because others were

happy with the government. But they didn’t know the

165

government was taking too much control. The Brotherhood is

trying to save the people. I think there is a similarity between

that and God. One last element are the Ministries. There are

four ministries “between which the entire apparatus of

government was divided” (8). This can be compared to our

government. We are divided into sections too. Ours are

different and we usually have one main person in charge of

those sections such as, the secretary of defense and secretary

of state. These are much similar to the Ministry of Peace and

Ministry of Plenty. So it shows they had a state of order as we

do. In conclusion I think America is turning into Oceania. Your

credit card knows a lot about you, like what you buy. With

computers today all your information is out there. We give out

our credit card number when it comes to computers so we

have to trust a lot of people. Certain people know things about

us that we don’t know about. It is not as bad as Oceania but

they are secretly taking over.

166

Translate into English

*****

يرر بعض ررنعاد اررربعاد رر اعم عاد رررد عاد ضررحعجعيررىااعدررحع ر رر عمدرر عا باع

ومر سحع,عدرد ومر سي عتبعوعمد عادر و عادر بير عادمسرتاو عواد ر ذعادةاتير عادترحعاد

ت ضثقعع عشخصي عادشرع ع,عوتؤم عضتم بعادر بععوحعا وضرععادررسبذعادتحعت يطع

ضهع,ع هرعدحع وه هرعبعوذعمد عا يمر عضكاعمرعهوع مياعوع ي عوأخالقحع.عوم ع

عمد عأ يرءعاآلبااعادابيم عوتم يربعادترر ي عث عدهحعتم بعادضطود عوتبعوعاد ومر سي

عاداومحعضإدارءع ذع بيث ععوي عديهرعد بي عادشرع عو تهعادةاتي ع.

كررةدفعدررر عاد ومر سرري عتم رربعاد واطرروعاد يرر ع,عواد رطرررهعديهرررعتكررربعترر ابوع

اإل سر ي ع.عوتؤم عاد ومر سي عض يوي عادوغرتعاإل سر ي عوقب تهرععورحعادت رببع,عوقربع

د ومر سيو عضصريرتته عدوصرو عوادتشرضيهرتعواجسرت ر اتعاد بيربذع.عومر عع وعا

مالمحعاد ومر سي عدحعادش عصرر عادغ ريير عادترحعت رسراعصرر عاسرتثر ذعاد واطروع

اداومي عدو مرهي عادكضي ذع,عوي بعهؤجءعاد اربعضأ رع خس عادكثير ع ري ع تخور ععر ع

اد ومر سي عو ت قعات رهرتعأخ ىعدحعادش ع.

ع

167

عدحعيو عاد يبعيتي

ع****

عدحعاديو عا واعدحعأير عاد يبعواد رسعدحعه جعوم جعوا طررراعيو ضرو ع

درررحعادشرررر ععوقررربعامسررركواعضأد ررررضه عوا تررربواعمالضسررره عاد بيررربذعوتسررررم واعوهررر ع

عيض كو عويارىو ع.

واآلضرءعا ش تعصبو ه عومشواعدحعادشر ععوه عياودو عض ضهعدض نعكاع

ي عا طرراعطراع ياعاد س ععاصر عادو رهعي ر عد درقرهععر عوا ت عضخي ع,عوكر عض

ر ذعت ضر ععر ع سربعدهر عوعر ع ى رهعد رسرهعد مر رهعمر عسر و ه عوسر ربته ع.ع

وكر عخ روجعمر عدضرسرهعادارة عوأقبامرهعاد ردير عياروعض روا ه عثر عيضر عيرب عخوروع

ه عويضتس عكر عيسأده عادسمر عدهعضمشر كتهعميرره عسر و عاد يربعودريسعدرحعةدرفع

ضرسععويه عىهوعطراعمثوه عيضكحعمةاعأدر عضرهعضر عويضر فعمةاع رراعمررعتصرضوعمديرهع

رسهعأ رعدهعم عي راعضغيتهعوهروعيتري عتوديرتعأمرهعض ربعوجبترهعضخمرسعسر واتعومررتع

عأضوذعض بعودرتهرعض رمي عد رد ععم عوأي ع وعىو عاد عم ع وعا ع.ع

ع

ع

ع

168

عادًصـــــــــباقــــــ

ع***

عأسرسعدوترره عدحعادم رد عادمشت ك ع,عوكومرعكر عادتررره عم عم سرسعادصباقع

ضي عا د ابعسهاعادم رراعخردصررعمر عادشرفعسرهاعترأديوعادشر كرتعدرر عاد مراعيربد رع

عوررحعم عادمشرر وعرتعادخطيرر ذع,عم مرررعتودرربتعدررحعبايرر ذعضرريا عضرري ع مرعرر عمرر ع

أتخيراعا صبقرءعكسضواعضثارتهعوتضرم ه عثا عاد مرهي عد تعمش وعرته عودسرتع

أ عاع وعمش وعرعكر عادترروععوحعاداير عضرهعضري ععربوي عدررت بعاد القر عأوعضري ع

تي عصبياي ع.عهةاعمرعجع ومهعمد عاآل ع,عدأ عمهمرعكرر عأسررسعادمشرر ي عادمريربذع

هروعات رربعادم ر ر عدررر عاجترررقععورحعادم ر ر عوتارربي ع تري هررعواج تضررطعضت صرريوهرع

عاعهوععسي عضي عتي عا صبقرءع.اق اعمرعيكو عضي عصبياي ع,عض

أبعرروعمدررر عادصرررباق عجعمرر ع يرررفع تري هررررعادمريررربذعديمرررعت رررواعمررر عاد قررر ع

اج تمرعحعواجقتصرببعوادسيرسحعد ساع,عودكر عاشر عضرر عديهررعدورر بعسر ربذعجع

ت ربدهرعس ربذعأبعوعمد عصباق عاد اعدو اعصباق عضم حعادكوم عجعهة عادصباق ع

خ عدررحعتسررميتهرعط يارر عمرر عطرر قعاد صرراع,عأوعكةضرر عمرر عادمررىو ذعادتررحعجعأتررأ

ا كرةياع,عادتحعي هرعادضوهعسيرس عومررعديهررعمر ع اي ر عادسيرسر عمجعمررعيكرو عضري ع

عاد اينعواد اينع.

169

ديستعادصباق عضشرش عدحعادو رهعع ربعادمارضور ع,عومكثرر اعمر عت يررتعوديسرتع

صرربق عصر ي عت ر وعم ععكةدفعع رقرعع بعادوارءعض بعادغيضر ع.عم مررعادصرباق ع ررس

عت اع ضرعهربيرععميارع,عت وعم عتكو عم اعثا عادغي عوت تابعدحعثا عادغي ع.ع

ع)عم عمؤدررتعادكرتاعدطرحعادسيبع(

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

170

ادتبخي عأ عاد ردي

ع***

يشكاعادتبخي عآث اعكضي اععوحع يرذعكاعم عيربخ عوكراعمر عيطر عاد ر ووع

ري ع,عوقررربعت ضهرررتعادسررروطرتعادصررر ي ععورررحعادضاررررءعدرررحعضييررر عمووثررر عضررربخر عادسررر

واد كومرتعمد عادخط عادةبعي طروبععورحعادتربخي عضرد سرض عدصر عشر وضهرعوةدرفع

ع بمرع ه عتا ي عاد ا عاد ر عدحعأم يكرعمتهمررعادتربخي عوم رة اعع4691م ةععر ع

ا رهعاصرضحعوضررءاعضشر رعجعسريط ذععوير عودكرر عمررعتر ع تر عأج عدريسعكرديررعدتوعيرر ع

تبخي عأوعاد بعم ع شرطعش كرتعادتضر عاد ردمير عةاتعاد رروةعوادثر اءعاد رسعضخط عاد

عادتحعت وجعوتسوقعهة عادسو عادضر ذعضص عاإل سر عوادخط ععوحع يرتهع.

وكر تعادتار ي عادسرضا عتو حعضر عخط عادتبخي عيهببعاد رراعضشركاعخرر ع

ر عدرحعودك عاتضحعأج عم عادخط عيشمو رع مي رع رجعو سرءع,عأطررجعو ت عا

ضطررو عأمهرتهرررعوكررر عاجعتاررربععوررحعضرروءعتوررفعادتاررر ي عم عا مرر انعادمات رر ع

ضترربخي عادسرر ري عكسرر طر عاد يرر ع,عاد وضرررتعاداوضيرر ع,عتصررواعادشرر ايي عوأمرر انع

اد هرىعادت رسحعوتي هرعقرص ذععوحعاد رد عادصر رع عومب رهعادمووثر عمدر ع ربعكضير ع

بذعأج عضهرةاعادوضررءعادرةبعيسرضضهعاإل سرر عوا م عديسعكةدفعدرر عادربواعاد رمير عمهرب

د رسرررهعوتيررر ذع,عومةاعدررر عتر ررراعشرررييرعسررر ي رعسرررتوا هع ررررسعادمشرررركاعاج تمرعيررر ع

عواجقتصربي عودك عضب عاكض عم عادر رع عممرعي ر يهعاد رد ع.

171

السعــــــــــادة

ع***

ادس ربذعهربوعي شرب عاد مير ع,عادشرضراعدرحعماتضراعاد مر ع,عواد رراعواد سررءع

ت عادشيوخعدحعخ يوعاد م عيس و عدت ايقعأموه عديهرعودك عكيوعتت اقعادس ربذع

ع؟

ادت ر اعأثضتتعم عادس ربذعجعتشت بعضردمراع,عكمرعأ ر عجعتو ربعقرعربذعم ي ر ع

دووصررواعمدرر عادسرر ربذعودكرر عمرر عادمؤكرربعم عادشررخ عسررواءعكررر عت يرررعأوعدايرر اع,ع

ضباخورر عبادرر عقرروبعدت ايررقعصررغي عادسرر عأوعشرريخرعيمكرر عم عيكررو عسرر يباعدرروعكررر ع

ادس ربذع,عودوس ربذعاكث عم عت يوعودك عه رفعمرهومرعاكث عشيوعرعواق اعدوواق ع

وهوعم عادس ربذعم سرسعباخوحعضرد ضرعم عاد رسعو ا عادرك عوادش و عضرردتوادقع

عادباخوحع.

اعأوعادشرضراعأوعاد مررراعأوعادشرره ذعأوعوقربعأثضتررتعادت رر اعأيضرررعأ ر عجعادمررر

اد رد عادص ي عادسويم عأوعاد ر عدحعاد ماعي واعدصر ض عادس ربذعادمطوا ع,عوم مررع

عتكو عداطعهة عادصررتعم بىعاد واماعادمؤبي عمد عادس ربذع.

ع

ع

172

عتــأمـــــــــــــالعت

ع***

تعادطر قعم عهة عادماليي عادكثي ذعادتحعقضيتعادس ي عادطويو عدحع م هرعضش

ادمش وع عم هرعوتي عادمش وع ع,عأصض تعدحعد عجعتسروبعع حعشييرع.عأ رحع

عوحعاست بابعاآل عم عأتت رىاعع هرعكوهرعوأ رعتي عآسوععويهرع.عكاعهةاعمارضاعشرييرع

وا ربعوهرروعم عيشررر عيعاض ررحعمرر عم ضررهعادررةبعيهررببع يرتررهعم ععمرر ذعدرر عيت ررروىع

ص عدحعقوضرحعداربع ىقرتعضرهعض ربعثرالفعض ررتعثمر حعس واتعوهةاعاجض عدهعم ىذعخر

و رضر عيعو هرعماليكيرعوعي ي ع ررةتي ع.عأ حعدحعكثي عم عا ير عأت رش عاد ع

مديهمرعمةعأ عكر عيتهيرأعدرحعم عيار اعمررعدرحعأعمررقحعويرضرحعمررعأخضيرهعضرباخوهرعمر ع

أسرر ا عوقرربعسررأد حعمرر ذععرر ععموررحعضردضررضطعضررأ حعاعمرراعدررحعم ررراعاجسررتي ابع

دتصبي ع.عدسأد عمرعم حعهةاعيرعأضحعدأ ضتهعاستو بعأشيرءعم عادخر جعأضي هرعدحعوا

ادسوقع.عداراعاجض عدحعآس عدحعادسوءعادسوباءعيرعأضحع؟عدسردت عمر عقرراعدرفعهرةاع؟ع

دأ راعدمحمعاض عاد ي ا ع.عداربعتم يرتعدرحعهرة عادو ر عم عأمروتع.عم عادمروتعيهرببع

أطضرءعاداواعدحعاد رد عودك عدحعكاعم ذععاض حعدحعكاعد عدابعع ضتهععوحعاشه

ك تعاسم ععضر ذعوا بذعجعآماعدحعشرريهعود عأ بعم عاد أعمديهعدحعييسحعسروىعيع

د و عياضاعتوضتحع.عأ حعا ك عكاعديوهعخرش رعقضاعم عآوبعمد عد اشحعأتوساعمديهعم ع

عيشرحعأض حعوي اةع يرتهع,عويغر عدحعخطريربع.

173

عـــــب مــــــــــــىعا عســـ

ع***

م عدك ذعاتخرةعا سبعك ص عأسرسحعدحعتكوي عشكاعأضوعادهرواعدوت ضير ععر ع

اداوذع,عضبأتعع بعقبمرءعادمص يي عم عاقب عاد صو ع.عضبأتعض ته عمديرهعك يروا ع

ي م عضي عاداوذعوادش رع عوعىذعاد رسعو مراعادشركاعدكرر واعأواعمر عأطورقععوير ع

ع)عموفعاد يوا رتع.ادوااعادةبعع وعضهععض عادتر ي عوهوع

وقرربعوصرروعادر عررو عدررحعكثيرر عمرر ع صررو عادبودرر عادابيمرر عضأ ررهعا سرربعع

عادش رعع,عوا سبعادم تص ع,عوا سبعقره عا عباءعوا سبعادمابسع.

وكر عا سبعادمب اعيتض عادموفعدحعميبا عاداتراعويشت فعم هعدحعادم ر فع

ر عت ضحعدحعاداصو عوتالى عع بعاده و ععوحعا عباءعودحعادسو عكر تعا سوبعا دي

ادموررفعدررحع رررالتعاجسررتاضراعومررواكضه ع,عكمرررعترر ضنعض رروا عأث رررءع ووسررهععوررحع

اد شعكمرع ه تعدحعكثي عم ع اوشع مسيسعادثر حع.عكمرع هر عا سربعاد رر سع

عوهوعيسي عض ر اع مسيسعادثردفعدحعا تررجتهعادبي ي ع.

ع

ع

174

ادكــتــراعوادتــوـيـرـىيـو

ع***

ذعادتحعكر تعتو بعدرحع كر عمررعمر عادضيرتعدرحعم ر ععرريالتعمكتض عا س

ادطضا عادمتوسط عأوعمرعدوقعادمتوسط عم عادمو ري عدحعادمب عأوعادمىا عي عادةي ع

ردواع رعمر عادت وري عثر ععرربواعواسرتا واعدرحعقر اه ع عوادترحعكر رتعت مر عأ واعررع

دكضرررر عادكترررراعمختورررر عمررر عادكتررراعادبي يررر عوبواويررر عادشررر عوادمؤدرررررتعاد بيثررر ع

وادمركرر ي ع.عاخترررتعضردتررب يععمرر عم رر عادضيرروتعادمصرر ي عدررحعادمررب عواد يرروعأوع

كربتعوقبع وتعم وهرعاآل عمكتضرتعدش ايطعادريربيوعأ واعررعادكرسريترتعواسرطوا رتع

ادويى ع بفعا تر حعاد ضي عوادغ ضي عوا ا نعضةدفععص عكر عا ض رءعيشضهو ع

ثارردحعدرحعمت ررواعأيربيه عوعاروده عويغر يه ععورحعديهععوحعمرعي يطعضه عمر عم ررخع

ادارر اءذعواجطررالععمترر اءعبو عضرر وعأوععتخررووعواصررضحعادتورىيررو عوا طضرررقع

ادرضريي عهمرعأسيربعادموقوع,وه عمصب عادم د عوادثارد ع يراععبيبذعاضترباءعمر ع

عا اعوعا عوا تهرءعضردشضراعوا طرراع.

بعدررحعضرر امععادتويرىيررو عض رم رررعوضرسررتث رءعم رر نعادكتررراعدأ ررتعجعت ررع

وا باعي نعأوعي رقشعأوعيورتعا ر عمد عادكتاعاد بيبذعادتحعتصب عدحعميربي ع

عادم د عادمختور ع.

175

وعجعأ رربعيسررتطي عأ عيررىع عأ عضرر امععادتويرىيررو عأوعاإلةاعرر عدررحعادرربواع

رءعادكتراعادمتابم عاقاع رةضي عم عادض امععع ب رعودك عةدفعجعيم عم عأ عيكو عاقت

وق اءتهعواج ترراعضهععوحعب ععردي عم عا همي عدببعمختووعادريررتعوا وسررطع

وا عمر عدووكتراعدحعادم تم رتعادمتابم عو ير عأوسر عوا قرحعتضربأعم رةعادو ررتع

ا ود عدومودوبعادطراع تر ع ري عتغ رحعا عدطروهررعأوعتار اعدرهعقضراعأ عي رر عوتشراع

عوتطو عدكحعت و عادطراعكيوعياتصبعمر عمصر ودهعم هعدحعم ا اعاد م عادمختور

عدكحعيشت بعقص عأوعكتراع.

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

ع

176

ادمسـرواذعضـيـ عادـ ـاعوادـم أذ

ع***

دابع عاإلعال عاد ردمحعد اوقعاإل سر عدحعض وبععبيربذععورحعادمسررواذعضري ع

اد اعوادم اءعدحعاد اوقعوادوا ضرتع,عودك عمر عادصر اعأ عتتصرو عت ارقعهرة ع

دحعم تم عتت كىعديهعادموا بعاجقتصربي عوادسوط عادسيرسي عدحعأيببعاداو ععادمسرواذ

,عأوعدحعم تم عتاو ععرباتهعوم تاباتهعادسريبذععوحعدك ذع ا عادم أذعو يفعتكرو ع

عد عاد ماعوادت وي عدحعادم تم عم بوبذ.

ومرر عه رررعكررر عاإلب افعضررر عقضرري عادمرر أذعهررحع ررىءعجعيت ررىأعمرر عقضرري ع

ودهعاجقتصربي عواج تمرعي ع,عأ مرطعم تر هعع,ععرباترهعوم تاباترهعادم تم عكوهع,ع

,عوكاعهةاعي ترجعمد عوقتعطوياعو هبعمستم عدحعسضياعادتغواععوحعاد اضرتعادتحع

عت واعبو عمسرواذعاد اعوادم أذ.

177

ياعم رو

رريىذع وضراعدرحع،عهروعأواعع ضرحع رريىععور عمص بع وايح ياعم رو ع

.عكتراع يراع6339عأتسطسع03حع،عوتودحعد4644عبيسمض ع44.عُودبعدحعا با

.عتبو عأ بافع مي ع وايرتهعدحع6331م رو عم ةعضباي عا ض ي يرتعواستم ع ت ع

ع .مص ،عوت ه عديهرعثيم عمتك ذعهحعاد ر ذعادتحعت رباعاد رد

ضرربأع يرراعم رررو عادكترضرر عدررحعم تصرروعادثالثي يرررت،عوكررر عي شرر عقصصررهع

ادتحعتاب عععضفعا قبا ،ع ش ع وايتهعا ود ع4606.عدحعم و عاد سرد اداصي ذعدحع

م هيرًعثالثي عتر يخي ععو ابوضيسعكرر عطيض مرهومهعع عادواق ي عادتر يخي .عث ع ش ع

يراعم ررو عخطرهعاد وايرحعادرواق حعادرةبعع4611.عوضربءاًعمر عادر اع دحعىم ع

عخررر عادخويوررح،عثرر عاررره ذعاد بيرربذاد رررد ععويررهعدررحعم رر عمسرري تهعا بضيرر عض وايرر ع

.وىقرقعادمبق

ااع ياعم رو عدحعأعمردهع يرذعادطضا عادمتوسط عدحعأ يرءعاداره ذ،عد ضر ع

.عكمررعع عهمومهررعوأ المهررع،عوعكرسعقواهررعوتو سررتهرع يرراعاداضرريرعادمصري ي

صررو ع يرررذعا سرر ذعادمصرر ي عدررحععالقرتهرررعادباخويرر عوامترربابعهررة عاد القرررتعدررحع

عادم تم .

ع

178

ع

ع

ع