برنامج الترجمة لغة انجليزية
TRANSLATION ثانىفصل دراسى – ثانىالمستوى ال
(222كود )
Compiled By
Dr. Iman A. Hanafy
Banha University
Faculty of Arts
Code (224) TRANSLATION
For university students
(Open Education)
Compiled By
Dr. Iman A. Hanafy
2012-2013
1
Introduction
Translation is as old as the art of writng or as old as history of
education in general.It is occasioned by the social needs of
people. Whenever, for instance, two linguistic groups interact
as neighbours to each other, translation from and to each
other’s languages becomes inevitable if they must
meaningfully communicate with each other in matters of
commerce, intermarriage, education, legal issues, etc.
Religious books like the Bible and the Qur’an, have been
essentially translated to numerous languages in different parts
of the world as a facilitator of missionary activities. In this unit,
therefore, we shall study the concept of translation and
various types of translation.
Translation consists of changing from one form – of language
in this regard – to another. Talking about form, reference is
made to the actual words, phrases, sentences, clauses,
paragraphs etc which are spoken or written. They (i.e. the
forms) are the surface structure of a language.
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Technically, the form from which the translation is made will
be called the source language and the form into which it is to
be changed will be called the receptor language.
Translation, then, consists of studying the lexis, grammatical
structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the
source language text; all these are analyzed in order to
determine its meaning. This same meaning is then
reconstructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure
which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural
context. For example, if we use Arabic as a source language
and English as the receptor, Ana Muslim becomes the text
whose lexicon, grammatical structure, communication
situation and cultural context are analyzed in order to
determine its meaning. The meaning is then reconstructed
using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are
appropriate in the receptor language. To that extent, Ana
Muslim is restructured thus: ‘I am a Muslim’.
3
Various Types of Translation
There are four types of translation:
Literal translation or word for word
Idiomatic translation
Unduly free translation
Inter linear translation
1- Literal Translation/ Word for Word Translation
We shall begin this unit with a discussion of literal translation
while the other types of translation shall be discussed in
subsequent sub-sections.
Literal translation is a kind of translation that has to do with
form based translation of the source language, and it is also
known as word for word translation. This kind of translation is
very useful for purposes related to the study of the source
language and it is of little help to the speakers of the receptor
language who are very interested in the meaning of the source
language text. A literal translation of words, idioms, figures of
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speech etc. results in unclear, unnatural and sometimes
nonsensical translations and has little communication value.
2. Idiomatic Translation
Idiomatic translation is the kind of translation that is meaning -
based and which communicates the meaning of the source
language in a natural form of the receptor language. In
translating an idiom, the translator’s goal should be to
reproduce in the receptor language a text, which
communicates the same message as the source language but
using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the
receptor language. However, the main essence is that an
idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source
language (that is, the meaning intended by the original
communicator) in the natural form of the receptor language
using the natural form of the receptor language in the
grammatical constructions and in the choice of lexical items. A
truly idiomatic translation sounds like it was written originally
in the receptor language. Therefore, a good translator must
endeavor to translate idiomatically.
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3. Unduly Free Translation
Unduly free translation is the kind of translation that has
additional extraneous information which is not included in the
source text, whether the meaning of the source language has
been changed or the fact of the historical and cultural setting
of the source language text has been distorted. However, this
kind of translation is not totally considered acceptable and
normal. It is, however, usually used to bring a kind of humor
and special response from the receptor language speakers.
And it also emphasizes on the reaction of those reading or
hearing it and the meaning is not necessarily the same as that
of the source language.
4. Interlinear Translation
It is a completely literal translation for some special purpose. It
is preferable to reproduce the linguistic features of the source
text as, for example, in a linguistic study of that language.
Although these literal translations may be very useful for
purposes related to the study of the source language, they are
of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are very
interested in the meaning of the source language text.
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The Translation Cycle
1. Preparation
The preparation phase includes:
a. Preparing necessary references and dictionaries.
b. Unifying terminology and making it available to the
translators through the network.
c. Translating samples from the translation texts to anticipate
any problems the translators might face in their work.
d. Defining the task required from every translator.
2. Translation
The process of translation includes:
a. Undertaking the translation task, complying with available
terminology databases.
b. Commitment to the manuals on Transliteration,
Capitalization, Punctuation, etc.
c. Reporting any mistake in the Arabic text, and any problems
in the terminology or consistency issues.
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d. Undertaking ample investigation in case the text contains
any ambiguities.
e. Checking the grammar and spelling.
3. Revision
The process of revision includes:
a. Insuring that the translation is sound and correct.
b. Eliminating structural mistakes.
c. Checking the spelling.
d. Reporting on the performance of translators.
4. Editing
The process of editing includes:
a. Guaranteeing the readability and understandability of
English texts.
b. Insuring the soundness and correctness of style.
c. Revision and editing by a native speaker.
d. Excluding vague words and words with double-cross
meaning.
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Translation as Process and Product
Translation can be viewed from two different perspectives,
that of a „process‟ and that of a „product‟. As a process,
translation consists of turning a message from one language
into another. The transmitted message can be in the form of
an expression, an utterance or even a piece of music. Seen
from another perspective, translation can be seen as the end
product of this process, i.e., the translated text.
In addition to this twofold division, there exists a third variable,
namely that put forward by Bell. He (1991: 13) differentiated
between “the abstract concept which encompasses both the
process of translating and the product of that process”, i.e.,
translation proper, translating (the process), and a translation
(the product).
Meaning in Translation
As a linguistic activity, translation is concerned with all the
language components: vocabulary, grammar, style and
phonology. Each of these divisions has, in turn, its own
subdivisions as shown in the following figure.
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The Relationship between Language, Language Components,
Meaning and Translation
In this sense, translation implies translating the language units
and not the language words. Each of these units can take
different linguistic forms: a word, a phrase, a clause or two
clauses, or a sentence.
Types of Meaning
Yule (2006) distinguishes between two types of meaning:
Denotative meaning, or the conventionally called conceptual
or referential meaning, is the one which is associated with the
literal sense of a word. This type is a worldly entity that a
linguistic unit can be used to denote. For example, the word
needle denotes the property of being a needle, i.e., its
common physical features which are shared between peoples.
The second type is called connotative meaning which is purely
associated with the non-literal senses of a word. That is, a
word can convey more than its literal meaning. To take the
same example, the various shades of meaning that the word
„needle‟ may acquire are “pain” , “illness” , “knitting” or even
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“hard to find”. These connotations, in fact, are not the only
ones since they may differ from one language user to another.
Importance of Style
Style, as the framework in which the content of a given text is
brought to readership, is no longer regarded of secondary
importance as far as meaning making is concerned. It is
defined as “the different, several choices made in a text from
language stock in regard to layout (or shape), grammar, words
and phonology" (Ghazala, 1995:201). Accordingly, it has a lot
to do with conveying meaning of the text. Hence, style has a
striking influential role to play in understanding and grasping
the essence of a given message.
Since the task of a translator is to transmit meaning from the
ST to the TT, he should recognize the close relationship which
content and style enter into to construct that meaning. In
other words, if the translator wants to achieve an appealing
and effective translation, he is not only supposed to focus on
content but also to adopt the so-called stylistic
accommodation strategy by which neither his style nor the
original one is to be neglected to achieve stylistic equivalent
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(Shi,2004.Stylistic Accomodation,para.1). For example, it is
preferable to preserve the English style when translating an
English text into Arabic. However, there are some cases where
the English style is impossible to be retained and then the
translator is forced to make a shift and adopt the equivalent
Arabic style.
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Translation problems
There are some particular problems in the translation process:
problems of ambiguity, problems that originate from structural
and lexical differences between languages and multiword units
like idioms and collocations. Another problem would be the
grammar because there are several constructions of grammar
poorly understood, in the sense that it isn't clear how they
should be represented, or what rules should be used to
describe them.
The words that are really hard to translate are frequently the
small, common words, whose precise meaning depends
heavily on context. Besides, some words are untranslatable
when one wishes to remain in the same grammatical category.
The question of whether particular words are untranslatable is
frequently debated.
For example, it isn't easily to translate a poetry because you
need to analyze the words and meaning and after the flow and
rhythm (or rhyme). Poetry's most translations are bad. This is
principally because the translator knows the foreign language
too well and his or her native language too poorly. Some
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English poetry translations are robotic, do a great disservice to
the originals.
Translation Problems:
Problems with the source text:
Text difficult to read or illegible text
Spelled incorrectly or printed incorrectly
Unfinished text
Badly written text
Language problems:
Idiom terms and neologisms
Unsolved acronyms and abbreviations
Proper name of people, organizations, and places.
Slang difficult to understand
Respect to punctuation conventions.
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How to Translate Academic
Style in Arabic
In its social sense the term denotes large groups among which
unequal distribution of economic goods and/or preferential
division of political prerogatives and/or discriminatory
differentiation of cultural values result from economic
exploitation, political oppression and cultural domination,
respectively; all of these potentially lead to social conflict over
the control of scarce resources. In the tradition of social
thought, social class is a generic concept utilized in studying
the dynamics of the societal system in terms of relational
rather than distributional aspects of social structure. In this
sense, classes are considered as not merely aggregates of
individuals but as real social groups with their own history and
identifiable place in the organization of society. However, the
idea that social classes can be equated ith aggregates of
individuals distinguished on the basis of similar level of
education, income or other characeristics of social inequality
still persists and leads to confusion of this concept with Social
Stratification. Therefore, the meanings attached to the term
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social class vary and refer to different types of societal
Structuration. In theoretical and historical sociology various
types of structuration appear in substantive discussions of
economic classes, political classes and cultural classes.
Jan Waclaw Machajski (1904) outlined a theory of future
society in which the ‘educated class’ or ‘intelligentsia’ of
bourgeois society gives rise to a new class that dominates
manual workers. Writing from an anarchist perspective, he
said that the elimination of capitalists is not enough to change
society. Reading Marx's Capital (1867, 1885, 1894) he finds the
thesis that work which is more skilled, hence requiring more
education, should be better paid than work requiring less
education. Machajski emphasizes that the Marxist and social
democratic programmes for the future socialist society imply
the survival of educational inequality and, consequently,
economic inequality.
Max Weber indirectly influenced the formation of the concept
of cultural class. He proposed that we investigate ‘status
groups’ which have developed a specific style of life. Some
status groups clearly do not belong to class-type phenomena,
but some do, emerging on the basis of common economic
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situations or common position within the power structure, or
both (such as feudal lords) : ‘Status groups are often created
by property classes.’ From Weber's writing one can infer that
social classes show an affinity to status groups because both
develop their own culture or style of life. Weber considered
the bourgeoisie of rising modern towns a ‘social class’ and
attributed to it three characteristics : property, citizen's rights
and‘culture’. In the Weberian perspective, culture may be seen
as an active, integrative force in class-formation processes.
Alvin Gouldner (1979), inspired directly by Machajski,
formulated, a theory according to which the ‘new class’ of
humanistic intellectuals and technical intelligentsia, the class
of the bearers of knowledge, is on the way to social
domination. Members of the new class are owners of ‘cultural
capital’ which exists primarily in the form of higher education.
They have begun to replace the ‘old moneyed class’ in the
process of social development as well as in the functioning of
the postindustrial societal system.
According to Gouldner, the future belongs to them, not to the
‘working class’ as Marx supposed. Members of the new class
will guard their own material and non-material interests —
17
higher income and higher prestige for those with knowledge —
but simultaneously, they will represent and promote the
interests of the society as a whole, to a much higher degree
than any other class hitherto known in history. The new class
subverts the old-type hierarchy and promotes the culture of
critical discourse, but at the same time introduces a new social
hierarchy of knowledge.
Since it is both emancipatory and elitist, he says, it is a ‘flawed
universal class’.
Consider the following use of the term by Taha Hussein
himself, the exponent of modern thought and learning : (10 ص
Al-Azhar was an أوراق مجهولة للدكتور طه حسين ( 1997 -،
educational institute where knowledge was imparted, simply
because it was knowledge. No limits were set to the pursuit of
knowledge, apart from the capacities of both learner and
teacher. The freedom of learning in Al-Azhar was ideal in its
freedom and unrestricted scope. Opinions clashed and
doctrines jostled, with the outcome confined to heated
conversations and cogent arguments. This promoted better
research, richer minds, deeper insights, and sharper faculties.
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Today we tend to distinguish knowledge المعرفة from science;
as well as between the adjectives معرفى (cognitive) and علمى
(scientific) as the former has gained an unrivalled place in
philosophy (epistemology المعرفة نظرية ) and semantics داللة علم
while the latter remains confined to the natural sciences , األلفاظ
and those human sciences which aspire to the same level of
certainty which characterizes the findings of, say, the physicist.
We talk of scientificmethod العلمى المنهج in psychology in the
hope that our experiments will be as laboratory-controlled and
the results as absolutely certain as those of the genetic
engineering specialist. And we talk of the scientific method in
economics, in politics and in language learning — and in
literary scholarship !
Consider the following paragraph which is taken from a book
published as recently as 1998 : 393- 392 د. محمود عرفة ص -
اإلسالم قبل العرب
When Marwan Al-Quraz Ibn Zinba' invaded the tribe of Bakr
Ibn Wa'il, he was captured and taken prisoner. He asked his
captor to take him to (Lady) Khom'ah bint Awf ibn Muhlim, to
whom he had once done a favour; and when he was taken to
her she declared that he would be under her protection and
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that she would shield him from any possible threats.
Meanwhile, the Arab King and tyrant of Al-Heerah, Amr Ibn
Hind, had once been wronged by Marwan and had taken an
oath never to forgive him until Marwan surrendered to him.
Amr was known, however, to be in the habit of killing his
captives. Learning from Awf about Marwan's whereabouts, he
sent word to him asking for Marwan to be handed over. “Well,
my daughter has
حازم الببالوى، االستقرار أجل من التغيير ، (1401998 ص -141)
The Public Sector (public production) is not the only form of
state intervention. It may not even be the ideal form of the
role of the state in socio-economic activities. Within the limits
that justify it, a reduction of the role of the public sector is not
necessarily a reduction of the role of the state. It may, on the
contrary, result in a recovery of the prestige and effectiveness
of the state, as it would help the state perform its proper
functions, namely to use its sovereign powers in policy
formulation, establishing codes of ethics, and in employing
expenditure (rather than production) policies as a means of
achieving its objectives.
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To avoid the undesirable impact of unfamiliar abstractions the
translator may have to ‘simplify’ by paraphrasing — but then
he must also introduce the new terminology regardless of
comprehensibility — hence the dilemma.
Take the prime example from a recent text on the World Trade
Organization. A writer tells us :
Any anti-dumping measures, such as quota-restrictions,
tariffication or other countervailing measures, notwithstanding
the difficulty of enacting the relevant enforcible legislation,
should be internationally sanctioned.
Another example from a recent glossary of sociological terms
should further illustrate the dilemma :
Aristotle saw the state as a community involving
communication between a multiplicity of individual
perspectives. Whereas this concerns individual purposive
action in the political sphere, Aquinas introduced into
medieval Christian thought a broader theoretical conception in
which God's nature is communicated in the creation of his
creatures. This model led to the generalization of the concept
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of communication to all human beings and at the same time to
a differentiation, which became central for modernity,
between the particular (political) and the universal (social)
communication community.
To read on is to find confirmation of this interpretation; and
‘read on’is what every translator should do before opting for a
given interpretation :
Marx, in the Grundrisse, uses the differentiation between
political and social communication to turn Aristotle's zoon
politikon into a ‘society’ of individuals ‘acting and speaking
together’. C.S. Peirce analyses the scientific community from
the perspective of an (idealized) communication community
and G.H. Mead brings the social processes of individualization
by means of socialization into the framework of a ‘universal
discourse’.
One last word : the present writer sees no great difference
between a society that had accepted, in ages long gone,
relations of slavery, and a society which allows, organizes and
taxes prostitution as a recognized service, or, indeed a society
whose members receive no more than subsistence wages.
22
The status of a slave girl does not differ much from that of a
harlot. The status of a worker who receives from his employer
enough wages for survival, so as to resume work in the
following day, cannot be different from that of slave supported
by his master for the same purpose. The world is as yet
uncivilized.
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Passages for translation
A tiring day
It had been a tiring day and I was looking forward to a quiet
evening. My husband would not be back until late and I had
decided to settle down in a comfortable armchair in the living-
room and read a book. I put the children to bed early and
prepared a cold supper and some coffee. Soon I was sitting
comfortably with a tray full of food before me and a book at
my side.
I was just beginning to eat when the telephone rang. I
dropped my knife and fork and hurried to answer it. By the
time I got back to the living-room, my coffee had got cold.
After I finished my supper, I began drinking cold coffee with
my book open at page one. Suddenly there was a loud knock at
the door. It gave me such a surprise that I spilt the coffee and
made an ugly stain on my skirt. Some stranger had lost his way
and wanted me to direct him. It took me ages to get rid of him.
At length I managed to sit down again and actually read a
whole page without further interruption-until the baby woke
up. He began crying loudly and I rushed upstairs. The baby was
still awake at 11 o'clock when my husband came home. I could
25
Learning A Language
Linguists are interested in the abilities to understand and
use language that people have. One of the abilities that people
have is the ability to learn language. You are using this ability
right now in your efforts to learn English as a second language.
Most students would like to know how to learn a language
more easily. Most linguists and language teachers would also
like to know this. Linguists are working on this problem in two
ways. First, they are trying to understand how children learn to
speak and understand their native language. They are also
trying to learn how people learn a second language.
Linguists are not sure how children learn to speak some
linguists think that children are born with an ability to learn
and use a language. This does not mean that you came into the
world knowing your native language. It means that, along with
many other things, you were born with the ability to learn your
native language. One group of linguists feels that with just a
little exposure to language, and a little help from your parents,
you wearable to learn to speak. Another group of linguists
does not think this is correct.
26
This second group of linguists thinks that children learn to
use a language from their parents. They believe that a child's
parents teach their child to say sounds and words in their
language. When the child knows some words, the parents
begin to teach their child to say sentences. The linguists do not
think that parents teach their children in the same way that
people are taught a second language. Instead, parents
probably teach their children by talking to them and
correcting their use of language. These linguists feel that you
learn your language mainly from your environments your
family and your home. As you see, the group of linguists
disagrees.
There are some other theories about how children learn
language. Many people are studying the process of language
learning by children. This word is being done in many
countries. Linguists are not the only people who are interested
in these questions. Many psychologists, doctors, and parents
are also interested. People who teach foreign languages are
interested in this process, too.
Foreign language teachers are interested in how children
lean to speak their native language for a very important
27
reason. If we knew how children learn their native language,
perhaps we would have an easy way to teach adults, as well as
children, a second language. This is a very interesting idea.
Some foreign language teachers believe that adults learn a
second language the same way children learn their native
language. These teachers try to make their students lives
similar to the life of a child just learning to speak. These
teachers speak only the foreign language in the classroom.
They will not speak to the student in the native language. They
try to expose the student to as much of the spoken language
as possible. They do not teach the student any rules for using
the language. Most parents don't teach their children rules for
language usage, either. They simply tell the child how to say
something correctly. Foreign language teachers using this
spoken language method do the same thing. For some
students, this method is successful. They learn to speak quickly
and feasibly. They seem to enjoy using the language, and they
do not worry about using exactly the right rule for everything
they say. Some students, however, cannot learn a language
this way. Linguists are trying to find anther way to teach them
a language.
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A second method, the rule-learning method, sometimes works
better with these students. Some linguists believe that learning
a foreign language is different from learning to speak your
native language. They feel that a student must learn the rules
for using the language by memorizing them. The students must
practice saying things in the language, using the rules correctly.
These linguists try to each the students the rules of the
language they want to learn. Then they give the students many
sentences in the language to say over and again.
The students are encouraged to make up new sentences
using the rules that they have learned and other words that
they know.
Some students are very successful with this second, rule-
learning method. They team the language quite quickly and
can use it well. They know the rules for using the language, and
can speak it and understand it too. For many students, this is
the best way to team a foreign language. For some students,
both of these to methods may work. Sometimes teachers use a
combination of these methods in a class, hoping that everyone
will be able to learn the language with one method or the
other. Some people can go to a country and "pick up" me
29
language simply from hearing it and trying to communicate.
These people are rare.
Most people try to learn a language by taking classes and
studying it in some way. Most teachers will try different ways
of teaching to help me students learn the language quickly and
easily. Linguists and psychologists are trying to understand
how people learn and use a language. Perhaps language
learning will be easier for everyone when we have a clear
understanding of how people learn and use language.
30
Open Education
When people give their opinion about something, they give
their feelings about the subject. In an opinion, person says
either that he or she likes an idea or thing, or she or he does
not like it, and says why. This essay gives an opinion abut open
education. First, a definition of open education will be given.
Then, some of the good things about open education and
some of the bad things about open education will be
described. And then an opinion will be given. You may agree
with the opinion, or not. You may agree with the opinion
partly. You will have your own opinion.
This look at open education has two parts. The first part has
to do with me teacher feels about the students. The second
part has to do with how teacher does in the classroom. Each
part of the definition can be explained open education with
traditional education.
In traditional education, the teacher may feel that the
students are not very grown up. Usually, teachers are older
than students, and teachers feel that students are young and
do not know very much about me world. The teachers feel mat
they must tell the students what to do most of the time, and
31
that they must make the students study specific things. In
open education, the teacher's feelings are very different.
These teachers feel that the students are individuals first, and
students second. They expect the students to be responsible
for the things that they do, just as adults are. A student's ideas
and feelings are just as important as the teacher's .The teacher
allows the students to decide what they want to do, and does
not make them study specific subjects or things. The teacher
least them decide what to study and how much to study. It is
very important for the teacher to show how he or she feels
about the students.
The second part of the idea of open education has to do
with what the teacher does in the classroom. In the traditional
classroom, the students are told what to do. There is a list of
things that the students must do to finish the class. There are
rules made by the teacher that the student must follow, even
if the student sees no reason for the rules. In open education,
the teacher allows the students to choose what to do. They
may study, or talk or do nothing at all if they want to. There
are no specific things for the students to do. There are no
traditional rules made by the teacher. The only rules in an
32
open classroom are rules for everyone's safety. The students
are allowed to discover subjects in the open classroom.,
instead of being made to study them. Open education is a
really complex idea.
There are some very good things about open education.
This way of teaching allows the students to grow as people,
and to develop their own interests in many subjects. Open
education allows students to be responsible for their own
education, as they are responsible for what they do in life.
Some students do badly in a traditional classroom. The open
classroom may allow them to enjoy learning. Some students
will be happier in an open education school. They will not
have to worry about grades or rules. For students who worry
about these things a lot, it is a good idea to be in an open
classroom. But many students will not do well in an open
classroom.
For some students, there are too few rules. These students
will do little in school. They will not make good use of open
education. Test students will do little in school. They will not
make good use of open education. Because open education is
so different from traditional education, these students may
33
have a problem getting used to making so many choices .For
many students it is important to have some roles in the class-
room. They worry about the rules even when there are no
rules. Even a few roles will help this of student. The last point
about open education is that some traditional teachers do not
like it. Many teachers do not believe in open education.
Teachers who want to have an open classroom may have many
problems at their schools.
You now know what open education is. Some of its good
points and bad points have been explained. You may have your
own opinion about open education. The writer thinks that
open education is a good idea, but only in theory. In actual
fact, it may not work very well in a real class or school. The
writer believes that most students, but of course not all
students, want some structure in their classes. They want and
need to have rules. In Some cases, they must be made to study
some subjects. Many students are pleased to find subjects
they have to study interesting. They would not study those
subjects if they did not have to.
Some of the ideas of open education can be applied very
easily. The teacher's feelings about the students can be
34
changed in any kind of class. The teacher's feelings are
important to the students. The teacher can apply some of the
ideas of open education to a class easily, easily. But changing
the way the classroom is run is more difficult to do.
The writer thinks that some of the ideas of open education
are very good, but that some are not good, and that it is hard
to do some of the things open education suggests. Several
ideas of open education as a different way of teaching
students and a different way of running a class have been
given. Some of the good and bad points about open education
have mentioned. The author has given one opinion about open
education. What is your opinion?
35
Women's Liberation
Have you heard of the women's liberation movement? It
began in the 1960s. It was started by women who were
concerned about their role in society, and their work and
about the view of women that people help. Now many
American women are deeply concerned about these things.
These women would like better and more interesting lives for
all women everywhere.
There are many aspects of the women's liberation
movement. Some women agree with all of the goals of
women's liberation. They want full equality with men in every
aspect of life. In marriage, they want husbands and wives to
share all of the work and responsibilities of a home and family.
In work, they want women and men to have the same jobs and
the same chance to succeed. They want women to be paid just
as men are for the same work. Other women agree with some
of the ideas of women's liberation. They want the same pay if
they hold the same job as a man. At home, however, they do
not expect their husbands to share in the cleaning, cooking,
and other household jobs.
36
It is important to remember that the women's , liberation
movement is not concerned only with concrete issues. The
movement is also concerned with attitudes and beliefs. One
example of this concern is the issue of a woman's identity. A
woman's identity is what she thinks of herself an person, who
she thinks she is, and what she thinks she can do. Some
women do not think they are capable of doing anything
important. The women's liberation movement would like to
help these women improve their view of themselves. Many
women who are concerned with women's liberation have
taken jobs, have helped others, have raised healthy children,
and have done many other things to contribute to their
communities. They have shown that they are capable of being
good leaders and of doing many important things.
A second issue of the women's liberation movement is the
question of women's roles. Should a woman work outside the
home? Should she work if she is married and has children? Or
should she stay home to take care of her husband and
children? What will the rest of society think of she enters a
profession or has a career? What will other people think if she
wants to stay home and raise a family? These questions do not
37
have just one correct answer. Every woman must decide her
own her own role. The women's liberation movement is trying
to make it possible for a woman to decide what she-wants to
do. The movement also wants to make it possible for her to do
the best arid the most she possibly can.
If a woman decides to take a job outside the home, there
are many important questions which are raised. Can she get
any job she is capable of and qualified for? Or-are some jobs
closed to her because she is a woman? If she gets a job and
some of her fellow workers are men doing the same work, will
she be paid, as much as they are? This issue is considered
important in the United States. The government has passed
some laws to try to help women get any job for which they are
qualified, and to help them get the same pay as a man for
doing the same work. The government has also passed a law
encourage businesses that get money from the government to
be fair to women and minority groups. This is called the
Affirmative Action law. It says that if a company is not fair to
women and other minority groups, the government will not do
business with that company. This encourages businesses to
provide equal opportunity for women.
38
Many people are with-the- ideas and goals of women's
liberation. They feel that women ought to be considered equal
to men in every way. They feel that a woman should be able to
decide to stay home and raise a family, or to stay home and
not raise a family or to go out and work, or to have a job
outside the home and a family as well. They feel a woman
should be to do anything that she wants to do and can do.
Other people are opposed to' women's liberation. They do not
think that women should have the same jobs and the same pay
as men. They believe that men should do all of the important
work. They feel that women belong at home, taking care of
men and children. Many husbands do not want their wives to
work outside the home. Some women agree with these men,
people who believe in women's liberation do not feel that it is
bad for a woman to remain at home if she wants to. They
believe that work in the home is important and should be
respected. But they want to make sure that a woman works at
home because she wants to, and not because she can't get a
job outside the home, or because she does not believe that
she can do anything useful in her community.
39
The women's liberation movement is trying to give women
a chance to show what they can do. Perhaps a woman will find
the cure for our most serious disease. Perhaps woman will
solve the energy crisis. Perhaps women and men, working
together, will be able to accomplish important things better
and sooner than men would if men were working alone. If the
women's liberation movement is successful, we will have a
chance to find out.
Each man and each woman must decide whether he or she
agrees with the ideas of the women's liberation movement
completely, partly, or not at all, Whether you agree or disagree
with women's liberation, you know that it has begun to change
our lives.
40
Smoking
Now that smoking is considered to be very dangerous to
the healthy it is especially difficult for children to buy
cigarettes or tobacco. Our tobacconist, Mr Soames, has always
been very careful about this. If his customers are very young,
he always asks them whom the cigarettes are for, One day, a
little girl whom he had never seen before walked boldly into
his shop and demanded twenty cigarettes. She had the exact
amount of money in her hand and seemed very sure of herself.
Mr Soames was so surprised by her confident
manner that he forgot to ask his usual question. Instead, he
asked her what kind of cigarettes she wanted. The girl replied
promptly and handed him the money. While he was giving her
the cigarettes, Mr Soames said laughingly that as she was so
young she should hide the packet in her pocket in case a
policeman saw it. However, the little girl did not seem to find
this very funny. Without even smiling she toolc the packet and
walked towards the door. Suddenly she stopped, turned
round, and looked steadily at Mr Soames. There was a
moment's deathly silence and the tobacconist wondered what
she was going to say. All at once, in a clear, solemn voice, the
42
Kassam Amin
The Egyptian woman is indebted to Kasam Amin because
he is the first who calls for her emancipation from the bonds of
traditions and opens the closed doors in front of her. This was
at a time, where the Egyptian Woman was like a large tent
moving in silence and feeling embarrassed if man’s eyes fall
upon her.
When Kassam Amin started his call for the emancipation
of woman at the beginning of the 19-century, he issued his
book “ the emancipation of women”. At that time, the storms
of discontent and indignation irrupted him from all the
different directions in Egypt. The Egyptian woman had
expressed her gratitude and support to this when the students
of Saniha secondary school get out at this book was published.
This was when they get out unveiled for the first time and
walked in the street.
At that time, the press reacted strongly against them and
called them whores. The people also walked after them,
throwing stones. It was not fated for the brave supporter of
women to survive till he saw the result of his call as it
43
flourishes since he died in 1908 when he was receiving in the
club of the high schools the delegation of the Roman students
who were visiting Egypt for the first time. His last words were:
“ If woman is liberated, then the man is too.”
44
TAHA HUSAIN
Taha Husain was born into a home which preserved all
the traditional features of up-river village life. At an early age
his sight was completely lost, and he was destined for a
theological career. After the usual elementary instruction in
the village kuttab he was entered as a student at al-Azhar and
spent some years there, in the course of which he acquired a
thorough grasp of Arabic from the linguistic side. Under the
guidance of Shaikh Sayyid b, Ali al-Marsafi he began to show a
special partiality for Arabic literature, and subsequently
continued his studies under European professors in the newly-
founded Egyptian University. Here he was initiated into
modern western methods of literary criticism and historical
study, and he rapidly threw off the prejudices and cramped
outlook of the Azharite. The first fruits of these studies was a
thesis on Abul-Ala al-Maarri, in the introduction to which he
already displayed his characteristic audacity by attacking the
methods of teaching Arabic literature in Egypt. During the war
years he studied at the Sorbonne, specializing in French
literature and literary criticism, and in classics. His university
career, after a narrow escape from disaster on account of an
45
impetuous criticism which gave some offence in Egypt, closed
in 1919, with the production of a doctoral thesis on Ibn
Khaldun. On his return to Egypt he was appointed to the chair
of Classical (Greek and Roman) History at the Egyptian
University, and on the reconstitution of the university was
transferred to the Professorship of Ancient Arabic literature.
At the very outset of his teaching career the new
professor had need of all his natural courage. His appointment
gave the signal for the opening of a campaign directed against
him and his work on the part of all the conservative
educational elements in Egypt. The main attack was directed
against the new chair, probably the first of the kind in any
Muslim institution. For although every student of the Middle
Ages is aware of the debt which Islamic civilization owed to
Hellenism, it was a debt which the Islamic world never
recognized, and in any case that aesthetic legacy of Greece
which so profoundly influenced the evolution of modem
Europe had found no acceptance in the Orient. Even when the
modern westernizing movement gained momentum in Egypt
and Syria and passed from the stage of translation to that of
imitation and closer study, it was only the outward modem
46
manifestations of western thought and literature that were
studied. Gradually the history of European thought began to
be better appreciated, but the foundations still remained
unknown. The first attempt to familiarize the Arabic world with
something of the classical literary background was made by
Sulayman al-Bustani in his translation of the Iliad. The attempt
was perhaps premature, and the subject ill- chosen. Epic
poetry has never attracted the Arab, whose language lacks
even a suitable metrical scheme for poems of such length and
quality, and the technical difficulties were enhanced by the
necessity of transliterating and fitting into Arabic meter all the
Greek name?. The result was that Bustani's translation was
appreciated more as a tour de force than for the intrinsic
qualities of either the original or the Arabic version. Egypt,
striving, after western democracy and western science,
remained ignorant of and indifferent to, even a little
contemptuous towards, they’re source.
This paradox was brought vividly home to Dr. Taha
Husain. His students at first showed some hostility to the new
imposition as they regarded it, but gradually his eloquence and
enthusiasm began to effect a change. Now he came boldly
47
forward with the claim that if Egypt was to gain self-respect
and was to progress in the ways of modern life, she must go to
school and begin again with, the foundations. In a series of
works intended for the general public he stressed, again and
again the necessity of classical studies as the basis of a living
culture. "We cannot live in this age demanding all the political
and intellectual independence enjoyed by the peoples of
Europe, while we remain dependent on them for all that
nourishes the intellect and the feelings in science, philosophy,
literature, and the arts. It might perhaps have gone hard with
him had the attention of Egypt not been distracted by the
political crisis through which it was passing: as it was. however,
he found strong support in a section of educated opinion and
especially among his own colleagues. Indeed, at this very time.
the Director of the University, Ahmad Lutfi Bey al-Sayyid. was
engaged in a translation, from the French,, of the
Nlcomachean Ethics, which appeared in 1924. But if the
political situation eased his path, it also affected the success of
his propaganda, and with his transference to the chair of
Arabic literature, the projected, continuations of his classical
studies came to an untimely and regrettable end. It is too soon
yet to say that the effort to bring classical studies to bear on
48
Arabic literature has failed; it is to be hoped at least that the
professor's example of enthusiasm for learning and
intellectual, courage: has not been lost on the rising
generation.
Even after his transference to Arabic studies, however. Dr.
Taha Husain was not to find himself in smoother waters.
Following up his principle of introducing modern French
methods of critical study into Egypt, he began to apply a sort
of Cartesian analysis to Arabic literature, with results which
became more and more radical. So far from emulating Dr.
Haykal’s cautious adaptation of European methods to the
existing level of general education in Egypt, he jumped down
the throats, of the conservatives, and at length carried the
method of philosophic doubt to a point for which Egyptian
opinion was totally unprepared. His gradual progress towards
radicalism can be traced in the first two series of studies which
he published on Arabic poets: on the publication of the third,
however, entitled On Pre-Islamic Poetry, such an outcry was
raised that the book had to be withdrawn, and a process for
heresy was begun against the author. Again his good fortune
saved him from the worst effects of his audacity, and the result
49
of the attempted persecution of the conservatives was only to
enhance his popularity and prestige with the liberals and make
him the idol of the students. Not daunted, there- fore. he
republished the work, slightly revised as a concession to public
opinion, and considerably enlarged, under a different title (On
Pre-Islamic Literature) in the following year.
Scholastic though all these works are, they form an
important contribution to contemporary Egyptian literature,
not only by their qualities of style and method, but by the
skilful way in which the needs of a wider public are kept in
view. The style is peculiar in the sense that. being dictated, not
written, it presents characteristics, such as frequent repetition
of phrases, which belong to oratory rather than to prose. Yet
the happy choice of words, the smoothness and facility of the
argument and the humorous and masterly handling of the
subject, give it an attractive quality which is rarely equaled in
Egyptian writing. Nevertheless, it is in their educational aspect
that the main value of these studies lies, and whether or not all
the conclusions to which Dr. Taha Husain has come are
accepted, the wide influence which he enjoys must in due
50
course lead to the strengthening in Arabic thought and
literature of the principles for which he stands.
It is not only in virtue of these works, however, that Dr.
Taha Husain occupies an outstanding position in contemporary
letters. Outside the sphere of his professional studies, he has
found the time to make fairly extensive contributions to
periodical literature, among which may be mentioned the
lengthy critical analyses of modem French plays, published in
al Hilal, a number of which have been reprinted in bock form.
In 1922 he issued a translation of Gustave le Bon's Psychologie
de l’ Education. Much more important from every point of
view is the literary autobiography, entitled Al'Ayyam ( “Days"),
a work which is justly praised for its depth of feeling and for
the truth of its descriptions, and has a good claim to be
regarded as the finest work of art yet produced in modem
Egyptian literature.
51
Digging into the past
" Why do I have to study history ? " Have you ever asked
yourself this question ? It is a good question to think about .
Did you ever listen as your grandparents told you about
the "old day" ? Learning about the old ' days helps you to learn
why you are the kind of person you are. Most people have
deep desire to know where they came from, who their
ancestors were, and what went on before they themselves
were born. History is the study of past events.
Learning about the past helps you to be better in the
present and to prepare for the future. By studying how people
acted in the past, you can get ideas about how you would act
in similar conditions. This is how you learn the lessons of
history. It has been said, "Those who fail to learn the lessons of
history are destined to repeat themselves ".
History will also help you to understand ways of life
different from your own. History tells not only about other
times, but also about other countries and other customs, you
can compare your life and ideas with those you study about.
52
This makes it easier to understand why you live the way you
do.
To write about the past, the historian needs facts. Usually
his best source for facts is books and other documents that
were written during the period of history he is studying.
Inscriptions on monuments, seals, coins medals and works of
art from that period are also helpful. When the historian is
writing about a period when there were not yet any written
accounts of what happened, he must get help from
archeologists or anthropologists. Archeologists dig up the
ruins of ancient people to find what they left behind.
Anthropologists study the development of man as a distinct
being and of the different races of man. The historian puts
together his collection of facts in step - by - step accounts. He
also makes general statements about what the facts mean and
what we can learn from them.
There are many kinds of history to be studied. According
to the Western tradition, studying history is usually divided
into ancient, medieval, and modern history. Most of the events
discussed during these periods in history books took place in
53
the Middle East, Europe, and North America. There is also
interesting history about the civilizations of Asia and Africa.
According to subject, history can be divided into social
history, military history, cultural history etc.
54
The Interaction Between Arabo-Islamic and European
Cultures
From its early days, Arabo-Islamic culture had realized that
only through communication and interaction with other
cultures could it hope to be enriched and prosper in all fields
and disciplines. As early as the Umayad Dynasty (starting in
687 AD) a translation effort had helped the incipient culture-
transfer, reaching its apex in the Abbasid period. The Umayad
rulers gave it an unprecedented encouragement, so that the
Arabs were able to read the works of the Persian and Greco-
Roman writers, both in literature and in science. Particularly
commendable in this respect was the poet that the Arabs did
not transfer scientific theories in isolation from practical
application. They had the acumen to realize that Greek
knowledge had passed through two stages : the first was an
era of theory and theorization which dominated the classical
period until the fifth century BCE; the second was the stage of
practical applications which prevailed in the Hellenistic period
in the three centuries BCE. The most prominent centre of the
55
latter was ancient Alexandria, Egypt, since it was established
by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E. The Muslim Arabs had
done what we have done in modern times when we embarked
on an effort in technology transfer from the advanced nations,
and what the Japanese did at the turn of this century : they
succeeded in acquiring European technology then proceeded
to improve on it. Theyare today serious competitors to the
very originators of that technology and have developed it to
reach admirable levels. So did the Arabs who had required the
latest scientific knowledge of the Greeks and developed it in
exquisite and stunning fashion : so much is that the Europeans
had to show admiration for the Arab ability to transfer,
assimilate and develop it quickly.
56
Philosophy and Logic
The first field which attracted the attention of the Muslim
Arabs had been that of philosophy and logic. As to why logic
was given such prominence, the reason is that logic had in
ancient times occupied the position of modern scientific
method. It was the means of organizing thought, ordering
evidence, and establishing a common basis of understanding.
Logic could, furthermore, provide Muslim philosophers with
the rational proofs required to establish the existence of God,
with the ability to refute other philosophies, and to disprove
the ideologies of their opponents or enemies.
Though initially relying on the works of Greek philosophers,
such as Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, and Zeno, and, though
drawing in the beginning on translated works, such as the
translations from syriac by Hunayn Ibn Ishaaq, Arab
philosophers were eventually able to create a distinctly Islamic
philosophy. They were also able to establish Aristotleian logic
as the basis for every system of thought and for every theory.
As has been said, logic was tantamount to scientific method,
without which no theory could stand. It may be sufficient to
refer in this context to the fact that Al-Farabi, the second most
57
celebrated teacher after Aristotle; Ibn Sina, (Avicenna) the
author of the Canon of Medicine; and the philosopher Ibn
Rushd (Averroes) had rivalled in stature the ancient
philosophers and came to be regarded as pioneers for all
modern philosophers. It may be added that the modern
empirical method, as established by Francis Bacon, owes a
great deal of its essentials to the Arabo-Muslim scientists who
had founded thestudy of science on observation, experiment
and deduction (analogy).
Their method was applied in the study of all natural sciences,
such as medicine, physics, chemistry and geography; and they
took mathematics a step forward, from theory to practice.
58
THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE FEMALE
The changing face of society has been minutely recorded
in the course of the Arabic novel. One of its most interesting
aspects is the change in the social and domestic position of
women. The role played by female characters in the novel
reflects the current attitude towards women at the time. The
fact that this role remained unchanged for many decades, is a
sign of the force of social customs involving the relation
between the sexes. This particular area of social relations is
one of the last strongholds of conservative opinion. Female
characters were naturally depicted in their usual roles of
mothers, sisters, etc., but it is the character of the sweet-heart
or love-object that is the most significant.
The heroine in the early novels ranges from the type of
the passive victim of social customs and parental tyranny, like
Zeinab who dies of frustrated love, to the idealized female,
courted or rather worshipped by the sensitive artist or thinker
in the novels of Tawfik al-Hakim. He was probably responsible
for the cult of the heroine as 'idol', prevalent in many of the
early novels. Saneyya, the heroine of Awdat al-Roh well
represents his ideal of the new woman half a century back. She
59
is a great advance on her mother for she can read and write;
she reads novels and plays the piano and waits for a proper
husband. Behind the backs of her parents, she takes a hand in
encouraging a particular suitor, with whom she conducts a
clandestine but safe relationship across windows and
balconies. Her role is mainly that of 'inspiration'. She inspires
her suitor with the strength to work in trade rather than seek a
safe but obscure government job. Tawfik al-Hakim's beautiful,
intelligent and rather enigmatic women have touches of
Scheherazade and of Isis. Each of them is a kind of Goddess but
we hardly see them as wives or as fulfilled lovers. They seem
inaccessible as far as the narrator is concerned and so we are
never allowed to see them off their pedestal.
The work of Naguib Mahfouz gives a much more realistic
picture of Egyptian female characters. The novels of his middle
period would provide any sociologist with valuable information
on the place of women in Egyptian society. The mother is
probably the most important female character in his novels.
She is often presented as a tower of strength, physically gentle
or fragile, ignorant and uneducated, but showing unsuspected
resources of firmness and strength of character. The younger
60
women present different aspects; they live sheltered within
the family circle, protected by male despotism from any
contact with the world out- side the home. They may inspire
love in the heart of a relative or a neighbour and fancy
themselves in love, but it is the father who finally arranges the
match and decides whom they may marry. When the
protective shadow of the father disappears through death or
because the girl has to go out to work for any reason, the
female is at once in danger of falling.
Another side of the picture is the world of cheap artistes
and prostitutes, who provide the men with entertainment and
companionship away from the domestic circle in a severely
segregated society. The ranks of this class are regularly
replenished by women, who lose their male supporters or by
flighty girls, easily seduced by wicked or simply irresponsible
lovers, or just by their love of finery or greed for money.
In the last part of the Trilogy, first published in 1958,
Mahfouz presents for the first time an idealized image of the
new woman, Sawsan, a girl of working-class origin who works
in the office of a progressive newspaper. She is handsome,
modest and independent. Her marriage is based on a full
61
understanding between equal partners. We get further
glimpses of the new woman in his later novels, serious girls,
who resolutely take a hand in shaping their own destiny. Their
characters are still rather sketchy, however, they are not to be
compared to the vivid portraits of the old types we find in his
earlier works.
The truth is, the new woman was an established fact, long
before she could win the sympathy of Egyptian novelists. Apart
from militant partisans like Qasim Amin, who very early in the
century advocated the emancipation of women, men of letters
were generally hostile to the feminist claim for equality.
The forties and fifties witnessed an unprecedented
growth of female education. An equally increasing number of
middle-class women graduates seeking careers in medicine,
teaching, administration, engineering and journalism were
bound to upset the old pattern of relations between the sexes.
The rising cost of living has progressively run to the advantage
of the working woman in the marriage market. The old split
between marriage and a girl's career has disappeared, and
even reactionary fathers had to agree to their daughters
seeking education and later a career, as the best means of
62
insuring their future. This, together with the new tide of
progressive thought, introduced here during the Second World
War, has made a visible change in the attitude of many writers
towards the working woman.
The female in her new role as breadwinner was depicted
in the work of some authors like Abdul-Rahman al-Sharqawi
and Yussef Idris. The latter was particularly fascinated by this
subject. His novel al-Haram, The Sin (1958) was one of a
number of analytical novels depicting women in their new role.
For peasant women and for the poor urban classes, it was far
from new. Only the sympathetic light shed on it was new.
63
Literature
The second field conquered by the early Arabs was that of
literature: they began by translating Aristotle's Poetics and
Rhetoric, which subsequently contributed to the evolution of
the indigenous Arab discipline of Rhetoric and its development
by Qudamah Ibn Ja‘far, and Abu Hilal Al-Askari. As Persian
literature came to be known to the Arabs, in translation, such
as the pioneering translation of Kalilah wa Dimnah by Ibn Al-
Muqaffa’, so was Greek literature through the translation of
the Homerian epics — the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Arabs,
knowledge of Greek literature was incomplete, however, as it
was in the main confined to the critical scholarship initiated by
Aristotle.
Eloquence being an almost inbred quality of the Arab
character, the Arabs avidly read the works of the Greeks in
literary criticism, as well as the contributions of the scholars of
the ancient Alexandrian school, such as Dimitrius of Phalareus,
Zenodotus, Aristarchus the Grammarian, Aristophanes of
Byzantium, and Didymus in the field of literary study, as well as
the editing and publication of ancient texts.
64
Arab scholars aped their Greek counterparts in this field : like
them they relied on deduction, on rejecting an oral account
transmitted by an unreliable reporter, and on the need to
consult primary sources in support of their views.
To the Arab scholars goes most of the credit in translating the
works of Aristotle and the other Greek philosophers. It was
thanks to their translations that some original Greek texts, now
lost, could stillbe read. During the Renaissance these texts
were translated from Arabic into Latin, and the scholars were
then able to compare them with extant fragments before
translating the re-constructed manuscripts back into Greek. It
may suffice to mention the fact that Aristotle's Poetics had
been first known in its Arabic translation, before appearing in
its Greek version. Certain works by Aristotle are lost : the
original version of Aristotle's Phrase exists now only in its
Arabic translation. So do others by the same author.
65
Science, Mathematics and Astronomy
In the field of science, the Arabs were particularly prominent in
medicine and mathematics. They created Algebra as a new
branch of mathematics, and a new science with which the
world came to be acquainted only through them — chemistry.
In physics and optics they had remarkable achievements. The
Arabs showed interest in studying the sciences established by
the School of Alexandria in the ten centuries before the advent
of Islam. The empirical trend of that school was in harmony
with their culture, based as it was on equilibrium and
correlation among the various systems of thought. They could
not allow a single system to dominate all others; hence the
insistence by Arab scholars that theory should never outweigh
practice, or that a theory be accepted until proven valid in
practice. It is this empirical trend that had been established by
the ancient school of Alexandria, where the scholars did their
best to divorce science from philosophy. The tendency later
developed and prospered, acquiring distinct features and
characteristics.
66
In mathematics the Arabs admired the Euclid-based geometry,
so much so, in fact, that they believed he had been of Arab
extraction.
They showed interest in the Archimedean geometrical
applications and the contributions of Diophantus of Alexandria
who was the first to use Algebraic symbols in mathematics. He
was among the first to pave the way for the Arabs to establish
Algebra later on, at the hands of the famous Arab scientist —
Al-Khwarazmi.
In astronomy, the Arabs received a whole Greek legacy,
beginning with Conon the astronomer, who was followed by
Aratus of Alexandria, Aristarchus the astronomer who had
discovered before Copernicus that the sun, not the earth, was
the “centre”; he had also tried to measure the circumference
of the globe. There was also Hipparchus the astronomer who
had proved that the planets revolved about the sun in an
elliptical rather than a circular orbit. A number of muslim —
Arab scholars brilliantly developed this discipline, foremost
among them was Ishaq Ibn Nur-ed-Din, who came to be known
as Al-Petragius, having been born in Petrgia near Cordova. He
actually opposed some of the ideas of Ptolemy, the Greek, and
67
amended them, particularly in connection with the fact that
the planets went round the sun in an elliptical orbit, as has
been mentioned. The works of Al-Petragius were translated
into Latin in about 1217 AD. Al-Zirqali (Arzachel) (1028-1078)
was another Arab astronomer who lived in Toledo, Spain; he
proved that the zenith of the sun at midday was equal to its
apex at midnight. His works were translated by Gerard of
Cremona into Latin. Copernicus refers to him by name in his
works, which Shows that he had read his studies. Known in
Europe as Arzachel, Al-Zirqali is credited with the invention of
the stronomical instrument of the astrolabes.
68
Medicine
There were tendencies in medicine to undertake experiments
on animals and dissect the human body which had started
since Herophilos, the physician — surgeon who first discovered
the nervous system, and Erasestratos, the physiologist, both of
the ancient Alexandrian school. When the Arab civilization
rose, the help was enlisted of the famous physicians of the
time, both Syriac and Greek, who had inherited the medical
expertise of their predecessors.
Thereafter the Arabs enriched the practice of surgery so much
that they secured a position of prominence down the
centuries. The medical achievements of the Arabs are due, I
believe, to the fact that they continued to rely on experiments,
the anatomy of the human body, the invention of medical
instruments, and the establishment of links, for the very first
time, between medicine and the Arab disciplines. Stars of the
first magnitude shone in the sky of medicine, notable Arab
physicians led by Abu Bakr Al-Razy (864-925). He was the first
Arab physician to record his clinical observations during
treatment, following in the footsteps of the famous Greek
physician Hippocrates. Al-Razy was able to distinguish measles
69
from smallpox, in terms of symptoms, to discover sulphuric
acid, extract alcohol from carbohydrates, and was the first to
use a special dressing in surgery.
Al-Razy wrote more than two hundred books, the most
important of which is Al-Hawy (“The Comprehensive”) which is
tantamount to a medical encyclopedia containing all the
medical achievements since the days of the Greeks. Abul-
Qasim Al-Zahrawi (936-1013) was aphysician-surgeon who
introduced basic amendments in surgery and the treatment of
wounds. He managed to invent a drug capable of
disintegrating renal stones, practised anatomy, undertook
surgical operations, and devised a method for stopping any
hemorrhage by canterization. Gerard of Cremona translated
his works into Latin.
There was also the Arab medical scientist Ibn Zohr (Ibn
Sochr)(1094-1168) who was born in Seville, Spain, and was
regarded by Ibn Rushd as the second greatest physician after
Galinos.
In the field of optics, there rose a famous Arab scientist, Al-
Hassan Ibn Al-Haytham (965-1039) who was able to prove
70
that,rather than transmitting the light needed for vision, the
human eye received the reflected light from objects. Ibn Al-
Haytham's Optica was translated many times into Latin.
Indeed, the scope of Ibn Al-Haytham's knowledge was not
confined to optics : he had an astronomical theory on the
movement of planets in interplanetary space, and discovered
that all the stars and heavenly bodies transmitted the light
which made it possible for them to be seen, with the exception
of the moon which did not radiate any light of its own but only
reflected the light of the sun. Ibn Al-Haytham was also well-
versed in geometry and geography. He made copies of Euclid's
Stoicheia and Ptolemy's Almagest, criticizing some of their
opinions.
71
Mediterranean Culture 1
The Mediterranean Sea, once described by the Romans as their
own “mare nostrum” (our sea) is in effect a lake linking the
oriental culturals of Asia, the southern cultures of Africa, with
the northern cultures of Europe. It is the factor that unites all
the peoples of the region, develops their relations and
consolidates their links. No ancient civilization could prosper
without an outlet on that sea, or a port on its coast. Those
cultures that has no Mediterranean outlet, such as those land-
locked cultures of the Tartars or the Mogols, ended up, I
believe, by developing a tradition of destruction rather than
construction. Maritime cultures, however, such as those of
ancient Egypt, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the
Portugese and the English, are characterized by an interest in
the brotherhood of mankind, a devotion to culture, the spread
of civilization, and the growth of the human reservoir of
knowledge. Excesses or deviations in the history of such
cultures have been, I believe, the exception that confirms the
rule : indeed, they do show that such cultures did vindicate
ultimately all that was quintessentially human, making the
civilized outweigh the uncivilized, proceeding from faith in
72
peaceful coexistence, working for construction and averting
violence and bloodshed whenever possible.
Our Arabo-Islamic culture has, therefore, many features in
common with the cultures of Europe. It has particularly close
links with the Iberian Peninsula which had seen the longest
period of Arab presence in Europe. It has had links too with
southern Italy, with theisland of Sicily and the Anatolian
Peninsula where ancient Byzantium flourished. It is in the best
interests of the Mediterranean nations to make concerted
efforts for construction rather than destruction, for civilization
rather than war and conflict, for science, knowledge and
culture rather than vendettas, fragmentation, transitory
material interests or the sterile passion for suzerainty. What
remains for the peoples in the end is a dignified life based on
just peace, on mutual respect, and on upholding the value of
man.
It is beneath us, having covered such a long distance in history,
to relapse on the threshold of the twenty-first century into the
old ways of the barbarians. We could not revive their method
of conversing in the language of the sword, substituting
violence for rational dialogue, resorting to devastation in
73
attempting to establish dominance rather than forcing others
to respect them. They had shattered the noblest human values
for material gain alone.
The prospects we face are, in spite of everything, are vast and
limitless : through fruitful cooperation nations can prosper and
wax stronger. There is a place for every man under the sun
where he may live in dignity, and cooperate with his fellow
men for a better future for all mankind.
74
Mediterranean Culture 2
It is never a bad thing, never a thing to be feared, I believe, to
be different in geographical position, in religion, in language or
in customs and traditions. Indeed, such a difference is required
and may be hoped for, as it works for the achievement of
complementarity, for identifying that which we lack but which
the others have. This is the way to development, to the
complementarity of knowledge. It is hardly beneficial or worth
our while to have all people adopt our mode of thinking or go
our own way. What is really useful is for each to respect the
‘other’ and give him his due. What we have in common is more
universal, more comprehensive and more viable : the areas of
our differences are too limited to preclude understanding,
communion, dialogue, sympathy or fraternity.
God, exalted be His name, has decreed that this earth be given
to all people, whatever the differences among their tongues,
colours and creeds. Their unity had been decreed originally in
having descended from one man — Adam, peace be upon him;
and they share a unified destiny — the return to God alone.
God has ordained in His wisdom that religious, tongues and
colours be different, while hearts beat in unison. God Almighty
75
has given each man a mind capable of thinking : it grows richer
when directed to perform its proper function, but is blunted
when left to lethargy and laxity.
76
The Death Car
It was a cold night in September. The rain was drumming on
the car roof as George and Marie Winston drove through the
empty country roads towards the house of their friends, the
Harrisons, where they were going to attend a party to
celebrate the engagement of the Harrisons' daughter, Lisa. As
they drove, they listened to the local radio station, which was
playing classical music.
They were about five miles from their destination when the
music on the radio was interrupted by a news announcement:
"The Cheshire police have issued a serious warning after a
man escaped from Colford Mental Hospital earlier this
evening. The man, John Downey, is a murderer who killed six
people before he was captured two years ago. He is described
as large, very strong and extremely dangerous. People in the
Cheshire area are warned to keep their doors and windows
locked, and to call the police immediately if they see anyone
acting strangely."
Marie shivered. "A crazy killer. And he's out there
somewhere. That's scary."
"Don't worry about it," said her husband. "We're nearly
77
there now. Anyway, we have more important things to worry
about. This car is losing power for some reason -- it must be
that old problem with the carburetor. If it gets any worse, we'll
have to stay at the Harrisons' tonight and get it fixed before we
travel back tomorrow."
As he spoke, the car began to slow down. George pressed
the accelerator, but the engine only coughed. Finally they
rolled to a halt, as the engine died completely. Just as they
stopped, George pulled the car off the road, and it came to
rest under a large tree.
"Blast!" said George angrily. "Now we'll have to walk in the
rain."
"But that'll take us an hour at least," said Marie. "And I have
my high-heeled shoes and my nice clothes on. They'll be
ruined!"
"Well, you'll have to wait while I run to the nearest house
and call the Harrisons. Someone can come out and pick us up,"
said George.
"But George! Have you forgotten what the radio said?
There's a homicidal maniac out there! You can't leave me
alone here!"
"You'll have to hide in the back of the car. Lock all the doors
78
and lie on the floor in the back, under this blanket. No-one will
see you. When I come back, I'll knock three times on the door.
Then you can get up and open it. Don't open it unless you hear
three knocks." George opened the door and slipped out into
the rain. He quickly disappeared into the blackness.
Marie quickly locked the doors and settled down under the
blanket in the back for a long wait. She was frightened and
worried, but she was a strong-minded woman. She had not
been waiting long, however, when she heard a strange
scratching noise. It seemed to be coming from the roof of the
car.
Marie was terrified. She listened, holding her breath. Then
she heard three slow knocks, one after the other, also on the
roof of the car. Was it her husband? Should she open the
door? Then she heard another knock, and another. This was
not her husband. It was somebody -- or something -- else. She
was shaking with fear, but she forced herself to lie still. The
knocking continued -- bump, bump, bump, bump.
Many hours later, as the sun rose, she was still lying there.
She had not slept for a moment. The knocking had never
stopped, all night long. She did not know what to do. Where
was George? Why had he not come for her?
79
Suddenly, she heard the sound of three or four vehicles,
racing quickly down the road. All of them pulled up around
her, their tires screeching on the road. At last! Someone had
come! Marie sat up quickly and looked out of the window.
The three vehicles were all police cars, and two still had
their lights flashing. Several policemen leapt out. One of them
rushed towards the car as Marie opened the door. He took her
by the hand.
"Get out of the car and walk with me to the police vehicle.
miss. You're safe now. Look straight ahead. Keep looking at the
police car. Don't look back. Just don't look back."
Something in the way he spoke filled Marie with cold
horror. She could not help herself. About ten yards from the
police car, she stopped, turned and looked back at the empty
vehicle.
George was hanging from the tree above the car, a rope
tied around his neck. As the wind blew his body back and forth,
his feet were bumping gently on the roof of the car -- bump,
bump, bump, bump.
80
Thomas Edison 1847-1931
Thomas Edison was born on 11 February 1847. He was one of
the outstanding geniuses of technology and he obtained
patents for more than one thousand inventions including the
electric light bulb, the record player and an early type of film
projector. He also created the world's first industrial research
laboratory.
He was born in Milan, Ohio and he was always an inquisitive
boy. By the time he was 10 he had set up a small chemical
laboratory in his house after his mother had shown him a
science book. He soon became fascinated with electrical
currents and it remained the main interest of his life.
In 1869, he borrowed a small amount of money and became a
freelance inventor. In the same summer, there was a crisis in
the New York financial district called Wall Street when the new
telegraphic gold-price indicator broke down. Edison was called
in to repair it and he did it so well that he was given a job as
supervisor with the Western Union Telegraph Company. They
later commissioned him to improve the Wall Street stock ticker
that was just coming into use. He did so and produced the
81
Edison Universal Stock Printer, which immediately brought him
a fortune of $40,000. With this money, he set up as a
manufacturer in order to produce electrical machines.
In 1876 he built a new laboratory so that he could spend all his
time inventing. He planned to turn out minor inventions every
ten days and a 'big trick' every six months. Before long he had
40 different inventions going at the same time and was
applying for as many as 400 patents a year. The following year,
Edison moved to New Jersey in order to build the Edison
Laboratory (now a national monument) which was 10 times
bigger than his first laboratory. In time it was surrounded by
factories employing 5,000 people and producing many new
products. Edison died on 18 October, 1931 having had a
remarkably productive life.
82
The following passage is from a 2003 novel about a young woman named Angela who at age eight left China with her family to move
to San Francisco.
Our parents had known each other in China; we’d even
taken
the same boat to America. However, within five years of
our
arrival in San Francisco, Norman and I had become
strangers.
Line Relatives already established in the city helped Norman’s
parents
(5) assimilate. Within a year, they had not only learned
English, but
had also become real estate moguls. I learned all this from
the
Chinese American gossip machine that constantly
tabulated every
family’s level of success. The machine judged my family
lacking.
My parents ran a grocery store and, unlike Norman’s
83
family,
(10) gravitated to the immigrant subculture. They never learned
English, but they respected that I tamed that beast of a
language. I was my parents’ communication link with the
“outside
world.”
My parents denied themselves in order to ensure that I
could
(15) attend Baywood, a top private high school. That was where
Norman
and I crossed paths again. However much my relative
mastery of
English had elevated my status at home, at Baywood I
remained a
shy and brainy outsider. Norman was very popular: he
played
football and was elected class president. He and gorgeous
Judy
(20) Kim were named King and Queen of the Winter Ball; their
portrait
adorned every available bulletin board. I scoffed at the
84
celebrity silently. Back then, I did everything silently.
Compared to Norman, who had already achieved the
American teenage
ideal, I was anonymous. From the sidelines I observed his
(25) triumphs with barely acknowledged envy.
In May of our freshman year, Norman approached me
after our
chemistry class.
“Hey, Angela,” he said as my heart leapt into my throat.
“I
missed class a couple of days ago. Can I copy your notes?”
(30) “Sure,” I said. I was horrified to find myself blushing.
We soon became study buddies. It was all business—no
small
talk beyond the necessary niceties. But the hours we piled
up
studying together generated an unspoken mutual respect
and an
unacknowledged intimacy. Judy noticed this and took an
increasing
(35) dislike to me. This relationship continued throughout high
85
school.
One day in eleventh grade, without looking up from the
math
problem he was working on, Norman asked: “What schools
are you
applying to?”
(40) It was the first time he had shown any real personal
interest in me. “Berkeley, if I’m lucky,” I said.
“You could probably get in anywhere.”
“What do you mean?”
He looked up from his math problem and met my gaze.
(45) “Berkeley is just across the bay. Don’t you want to
experience something new for once? I’m applying to
schools back
East,” he said. “You should, too.”
Not for the first time, an exciting vision of ivy-covered
walls and perhaps even a new identity swept over me and
was
(50) almost immediately subsumed by a wave of guilt.
“But what about my parents?”
“But what about you?”
86
Norman had broken a taboo. I launched into a self-
righteous
refutation of the possibility he had dared to voice. I told
him
(55) that even though I wasn’t popular and my family wasn’t as
successful as his, I at least hadn’t forgotten that it was my
parents who had brought me here and who had struggled
so much for
me. How could I make them unhappy?
Norman had expected this outburst. He smiled. “We’re
not so
(60) different, you know. We started out in the same boat. Now
we’re
in the same boat again.” He laughed. “We’ve always been
in the
same boat. Our parents might be kind of different, but they
want
us to succeed and be happy.”
“You’re so American,” I said in a tone hovering between
(65) approval and reproach. “You’re not even worried about
leaving
87
your parents to go to school back East.”
“That’s not what being American means,” he insisted.
“Well, what does it mean, then?” I demanded. Surely, I,
and
not this superficial football player who needed my
academic help,
(70) knew what it meant to be American. That very day I had
received
an A on my American History term paper.
“It means, Angela,” he said gently, “that our parents
brought us here so we could have the freedom to figure
out for
ourselves what to do with our lives.”
(75) He smiled at my speechlessness and then returned to
his math
problem.
Without looking up from his notebook, he said, “If I can
decide to go to school back East, so can you.”
For thousands of years,
88
people believed that owls
were more
like gods than animals. Even in
modern times they have been
used
to signify wisdom, magic, and
power, but the simple truth is
that
Line owls are no more divine than
other birds. The large, round
heads
(5) and huge, forward-facing eyes
that inclined ancient observers
to
believe that owls possessed
divine intelligence are simply
natural adaptations developed
to help the predators catch the
small animals that make up their
food supply.
Although owls do not possess
89
any of the mystical powers
(10) often attributed to them in
mythology, they are formidable
hunters whose skill surpasses
that of other birds of prey. Their
acute senses ensure that owls
rarely fail to notice a potential
meal, and their ability to fly
silently means that the
unfortunate mouse identified by
the owl as its next snack never
(15) realizes it is the object of an
attack until too late.
The world's nuclear plants have accumulated vast stocks of
highly radioactive waste. Worldwide, high-level waste is
currently stored above ground, and no government has a
clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most experts
believe that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long
term, the problem is finding sites that everyone can agree are
geologically stable. Decaying radioactive isotopes release
90
heat. As a result, high-level waste must be constantly cooled;
otherwise, it becomes dangerously hot. This is why many
experts want to store waste above ground until it has
decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed
repositories several hundreds of metres below ground.
According to one recent theory, however, waste should be
lowered down boreholes drilled to 4 kilometres. The trick is to
exploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding
rock and contain any leaking radioactivity.
Researches suggest that there are creatures that do not know
what light means at the bottom of the sea. They don't have
either eyes or ears; they can only feel. There is no day or night
for them. There are no winters, no summers, no sun, no
moon, and no stars. It is as if a child spent its life in darkness
in bed, with nothing to see or hear. How different our own
life is! Sight shows us the ground beneath our feet and the
heavens above us - the sun, moon, and stars, shooting stars,
lightning, and the sunset. It shows us day and night. We are
able to hear voices, the sound of the sea, and music. We feel,
we taste, we smell. How fortunate we are!
91
Official records state that the Pueblo Indians lived in New
Mexico and Arizona . The word "Pueblo" comes from the
Spanish word "pueblo," meaning town or village. The
Spaniards found these Indians living in apartment houses,
some of them on the side of a cliff in order that they could be
reached only by ladders. Whenever they were attacked by
Apaches, the Pueblos would pull up the ladders. They grew
corn, which they watered with water flowing down in ditches.
They wove cloth, made wonderful baskets, and created jars
and pots out of clay proving how skilful they were at hand-
craft.
Have you ever wondered whether fishes drink or not? All
living things must drink, and they require a fresh supply of
water often. A person can go without food for many days, but
he or she cannot go for long without water. Fishes drink, and
fishes that live in salt water must drink salt water. However,
when we watch them in an aquarium and see them opening
and closing their mouths, we must not assume that they are
drinking. Fishes need water for its oxygen. The water that
they seem to be gulping gives them oxygen, which is in the
water. On the other hand, when a fish drinks, it swallows
water, just in the way we do.
92
The poetic expressiveness and creativity of Japanese women
poets of the Manyoshu era is generally regarded as a
manifestation of the freedom and relatively high political and
economic status women of that era enjoyed. During the Heian
period (A.D. 794-1185) which followed, Japanese women
became increasingly relegated to domestic roles under the
influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, which excluded
women from the political and economic arenas. Yet, since
poetry of the period came to be defined solely as short lyrical
poetry, known as waka, and became the prevailing means of
expressing love, women continued to excel in and play a
central role in the development of classical Japanese poetry.
Moreover, while official Japanese documents were written in
Chinese, the phoenetic alphabet kana was used for poetry.
Also referred to as onna moji ("women's letters"), kana was
not deemed sufficiently sophisticated for use by Japanese
men, who continued to write Chinese poetry, increasingly for
expressing religious ideas and as an intellectual pastime.
Chinese poetry ultimately yielded, then, to waka as the
mainstream of Japanese poetry.
93
The world's nuclear plants have accumulated vast stocks of
highly radioactive waste. Worldwide, high-level waste is
currently stored above ground, and no government has a
clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most experts
believe that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long
term, the problem is finding sites that everyone can agree are
geologically stable. Decaying radioactive isotopes release
heat. As a result, high-level waste must be constantly cooled;
otherwise, it becomes dangerously hot. This is why many
experts want to store waste above ground until it has
decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed
repositories several hundreds of metres below ground.
According to one recent theory, however, waste should be
lowered down boreholes drilled to 4 kilometres. The trick is to
exploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding
rock and contain any leaking radioactivity.
Erosion is regarded not merely as the physical removal of soil
by water and wind, but rather as the deterioration of all the
component parts of the habitat in which man and his crops
and livestock have to exist. Since there is no conclusive
evidence for any major climatic change in historic times to
94
explain this deterioration, we must conclude that the eroding
of the total environment has been due primarily to
thoughtless destruction of the vegetative cover. This has led
to deterioration of the microclimate above and below the
surface, generally in the direction of a general drying out of
the soil which has exposed it to erosive action of wind and
rainfall of high intensity or frequency, and to the loss of
organic matter in the soil, thus reducing its capacity to resist
erosion by conserving the water that falls on the surface. If
everything possible is done within the total environment to
conserve the naturally planted or cultivated vegetation, this
will also ensure optimal conservation of soil and water.
95
John Locke's 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding
An essay is a short piece of writing which is often written from
an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a
number of elements, including: literary criticism, political
manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life,
recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition of
an essay is vague, overlapping with those of an article and a
short story. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but
works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g. Alexander Pope's
An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity
usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas
Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population provide
counterexamples.
In some countries (e.g., in the United States), essays have
become a major part of formal education. Secondary students
are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing
skills, and admission essays are often used by universities in
selecting applicants and, in the humanities and social sciences,
as a way of assessing the performance of students during final
exams. The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other
96
mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a movie that often
incorporates documentary film making styles and which
focuses more on the evolution of a theme or an idea. A
photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked
series of photographs; it may or may not have an
accompanying text or captions.
97
Descriptive
Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which
appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a
reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities.
Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a
dominant impression, using descriptive language, and
organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be
considered when using a description. A description is usually
arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic.
The focus of a description is the scene. Description uses tools
such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative
language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant
impression.[7] One university essay guide states that
"descriptive writing says what happened or what another
author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic".[8]
98
Tecnology Park And Their Role In National Development
A science park or science and technology park is an
area with a collection of buildings dedicated to scientific
research on a business footing. There are many approximate
synonyms for "science park", including research park,
technology park, technopolis and biomedical park. The
appropriate term typically depends on the type of science and
research in which the park's entities engage, but many of these
developments are named according to which term gives the
park the best profitability and naming advantages. Often,
science parks are associated with or operated by institutions of
higher education (colleges and universities).
These parks differ from typical high-technology business
districts in that science parks and the like are more organized,
planned, and managed. They differ from science centres in
being concerned with future developments in science and
technology. Typically businesses and organizations in the parks
focus on product advancement and innovation as opposed to
industrial parks that focus on manufacturing and business
parks that focus on administration.
Besides building area, these parks offer a number of shared
99
resources, such as uninterruptible power supply,
telecommunications hubs, reception and security,
management offices, restaurants, bank offices, convention
center, parking, internal transportation, entertainment and
sports facilities, etc. In this way, the park offers considerable
advantages to hosted companies, by reducing overhead costs
with these facilities.
Science and technology parks are encouraged by local
governments, in order to attract new companies to towns, and
to expand their tax base and employment opportunities to
citizens. Land and other taxes are usually waived off or
reduced along a number of years, in order to attract new
companies for the science and technological parks.
100
Why TV lost
About twenty years ago people noticed computers and TV
were on a collision course and started to speculate about what
they'd produce when they converged. We now know the
answer: computers. It's clear now that even by using the word
"convergence" we were giving TV too much credit. This won't
be convergence so much as replacement. People may still
watch things they call "TV shows," but they'll watch them
mostly on computers.
What decided the contest for computers? Four forces, three of
which one could have predicted, and one that would have
been harder to.
One predictable cause of victory is that the Internet is an open
platform. Anyone can build whatever they want on it, and the
market picks the winners. So innovation happens at hacker
speeds instead of big company speeds.
The second is Moore's Law, which has worked its usual magic
on Internet bandwidth. [1]
The third reason computers won is piracy. Users prefer it not
just because it's free, but because it's more convenient.
Bittorrent and YouTube have already trained a new generation
101
of viewers that the place to watch shows is on a computer
screen. [2]
The somewhat more surprising force was one specific type of
innovation: social applications. The average teenage kid has a
pretty much infinite capacity for talking to their friends. But
they can't physically be with them all the time. When I was in
high school the solution was the telephone. Now it's social
networks, multiplayer games, and various messaging
applications. The way you reach them all is through a
computer. [3] Which means every teenage kid (a) wants a
computer with an Internet connection, (b) has an incentive to
figure out how to use it, and (c) spends countless hours in front
of it.
This was the most powerful force of all. This was what made
everyone want computers. Nerds got computers because they
liked them. Then gamers got them to play games on. But it was
connecting to other people that got everyone else: that's what
made even grandmas and 14 year old girls want computers.
102
After decades of running an IV drip right into their audience,
people in the entertainment business had understandably
come to think of them as rather passive. They thought they'd
be able to dictate the way shows reached audiences. But they
underestimated the force of their desire to connect with one
another.
Facebook killed TV. That is wildly oversimplified, of course, but
probably as close to the truth as you can get in three words.
The TV networks already seem, grudgingly, to see where things
are going, and have responded by putting their stuff,
grudgingly, online. But they're still dragging their heels. They
still seem to wish people would watch shows on TV instead,
just as newspapers that put their stories online still seem to
wish people would wait till the next morning and read them
printed on paper. They should both just face the fact that the
Internet is the primary medium.
They'd be in a better position if they'd done that earlier. When
a new medium arises that's powerful enough to make
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incumbents nervous, then it's probably powerful enough to
win, and the best thing they can do is jump in immediately.
Whether they like it or not, big changes are coming, because
the Internet dissolves the two cornerstones of broadcast
media: synchronicity and locality. On the Internet, you don't
have to send everyone the same signal, and you don't have to
send it to them from a local source. People will watch what
they want when they want it, and group themselves according
to whatever shared interest they feel most strongly. Maybe
their strongest shared interest will be their physical location,
but I'm guessing not. Which means local TV is probably dead. It
was an artifact of limitations imposed by old technology. If
someone were creating an Internet-based TV company from
scratch now, they might have some plan for shows aimed at
specific regions, but it wouldn't be a top priority.
Synchronicity and locality are tied together. TV network
affiliates care what's on at 10 because that delivers viewers for
local news at 11. This connection adds more brittleness than
strength, however: people don't watch what's on at 10
because they want to watch the news afterward.
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TV networks will fight these trends, because they don't have
sufficient flexibility to adapt to them. They're hemmed in by
local affiliates in much the same way car companies are
hemmed in by dealers and unions. Inevitably, the people
running the networks will take the easy route and try to keep
the old model running for a couple more years, just as the
record labels have done.
A recent article in the Wall Street Journal described how TV
networks were trying to add more live shows, partly as a way
to make viewers watch TV synchronously instead of watching
recorded shows when it suited them. Instead of delivering
what viewers want, they're trying to force them to change
their habits to suit the networks' obsolete business model.
That never works unless you have a monopoly or cartel to
enforce it, and even then it only works temporarily.
The other reason networks like live shows is that they're
cheaper to produce. There they have the right idea, but they
haven't followed it to its conclusion. Live content can be way
cheaper than networks realize, and the way to take advantage
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of dramatic decreases in cost is to increase volume. The
networks are prevented from seeing this whole line of
reasoning because they still think of themselves as being in the
broadcast business—as sending one signal to everyone. [4]
Now would be a good time to start any company that
competes with TV networks. That's what a lot of Internet
startups are, though they may not have had this as an explicit
goal. People only have so many leisure hours a day, and TV is
premised on such long sessions (unlike Google, which prides
itself on sending users on their way quickly) that anything that
takes up their time is competing with it. But in addition to such
indirect competitors, I think TV companies will increasingly
face direct ones.
Even in cable TV, the long tail was lopped off prematurely by
the threshold you had to get over to start a new channel. It will
be longer on the Internet, and there will be more mobility
within it. In this new world, the existing players will only have
the advantages any big company has in its market.
That will change the balance of power between the networks
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and the people who produce shows. The networks used to be
gatekeepers. They distributed your work, and sold advertising
on it. Now the people who produce a show can distribute it
themselves. The main value networks supply now is ad sales.
Which will tend to put them in the position of service providers
rather than publishers.
Shows will change even more. On the Internet there's no
reason to keep their current format, or even the fact that they
have a single format. Indeed, the more interesting sort of
convergence that's coming is between shows and games. But
on the question of what sort of entertainment gets distributed
on the Internet in 20 years, I wouldn't dare to make any
predictions, except that things will change a lot. We'll get
whatever the most imaginative people can cook up. That's why
the Internet won
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Two Kinds of Judgment
April 2007
There are two different ways people judge you. Sometimes
judging you correctly is the end goal. But there's a second
much more common type of judgement where it isn't. We
tend to regard all judgements of us as the first type. We'd
probably be happier if we realized which are and which aren't.
The first type of judgement, the type where judging you is the
end goal, include court cases, grades in classes, and most
competitions. Such judgements can of course be mistaken, but
because the goal is to judge you correctly, there's usually some
kind of appeals process. If you feel you've been misjudged, you
can protest that you've been treated unfairly.
Nearly all the judgements made on children are of this type, so
we get into the habit early in life of thinking that all
judgements are.
But in fact there is a second much larger class of judgements
where judging you is only a means to something else. These
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include college admissions, hiring and investment decisions,
and of course the judgements made in dating. This kind of
judgement is not really about you.
Put yourself in the position of someone selecting players for a
national team. Suppose for the sake of simplicity that this is a
game with no positions, and that you have to select 20 players.
There will be a few stars who clearly should make the team,
and many players who clearly shouldn't. The only place your
judgement makes a difference is in the borderline cases.
Suppose you screw up and underestimate the 20th best player,
causing him not to make the team, and his place to be taken
by the 21st best. You've still picked a good team. If the players
have the usual distribution of ability, the 21st best player will
be only slightly worse than the 20th best. Probably the
difference between them will be less than the measurement
error.
The 20th best player may feel he has been misjudged. But your
goal here wasn't to provide a service estimating people's
ability. It was to pick a team, and if the difference between the
20th and 21st best players is less than the measurement error,
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you've still done that optimally.
It's a false analogy even to use the word unfair to describe this
kind of misjudgement. It's not aimed at producing a correct
estimate of any given individual, but at selecting a reasonably
optimal set.
One thing that leads us astray here is that the selector seems
to be in a position of power. That makes him seem like a judge.
If you regard someone judging you as a customer instead of a
judge, the expectation of fairness goes away. The author of a
good novel wouldn't complain that readers were unfair for
preferring a potboiler with a racy cover. Stupid, perhaps, but
not unfair.
Our early training and our self-centeredness combine to make
us believe that every judgement of us is about us. In fact most
aren't. This is a rare case where being less self-centered will
make people more confident. Once you realize how little most
people judging you care about judging you accurately—once
you realize that because of the normal distribution of most
applicant pools, it matters least to judge accurately in precisely
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the cases where judgement has the most effect—you won't
take rejection so personally.
And curiously enough, taking rejection less personally may
help you to get rejected less often. If you think someone
judging you will work hard to judge you correctly, you can
afford to be passive. But the more you realize that most
judgements are greatly influenced by random, extraneous
factors—that most people judging you are more like a fickle
novel buyer than a wise and perceptive magistrate—the more
you realize you can do things to influence the outcome.
One good place to apply this principle is in college applications.
Most high school students applying to college do it with the
usual child's mix of inferiority and self-centeredness: inferiority
in that they assume that admissions committees must be all-
seeing; self-centeredness in that they assume admissions
committees care enough about them to dig down into their
application and figure out whether they're good or not. These
combine to make applicants passive in applying and hurt when
they're rejected. If college applicants realized how quick and
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impersonal most selection processes are, they'd make more
effort to sell themselves, and take the outcome less personally.
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How to be a genius
Geniuses don’t exist in the present. Think of all the people
you’ve met: would you call any of them a genius, in the
Mozart, Einstein, Shakespeare sense of the word? Even the
commonly called genius grants, from the MacCarthur
foundation, shy away from actually calling their recipients
geniuses. Most people throw the g-word around where it’s
safe: in reference to dead people. Since there’s no one alive
who witnessed Mozart pee in his kindergarten pants, or saw
young Picasso eating crayons in kindergarten, we can call them
geniuses in safety, as their humanity has been stripped from
our memory of them. Out of respect, and worship, we allow
ourselves to believe the 2% of our heroes we find superhuman
is the entirety of who they were.
Even if you believe geniuses exist, there’s little consensus on
what being a genius even means. Some experts say genius is
the capacity for greatness, while others believe it’s that you’ve
accomplished great things. Frankly I don’t care. Chasing
definitions for a final, argument ending answer is a waste of
time, since the interesting questions defy finality. Worse, you
can’t accomplish much as a maker of things if your time is
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spent arguing about the meaning of words. To the core of my
point, the chase for definitions never provides what we want: a
better understanding of how to appreciate, and possibly
become, interesting people.
I will now take a wild, manic, run through the history of genius.
I make no commitment to be definitive in any way. However, I
do promise to avoid easy answers, to use facts to support pet
opinions, and to state the obvious and the contradictory,
especially when they best define the truth.
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Have a great, or horrible, family
Picasso, Mozart, Beethoven, Einstein and Goethe are five
popular geniuses and they all had parents who took an interest
in their creative lives. Mozart and Beethoven had fathers who
were professional musicians, and at young ages they were
taught by Pops how to read and play various instruments. Can
you guess what Picasso’s dad did? Yes, he was a painter, and
spent many hours with young Pablo, showing him the ropes.
One popular legend around Einstein is his young obsession
with a compass from his dad, but more potent in his
development was family friend Max Talmud, who taught
Albert science, philosophy and other intellectual pursuits
throughout his boyhood. And of course there’s Van Gogh and
his brother Theo, the only healthy relationship he ever had.
But lousy families can make for geniuses too. Beethoven’s dad
was abusive and cruel, torturing him during childhood practice
sessions. Unlike what happens to most child prodigies (burnout
at age 15 and complete hatred for their gifts and
micromanaging self-centered parents) somehow Beethoven’s
passion for music survived. Leonardo Da Vinci was a bastard, a
child not of his father’s wife, and the little we know doesn’t
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paint a picture (ha ha) of a healthy child-parent dynamic. Isaac
Newton was also born to a single parent home, his father dying
several weeks before Isaac entered the world. His mother
remarried, Isaac didn’t like it, and perhaps found a seed of
unrest to fuel his pursuit of an independent life.
I’m for independence, free will and the belief anyone can do
anything, but when it comes to being a genius it’s hard to
ignore the role of family, country, and era, all things out of an
individual’s control. If Mozart’s dad were an electrician, or
Beethoven’s a plumber, what would have happened? Had
Emily Dickinson’s mother not been seriously ill for decades,
forcing Emily to live mostly in seclusion, would we know her
name? Whether positive or negative, opportunities in
children’s development create potential, but their work has to
surface at a time when their particular talents are valued in the
world (demonstrated by the number of posthumously
appreciated geniuses, including Kafka, Van Gogh and
Dickenson).
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Be obsessed with work
Show me a genius and I’ll show you a workaholic. Van Gogh
produced 2000 works of art between 1880 and 1890 (1100
paintings and 900 sketches). That’s 4 works of art a week for a
decade, and he didn’t start making art until his mid twenties.
DaVinci’s famous journals represent decades of note taking,
doodling and observations, and it’s a good guess that work was
the center of his life: no spouses or children are mentioned in
any of our records of him (though he likely had lovers in his
studio). Picasso made over 12,000 works of art (“Give me a
museum and I’ll fill it he said, and he was right) in his lifetime,
including sculptures, paintings and other mediums.
Shakespeare wrote more than 40 plays, not to mention dozens
of sonnets, poems and of course, grocery lists. These are
people who practiced their crafts daily and sacrificed many
other ordinary pleasures in life to make their work possible.
Every math or music prodigy practiced to produce the work
they are famous for (See the ten year rule).
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And of course very few of these works are considered
masterpieces, by their creators or anyone else. Sure, today,
any coffee stained sketch by Picasso or Van Gogh garners
millions, but that has more to do with the signature that’s on
the painting, than the quality of the painting itself. No matter
the field, the productive have more failures to show than
successes by ratios of 10 or more to 1. Hemingway is noted for
his belief that writing is rewriting, and that dozens, or
hundreds, of attempts are required to write anything well
(“The first draft of anything is shit“). Most painters, from Dali
to Turner made sketches and studies to experiment and
explore before committing themselves to the final versions of
the amazing works we see in museums.
Whatever their talents or genetic gifts, most everyone who
earned the label genius was dedicated to their work: the list of
lazy geniuses is short. Certainly there are burnouts, suicides,
and those who spent unproductive years in retreat (or rehab),
but none could be called petrified of work. The debate over
talent vs. work ethic is moot in history: without the work, we’d
never heard of most of these people.
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Have emotional or other serious problems
A high percentage of geniuses weren’t particularly happy, well
adjusted people. It’d be unfair to say it’s a requirement, but
there’s sure evidence for a correlation. For all their brilliance, it
doesn’t seem like most of these people led stable lives.
Picasso, Van Gogh, Edison, Einstein, and Nietzsche (not to
mention almost every major modern philosopher) had difficult,
if not disastrous, personal lives. Every one of them either never
married or married many times, had children they abandoned
or became estranged from, and had episodes of great
depression and turmoil. Isaac Newton and Tesla spent many of
their days in isolation, and had enough eccentricities and
personality disorders to earn a cabinet full of pharmaceuticals
today.
Michelangelo and Da-Vinci were troublesome employees,
abandoning commissions from Popes and bishops, fleeing
cities for threats of war and personal debts. Kafka and Proust
were both notable hypochondriacs, each spending years of
their lives in bed or in hospitals for medical conditions, some of
which we’re psychological in nature or origin. Voltaire,
Thoreau, and Socrates all lived in various kinds of exile or
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poverty, and used their response to these conditions in the
works they are famous for. Positive emotions and experiences
can work as fuel too, there just don’t seem to be as many
genius stories that center on happy, well adjusted lives. John
Coltrane, C.S. Lewis, and Einstein had deeply held, and mostly
positive, spiritual beliefs that fueled their work. Stephen King
seems like a happy guy at his core, despite all the horror that
passes through his mind.
Emotions of any kind, positive or negative, provide fuel for
work, and many geniuses were simply better at converting
their emotions into work than their peers. The need to express
feelings, escape suffering, or prove the possibility of an
imagined world was stronger in these people than the
challenges of the work itself, enabling them to spend more of
their waking hours searching for expression, or solving
problems, than most people choose to. Creativity and self-
expression are hard work for anyone, but perhaps a lesson we
can learn from the prolific is to widen our sources of fuel and
raise our tolerance for hard work.
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Good, evil and technology: a fun philosophical inquiry
Are you a good person? How do you know? Most of us set a
low bar. Unless we’re kicking puppies and stealing lunches
from homeless children, we think we’re doing all right. But not
being bad is not the same as being good. And when it comes to
making things like software and websites the same rules apply.
Good and evil demystified
A quick trip to the dictionary yields the following basic terms.
Good: Being positive, desirable or virtuous; a good person.
Having desirable qualities : a good exterior paint; a good joke.
Serving the purpose or end; suitable: Is this a good dress for
the party?
Evil: Morally bad or wrong; wicked: an evil tyrant. Causing ruin,
injury, or pain; harmful: the evil effects of a poor diet.
Characterized by anger or spite; malicious: an evil temper.
But how does this apply to technology? Are there good
websites and evil websites? Rarely. Most things we know and
use fall in between: tools are amoral. They don’t prevent
someone from using them for bad or work better when used
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for good. Great software performs just as well when you’re
drafting praise for homeless shelter volunteers as when you’re
writing recipes for orphan stew. If we want to claim that the
things we make are good or bad, we have to go beyond their
function. Goodness, in the moral sense, means something very
different from good in the engineering sense.
Focusing on engineering alone, technology makers are not far
from arms-dealers: we provide tools to the world with
indifference for how they are used. This doesn’t make us evil,
but it doesn’t make us good either.
What is the point of technology?
But what is the alternative? The answer depends on how you
view the value of technology. There are (at least) 5
alternatives:
There is no point. The universe is chaos and every
confused soul fends for themselves. Therefore
technology, like all things, is pointless. Software and it’s
makers are just another chaotic element in the random
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existential mess that is the universe. (Patron saint:
Marvin the robot from Hitchhikers guide to the galaxy).
There might be a point, but it’s unknowable (same as
above only more depressing). Technology has value but
we are incapable of understanding it, therefore our
attempts at making things will tend to be misguided and
even self-destructive, but that’s ok. (Patron saint: Tyler
Durden, Fight club).
The point is how it’s used (the pragmatic moral view).
The point is that technology enables people to do things.
How the technology is used, and the effect it has on
people in the world. In this line of thought a good
technology is one that enables good things to happen
for people and helps them live satisfying lives and what
we make should be built on the tradition of shelter, fire,
electricity, refrigeration and vaccination (Patron saint:
Victor Papanak, author of design for the real world).
The point is how it makes the creator feel (the selfish
view). What matters is how the creator of the thing feels
about the thing. This is an artistic view of technology in
that programming or building is an act of expression
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whose greatest meaning is to the creator themselves.
(Patron saint: Salvador Dali)
The point to technology is its economic value. The free
market decides what good technology is, possibly giving
creators resources for doing morally good things. But
the the moral value of the technology itself is
indeterminate or unimportant. (Patron saint: Gordon
Gekko)
I’m not offering any of these as the true answer: there isn’t
one. You have to figure it out for yourself. But I am pointing
out that without a sense of the purpose of technology it’s
impossible to separate good from bad: there has to be some
underlying value system to apply to the making of things. I
admit I’m partial to the pragmatic view, that technology’s
value is in helping people live better lives (or even further, that
a goal of life is to be of use to people, through technological or
other means), but I’m well aware that’s not the only answer.
Technological value
But if you do identify a personal philosophy for technology,
there are ways to apply it to the making of things. Assuming
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you see good technology as achieving a moral good, here’s one
approach.
For any technology you can estimate its value to help
individuals. Lets call that ability V. Assuming you know how
many people use the technology (N), V * N = the value of the
technology. Here’s two examples:
A heart defibrillator can save someone’s life (V=100). But may
only have a few users (N=1000).
V * N = 100,000.
A pizza website allows me to order pizza online (V=1). It may
have many users (N=50,000).
V * N = 50,000.
We can argue about how to define V (or the value of online
pizza delivery), but as a back of the envelope approach, it’s
easy to compare two different technologies for their value,
based on any philosophy of technology. Should you happen to
be Satan’s right hand man, change V to S (for suffering) and
you’re on your way.
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However, one trap in this is the difference between what
technology makes possible and what people actually do. I
could use a defibrillator to start my car, or use the pizza
website to play pranks on my neighbors. Or more to my point, I
might not actually use the technology at all, despite purchasing
it and being educated in its value. So the perceived value of a
thing, by the thing’s creator, is different from the actual value
the thing has for people in the real world.
Here are some questions that help sort out value:
What is possible with the technology?
How much of that potential is used? Why or why not?
Who benefits from the technology?
How do they benefit?
What would they have done without the technology?
What are the important problems people have? Is a
technological solution the best way to solve them?
The implications of things
Every tool has an implied morality. There is a value system that
every machine, program, or website has built into it that’s
comprehendible if you look carefully. As two polarizing
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examples, look at these two things: a machine gun and a
wheelchair.
Both of these have very clear purposes in mind and behind
each purpose is a set of values. The wheelchair is designed to
support someone. The machine gun is designed to kill
someone (or several someones).
Many of the products we make don’t have have as clearly
defined values. However as I mentioned earlier, the absence
of value is a value: not being explicitly evil isn’t the same as
being good. If I make a hammer, it can be used to build homes
for the needy, or to build a mansion for a bank robber. I can be
proud of the hammer’s design, but I can’t be certain that I’ve
done a good thing for the world: the tool’s use is too basic to
define it as good or bad.
It’s common to see toolmakers, from search engines to
development tools, take credit for the good they see their
tools do, while ignoring the bad. This isn’t quite right: they are
equally involved in the later as they are in the former.
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The conclusion to this is that to do good things for people
requires a more direct path than the making of tools. Helping
the neighbor’s kid learn math, volunteering at the homeless
shelter or donating money to the orphanage are ways to do
good things that have a direct impact, compared to the
dubious and sketchy goodness of indifferent tool making.
The creative responsibility (Hacker ethics)
Computer science has no well established code of ethics. You
are unlikely to hear the words moral, ethical, good and evil in
the curriculum of most degree programs (However some
organizations are working on this: see references). It’s not that
computer science departments condone a specific
philosophical view: it’s that they don’t see it as their place to
prescribe a philosophical view to engineering students. (The
absence of a philosophy is in fact a philosophy, but that’s not
my point). But the history of engineering does have some
examples of engineering cultures that took clear stances on
ethics.
Freemasons, the ancient (and often mocked) order of builders,
has a central code that all members are expected to uphold. It
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defines a clear standard of moral and ethical behavior and
connects the building of things to those ideals.
More recently, the early hacker culture at MIT defined a set of
rules for how hacks should be done.
A hack must:
be safe
not damage anything
not damage anyone, either physically, mentally or
emotionally
be funny, at least to most of the people who experience
it
The meaning of the term hacker has changed several times,
but the simplicity and power of a short set of rules remains. Do
you bind the decisions you make in creating things to a set of
ideals? What are they?
Defining our beliefs
Even if we don’t define rules for ourselves, we we all believe
one of three things about what we make:
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I have no responsibility (for how it’s used)
I have some responsibility
I have total responsibility
Most of us fall into the middle view: we have some
responsibility. But if that’s true, how do we take on that
responsibility? How do our actions reflect that accountability?
Nothing prevents us from making sure the tools we make, and
skills we have, are put to good use: donated to causes we
value, demonstrated to those who need help, customized for
specific purposes and people we think are doing good things.
It’s only in those acts that we’re doing good: the software,
website or machine is often not enough. Or more to my point,
the best way to do good has less to do with the technology,
and more to do with what we do with it.
“The purpose of technology is to facilitate things. On the
whole, I think, technology can deliver, but what it is
asked to do is often not very great. “ – Neil Postman
“Let the chips fall where they may” – Tyler Durden
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“I think the technical capabilities of technology are well
ahead of the value concepts which we ask it to deliver. “
– Edward De Bono
“If you want to understand a new technology, ask
yourself how it would be used in the hands of the
criminal, the policeman, and the politician” – William
Gibson
“With great power comes great responsibility” –
SpiderMan
“Our technology has surpassed our humanity” – Einstein
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Air Pollution
With the great concern surrounding the destruction of the
earth's atmosphere due to air pollution, the immediate and
direct harm caused to the human body is often over
shadowed. While many are aware that our careless use of
hazardous chemicals and fossil fuels may leave the planet
uninhabitable in the future, most over look the fact that they
are also cause real damage to our bodies at this moment. Such
pollutants cause damage to our respiratory system, leading to
the fluctuation of the life span of an individual depending on a
number of conditions. Amongst these conditions are the
individuals specific geographic location, age, and life style. This
paper is structured as a series of relevant questions and
answers to report on the description of these pollutants there
affects on our bodies. In order to understand how air pollution
affects our body, you must under stand exactly what this
pollution is. The pollutants that harm our respiratory system
are known as particulates. Particulates are the small solid
particles that you can see through a ray of sunlight. They are
products of incomplete combustion in engines (example:
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automobile engines), road dust, and wood smoke. Billions of
tons of coal and oil are consumed around the world every
year. When these fuels burn they produce smoke and other
by-products into the atmosphere. Although wind and rain
occasionally wash away the smoke given off by power plants
and automobiles, much still remains. Particulate matter (soot,
ash, and other solids), usually consist of unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, various
nitrogen oxides, ozone, and lead. These compounds undergo a
series of chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight, the
result is smog (a term used to describe a noxious mixture of
fog and smoke) The process by which these pollutants harm
our bodies begins by simply taking a breath. Particulates are
present every where, in some areas they are as dense as
100,000 per milliliter of air. The damage begins when the
particulates are inhaled into the small air sacs of our lungs
called alveoli. With densities such as 100,000 per milliliter a
single alveolus may receive 1,500 particulates per day. These
particulates cause the inflammation of the alveoli. The
inflammation causes the body to produce agents in the blood
that in crease clotting ability, which leads to the decreased
functionality of the cardiovascular system, resulting in diseases
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and increased mortality. In the blood, carbon monoxide
interferes with the supply of oxygen to all tissues and organs,
including the brain and heart. Particulates accumulate on the
mucous linings of the airways and lungs and impair their
functioning. Continued exposure to particulates damages the
lungs and increases an individual's chances of developing such
conditions as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. While you
may see pollutants such as particulates, other harmful ones
are not visible. Amongst the most dangerous to our health are
Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur dioxide, and Ozone.
If you have ever been in an enclosed parking garage or a
tunnel and felt dizzy or light-headed then you have felt the
effect of carbon monoxide(CO). This odorless, colorless, but
poisonous gas is produced by the incomplete burning of fossil
fuels, like gasoline or diesel fuel. Carbon Monoxide comes
from cars, trucks, gas furnaces and stoves, and some industrial
processes. CO is also a toxin in cigarettes. Carbon Monoxide
combines with hemoglobin in the red blood cells, so body cells
and tissues cannot get the oxygen they need. Carbon
Monoxide attacks the immune system, especially affecting
anyone with heart disease, anemia, and emphysema and other
lung diseases. Even when at low concentrations CO affects
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mental function, vision, and alertness. Nitrogen Oxide is
another pollutant that has been nicknamed a jet-age pollutant
because it is only apparent in highly advanced countries.
Sources of this are fuel plant, cars, and trucks. At lower
concentrations nitrogen oxides are a light brown gas. In high
concentrations they are major sources of haze and smog. They
also combine with other compounds to help form ozone.
Nitrogen Oxides cause eye and lung irritation, and lowers the
resistance to respiratory illness, such as chest colds, bronchitis,
and influenza. For children and people with asthma, this gas is
can cause death. Nitrogen Oxides maybe the most dangerous
of these pollutants because it also makes nitric acid, when
combine with water in rain, snow, fog, or mist. This then
becomes the harmful acid rain. Sulfur Dioxide is a heavy,
smelly, colorless gas which comes from industrial plants,
petroleum refineries, paper mills, and chemical plants. When
combined with water it becomes sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid
dissolves marble, turns plants yellow, and eats away at iron
and steel, you can imagine the possible damage to human
tissue. It's effect on people with asthma, heart disease, and
emphysema is devastating. It is also a major contribute to acid
rain. There are numerous cases displaying the grave danger of
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particulate air pollution. One popular example occurred in
London, England in the year 1952. In this case excessive deaths
were caused as a result of respiratory and cardiovascular
problems in that year. The research at that time revealed an
association between particulate and sulphur dioxide
concentrations in the air and risk of respiratory disease and
death. The excessive problems are thought to have been
caused by "winter smogs". Winter smogs were frequent
problem during the 1940s through the 1950s when coal was
the main fuel for both domestic and commercial use. Winter
smogs are caused by temperature inversions which trap
particulates close to the ground. The air and smoke trapped
contained high concentrations of soot, sulphur dioxide, and
other pollutants. This winter smog took the lives of over 3,500
people. A similar incident in the United States came about as a
result of the same type of temperature changes and smog. In
1948 six thousand people became drastically ill and twenty
died as a direct result of winter smog in Pennsylvania. More
recently an even greater tragedy occurred. One of the great
human and environmental disasters of the 1980s occurred on
December 3, 1984, in Bhopal, India. About 50 tons of methyl
isocyanate escaped into the air from a pesticide company
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owned by the American corporation Union Carbide. Estimates
of the death toll in surrounding neighborhoods were as high as
2,500. About 100,000 others were injured by the gas leak.
Since the in industrial revolution city dwellers have always
been exposed to higher levels of particulate air pollution. As I
have mentioned, the fuels use in the urban factories release
large amounts of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and soot.
Another main factor is the heavy use if motor vehicles by the
city population. In the city, where many people and objects
occupy a small area the problem is amplified. Depending on
the weather conditions the threat can become even greater.
Another major factor is the individual. While sex does not
matter age and health history do. It has been proven that
death or illness from air pollution is more likely in young
people, old people, and people that smoke. Children are often
more vulnerable to those pollutants for two main reasons. The
first being that because of their small size their heartbeats and
metabolic rates are faster. Therefore all reactions within their
bodies including the harmful ones of pollutants (chiefly the
replacement of oxygen with carbon monoxide in the blood
stream) take place at an accelerated pace. The second is the
relatively weak immune systems of young children.
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Particulates that act as irritants take a greater toll on their still
developing bodies. The same threats that air pollution pose to
young people effect older members of society. Although their
metabolic rates not high, their immune systems maybe equally
as weak. An investigation conducted by the Helen Dwight Reid
Educational Foundation on the joint effects of air pollution and
smoking showed that smokers in Beijing, China suffered from
greater problems in their pulmonary artery functions. They
also had a vital lung capacity decrease of over 10%. It is
apparent that our careless use of fossil fuels and chemicals is
destroying this planet. And it is now more than ever apparent
that at the same time we are destroying our bodies, proving
that our pollution is not just a problem that we can pass on to
our children.
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Environmental Ethics
Establishing an environmental ethic is of utmost concern to
the human species to better comprehend our place in the
world and our potentials for the future. In doing so, we must
extend our thinking of rights and responsibilities. I believe we
must incorporate not only a temporal component, but also a
spatial understanding of the world as an organic biotic
community and how consumption is a part of the natural
order. Aldo Leopold believes that conservation ethics must be
rooted in a determination: "A thing is right when it tends to
preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic
community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise." I would like
to start with Leopold's statement, and further explore how the
definitions of integrity, stability and beauty can be better
understood given three corollary's: 1. All organic entities must
consume to survive – it is not only a right, but a responsibility
2. There are limited resources to be consumed by organic
entities on the planet 3. The human species has the ability,
through rational thought, to conserve ever-depleting resources
Leopold's ethic attempts to extend what is of human, moral
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concern to include animals, ecosystems, and endangered
species. How can this concern be expressed in today's society?
I see one problem with this argument in that there is little
discussion about power and influence that is inherent in
current definitions of rights. Therefore, I will introduce the
notion that organic entities, those that depend on the
consumption of energy for survival, must retain the right to
consume resources to survive. Notions of right and wrong now
have no standing – it is a fact that organic entities must
consume to maintain life. I will turn to Callicott for some
discussion of limits and to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
as a moral decree to conservation. The resources for survival
are diverse and limited, and we must explore more fully the
components of a biotic community as a whole to explore our
moral limits. Community components Organic entities exist
(i.e. live) in an interdependent organic community. This
viewpoint will examine components of the world which are
necessary to maintain organic life. Biological entities are not
the only things that require consumption in these organic
communities: Fire consumes oxygen as well as organic entities,
the atmosphere consumes radiation from the sun, water
consumes through the removal of essential oxygen to those
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that require it, and the earth consumes through convection.
The earth, itself, does nothing more than recycle energy.
Inorganic earth, water and air are also methods of
transportation within the consumption community.
Temporally, to better understand the interconnectedness with
other entities we must look at humanities history through the
ancestry of the land. Leopold described the rings on a fallen
tree to show where, at different points in time, it may have
been affected by other forces of consumption. We can see this
in a ring that is charred black due to a fire over one hundred
years ago, or where romantic lovers etched their names in its
sturdy frame. However, when we examine things at the
microscopic level, a rich picture emerges that relates our
biological history with nature. Leopold writes of this through
the Odyssey of "Particle X": In the flash of a century the rock
decayed, and X was pulled out and up into a world of living
things. He helped build a flower, which became an acorn,
which fattened a deer which fed an Indian, all in a single year.
The human sensory methods of discovery tend to miss many
relationships between organic entities. We tend to miss a lot
of things when we are not actually living in nature as well. The
modern market-driven consumer society is very different from
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the consumer community of the totality of organic entities on
the earth – and quite possible less complex. We tend not only
to consume resources, but technology allows us to build things
that consume resources just in the production process itself.
These, in turn, produce forms of energy that can then be
consumed by human beings as a species. Finite energy
resources Up until now, I have neglected the inorganic life that
abounds on the planet. I will now turn to the Second Law of
Thermodynamics which states that in any closed system,
entropy is always increasing. Organic entities require energy
for survival, and entropy, which is a measure of the amount of
energy unavailable for work during a natural process, is
constantly increasing. That is, the more we consume, the more
waste is produced that is not available to organic entities to
survive. Organic entities and communities do nothing more
than recycle energy throughout the planet – from the flower,
to the wolf, to the ocean. It is our consumption, in relation to
the community as a whole, that we must keep in mind.
Community stability The stability of the land is crucial to
maintain the recycling of energy for living communities. We
run into problems with the realization that energy can take on
different forms, and those types available may not be able to
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be consumed by the individual entities that inhabit it.
Reductions in the number of species, and their interdependent
relationships, over time will result in unstable systems which
can no longer recycle usable energy due to the lack of entities
that can consume it. The human relevance here is that our
actions, which are currently removing entire organic
communities, will have dramatic effects on the stability of the
organic community. Here, it is important to see that individuals
contribute to and affect the stability of the community as a
whole. Community integrity The integrity of the organic
community is a difficult concept to address in an ever-changing
natural world. I would like to relate it to the spatial component
of interconnectedness between organic entities within and
between the organic community. Here, organic entities are but
a process within the recycling process of the earth as a whole.
The individual components, aside from extremely damaging
human events, will normally not put a dent in the community
as a whole. The recycling processes of the community here
include weather phenomena, natural land movements, and
ocean sinks and these have little concern for the individual
entities of the organic community. It is the integrity and
interconnectedness of the whole that can be compromised
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most easily by human hands. Community beauty "The trend of
evolution is to elaborate and diversify the land [sea and air]
biota." Dr. Leopold emphasizes the diversity of the landscape
and its contribution to the beauty that exists there. It is this
component that combines the abstract and rational thought in
the human species. I believe the saying is beauty is in the eyes
of the beholder. This is probably the most difficult points to
discuss because of that. I don't believe beauty can be
subjected to the objective sciences of today, where it would
just be thrown within the current institutional power structure.
We must come to grips with our consumption patters, in
relation to the amount of energy that is required for ourselves,
and other entities, to exist. Callicott believed that the scope
and rate of extinction could be used as well, by examining the
rate of species extinction, and compare it with previous
sources of information on the subject. This diversification that
Leopold discusses can allow us to frame beauty in an energy-
consumption view. The human species, and its endless
creation of energy consuming and transforming machines, has
found ways to take away the rights of other organic entities to
consume. We have removed not only energy sources for other
organic entities, but have removed the entities altogether.
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Ecological Education Beyond the ethical prowess, and more
importantly, we need to change how people think about the
environment through education. The citizen-conservationist
needs an understanding of wildlife ecology not only to enable
him (her) to function as a critic of sound policy, but to enable
him (her) to derive maximum enjoyment from his (her)
contacts with the land. The jig-saw puzzle of competitions and
cooperations which constitute the wildlife community are
inherently more interesting than mere acquaintance with its
constituent species, for the same reason that a newspaper is
inherently more interesting than a telephone directory. It is
only through this democratic education process that we can
truly, as a consumer species, come together in moral
environmental thought. The virtual realities available to us
today only provide virtual experiences. Leopold believed
experiential learning was the only way to overcome and to do
this was to get out into nature and get first-hand experiences.
"Schools and Universities need nearby pieces of land on which
conservation problems and techniques can be shown, and
researches performed." The Moral call This process of
consumption and waste production is repeated over and over
until there is no energy, usable by organic entities, left. The
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human species is the only organic entity that can realize,
through rational thought, this global process which will result
in the end of organic life on this planet. Really, that is why this
paper is being written! In essence, the amount of energy that
can be consumed is finite, naturally decreasing, and only
realized by the human species. It seems a fatalistic point of
view, but in terms of human lifetimes, the end of usable
resources may still be thousands of generations away. A re-
examination of the primary consumption entities of today are
not even organic. They are mechanical devices, driven by a
materialistic ethic, meant to transform energy into types that
our species can then consume. Cars consume oil, power plants
consume coal, and our packaging consumes trees. Not to
mention all of the conversions directly to unusable energy,
such as plastics or even the processes of material production
itself. Of course, by removing the potential energy base for
other organic entities, this can lead to instability in the organic
community as a whole. Therefore, we must not ask too much
of nature and conserve the limited resources of the life giving
Earth.
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Global Warming
What happens when too much carbon dioxide gets
omitted into the Earth’s atmosphere? The condition known as
Global Warming occurs. Global Warming is the rising of the
Earth’s surface temperature due to chemicals in the
atmosphere. Global Warming has many threats on the climate
and even the health of the people on this planet. Some of
these threats include the altering of crop seasons and even
effect the way organisms survive on the planet. The first thing I
think I should discuss when talking about global warming is
what causes it to occur. Gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide, which are known as greenhouse
gases, all build up in the atmosphere of the earth. All these
gases make it so that it becomes harder for the radiation that
the sun shines into the atmosphere to escape. The heat
continues to build up and this is what causes the temperatures
to increase. I know this seems like the temperatures increase
massively but in the last hundred years the average
temperature of the Earth has gone up between 0.8 and 1.0
degrees farenheight. Also in the last fifteen years, we have had
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the ten warmest years in record. Global Warming also helps
the Earth and it has been for many years. Without global
warming, the Earth’s temperature would be a lot lower than
the 60-degree average. Unfortunately due to there being many
more harmful “greenhouse gases” being placed into the
atmosphere, instead of the temperature staying at a constant,
its rising. What are many of the dangers of the Earth’s
temperature rising? First of all it cause many of the glaciers
that are floating in the Arctic and Greenland to melt. This in
turn causes the sea levels to rise around the world. In the last
hundred years alone the seas around the planet have risen
anywhere from four to ten inches. I know it does not sound
like a massive change but being able to raise all the seas in the
world a whole ten inches is a huge problem. Sea levels also
continue to rise is because the hotter temperature cause the
ocean water to expand. An example of the sea level causing
problems could happen on a little Native Island in the middle
of an Ocean. On these islands usually where native tribes live,
if the sea level rises three fourths of a meter then half of the
island will sink. This could happen in many different islands
around the world and if the water keeps on rising as it is, then
farming land near the seashores will be flooded and the crops
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will be destroyed and many farmers will be left without much
to live off of. The melting of the glaciers are also causing some
problems in the Himalayas. Many of the tips of the mountain’s
in that area. Massive flooding and rivers that are well above
their normal levels are threatening the crops and homes in the
area. Many of the locals that live in the area and many of the
scientists that are surveying the area are saying that the
glaciers are melting at a phenomenal rate. Another danger that
comes with the changing of the climate is that the increased
heat causes more evaporation to occur in the hotter climates.
This causes there to be more precipitation in many other
climates that are not used to handling massive rainfalls. The
increased rainfall also leads to speeding up the process of the
sea levels rising. Health is also something that becomes
threatened because of global warming. Heat becomes a huge
factor in the health of humans, especially the elderly. Incidents
such as heat stroke head exhaustion and diseases increase
drastically. The heat makes it possible for mosquitoes and
other insects to transmit diseases. This is something that
happened in New York during this summer. A very rare disease
called St. Louis Emphyitis (spelling?) that would spread in
puddles of water that mosquitoes would drink out of due to
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the heat. These mosquitoes would then bite humans and infect
them with this disease. I don’t recall how many people, if any
died due to this, but it did cause a bit of a panic in the New
York Metropolitan area. Heat is not the only weather problem.
Global Warming doesn't only increase temperatures in hot
areas. It also decreases temperatures in cold areas. An
example of this has been the cold spell that struck the
Midwest. In Montana, temperatures plummeted to 30 degrees
below and stayed there. The coldest weather ever recorded
plagued our country's heart for over three weeks and still
hasn't returned too normal. A related incident has been the
blizzards of the East Coast. Some places in New York State got
over twenty feet of snow. So what is in store for Earth in the
future? Possible nothing. There are many people that believe
global warming is nothing more than the normal rise of
temperature around the world. So if this is the case, we have
nothing to really worry about. Unfortunately, this scenario of
normal raise in temperature might not be the case. If it isn’t,
Scientists estimate that the global temperature will rise
between five and nine degrees by the middle of the 21st
century accompanied by a sea-level rise of one to four feet.
Once the temperature reaches a certain threshold, the polar
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ice caps will began to melt. While those living in the Arctic may
find that a nice surprise, the implications for the rest of the
world are serious. Even a partial melting of the polar ice caps
will cause sea levels to rise so much as to completely wipe out
most coastal cities. This includes such big cities such as San
Francisco and New York. Those cities that are not totally wiped
out by the water will eventually be hit with hurricanes much
more severe than any other one in history. Of course, inland
cities are not safe either. Rather than surging seawaters and
hurricanes, they will face drought. So what can be done in
order to keep from all of that from happening? We need to
stop putting so much pollution in to the air. No matter what
there will always be a little bit of Carbon Dioxide omitted into
the atmosphere. If we could just limit all the coal and fossil
fuels that we burn, there will not be so much “greenhouse
gases” and it would keep all of that from happening so quickly.
There have also been many attempts by the United States
Presidents Administrations in order to help slow down the
effect. In my lifetime I know that I won’t see anything too
drastic happen due to global warming, but there is a chance
that my children and grandchildren will.
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Anemia
What is Anemia? Anemia is a deficiency of red blood cells
or hemoglobin in the blood. The word anemia comes from two
Greek roots, together meaning “without blood.” At the
beginning of the nineteenth century, “anemia” referred to the
pallor of the skin and mucous membranes. After medical
science advanced, blood cell counts could be done. Anemia
became the disease we know today. Symptoms of Anemia Mild
anemia may have no outer symptoms. Weakness, fatigue, and
pallor are very common symptom. Symptoms of severe
anemia are shortness of breath, rapid heartbeat,
lightheadedness, headache, ringing in the ears, irritability,
restless leg syndrome, mental confusion, dizziness, fainting,
and dimmed vision. Types of Anemia Iron deficiency anemia-
the most common type of anemia; occurs because of low iron
levels. Folic acid deficiency anemia- levels of folic acid are low
because of inadequate dietary intake or faulty absorption.
Pernicious anemia- inability of the body to properly absorb
vitamin B12. Hemolytic anemia- red blood cells are destroyed
prematurely. Sickle cell anemia- inherited abnormality of
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hemoglobin; occurs mainly in people of African or
Mediterranean decent. Thalassemia anemia- inherited
disorder in the synthesis of hemoglobin. Aplastic anemia-
decreased bone marrow production. Diagnosis of Anemia
Determining the cause of anemia is very important because it
may be the sign of a very serious illness. A physician should ask
about family history of anemia, gallbladder disease, jaundice,
and enlarged spleen. A stool test should be done and the
physician should check for swollen lymph nodes, an enlarged
spleen, and pallor. Laboratory tests can test both the numbers
of red blood cells as well as look at their appearance.
Treatments of Anemia Because there are so many different
types of anemia as well as causes, treatments vary widely. If
the type of anemia results from a vitamin deficiency and there
is no underlying cause, treatment is simple. Vitamin
supplements can be taken or a change in diet can be made.
Transfusions and bone marrow transplants for some other
types of anemia can be made. New drugs are currently being
tested to help anemic patients.
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Alzheimer`s Disease
It's normal to occasionally forget assignments,
colleagues' names or a business associate's telephone number,
but generally remember them later. Those with a dementia
like Alzheimer's disease, may forget things more often, and not
remember them later. They may repeatedly ask the same
question, not remembering either the answer, or that they
already asked the question. Difficulty Performing Familiar
Tasks Busy people can be distracted from time to time and
leave the carrots on the stove, only remembering to serve
them at the end of the meal. People with Alzheimer's disease
could prepare a meal, forget to serve it, and even forget they
made it. Problems with Language Everyone has trouble finding
the right word sometimes, but can finish the sentence with
another appropriate word. A person with Alzheimer's disease
may forget simple words, or substitute inappropriate words,
making their sentence incomprehensible. Disorientation of
Time and Place It's normal to forget the day of the week or
your destination for a moment. But people with Alzheimer's
disease can become lost on their own street or in a familiar
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shopping mall, not knowing where they are, how they got
there or how to get home. Poor or Decreased Judgment
People can become so immersed in an activity or telephone
conversation they temporarily forget the child they're
watching. A person with Alzheimer's disease could entirely
forget the child under their care and leave the house to visit a
neighbor. Problems with Abstract Thinking People who
normally balance their checkbooks may be momentarily
disconcerted when the task is more complicated than usual,
but will eventually figure out the solution. Someone with
Alzheimer's disease could forget completely what the numbers
are and what needs to be done with them. Misplacing Things
Anyone can misplace their wallet or keys, but eventually find
them by reconstructing where they could have left them. A
person with Alzheimer's disease may put things down in
inappropriate places -- an iron in the freezer, or a wristwatch in
the sugar bowl -- and not be able to retrieve them. Changes in
Mood or Behavior Everyone has a bad day once in a while, or
may become sad or moody from time to time. Someone with
Alzheimer's disease can exhibit rapid mood swings for no
apparent reason: e.g. from calm to tears to anger to calm in a
few minutes. Changes in Personality People's personalities
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ordinarily change somewhat at different ages, as character
traits strengthen or mellow. But a person with Alzheimer's
disease can change drastically, becoming extremely irritable,
suspicious or fearful. Loss of Initiative It's normal to tire of
housework, business activities or social obligations, but most
people regain their initiative. The person with Alzheimer's
disease may become very passive and require cues and
prompting to get them involved in activities. These ten
warning signs also may apply to dementias other than
Alzheimer's disease. People concerned about these warning
signs should see a physician for a complete examination. The
"Is It Alzheimer's? Ten Warning Signs" campaign has been
funded through an educational grant from Parke-Davis.
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Baseball
Understanding why we are here on this place called earth
is a mystery. Life has so many obstacles, so many hardships. It
is the success that we accomplish that allows us to survive;
everyone wants to be the best at what they do. Being a
success shows others that we can do it. We are just as good as
the next person. We are all equal. Life is like baseball. There
are your chances to get a hit and field the ball with perfection.
Make the best of every chance you get because those chances
may not be there the next time. I made the best of baseball,
and it all started in little league. Through the hardships that I
faced I overcame a lot. Baseball has helped me deal with
mockery. People will find something they don’t like in an
individual, and pick it out. Those who mock others have low
self-esteem, and it makes them feel better to point out other’s
flaws. I got made fun of in little league by many people
including one parent. I was only ten years old when all this
mockery was taking place. My feelings were obviously hurt.
Hurting a ten year old’s feeling is downright low. I wanted to
be good at baseball, but I was not getting my chance to play. I
practiced and practiced each day. My parents supported me
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dearly. I knew things would get better because I wanted them
to. Another way baseball has helped me is that it made me
determined. Determination was what I had to search for deep
down inside. Right before opening day, my grandfather
passed. I was so close to him; it hurt me really bad. I made it a
point that I would dedicate my final little league year, 12 year
olds, to him. I feel that my grandfather watched over me every
game. He made me a new player with a new attitude. I finally
got my chance, and made the most of it. I was the first pick
overall, and would be the ace of the pitching staff. Before I
would pitch, I would look up into the sky and give a little wink
to my grandfather, who was my biggest fan. I never lost my
faith. I received the M.V.P. award that year. I struck out 67 of
69 batters faced along with a reported 77 M.P.H. fastball as a
12 year old. I was also the M.V.P. of the all-star team. I had
many one-hitters, and a no-hitter. All this happened because I
never lost my faith. My parents taught me to also strive toward
your goals, and don’t let anyone tell you that you that you
can’t. Throughout my life I have dealt with so much. Baseball
has really helped me. I used to be the “goat,” and turned into
the “hero,” overnight as it seemed. Little league was just the
start; grade school and high school were just the same. Faith
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applies to everything that you do in life. If the individual
doesn’t have belief in who they are, and what they do, they
are not going to be a success. Believe in yourself, and never be
ashamed of anything. My family has helped me so much.
Without my family, I would not be anything because I would
have given up. Being rich and famous is what everyone wants
as it seems. In reality, however, they just want to be happy.
Right now I am happy, but I cannot say if I will be tomorrow.
Baseball has helped me deal with people, and to not take
things people say seriously. If I would sit in my room and cry
everyday that means I gave up. That is not going to happen.
My mom always said to always to my best, and that would be
good enough for her. Tomorrow my life could change. It may
be in a positive way or a negative way; I must be ready for
either one. The success I had in baseball is astronomical.
However, an injury a year ago destroyed my baseball career.
They said scholarships were waiting for me. I realize what
baseball did for me, however. It not only kept me out of
trouble, but also gave me self-esteem. Self-esteem is key these
days. If you really want something you have to go out and get
it. Success will only come to those whom choose to be
successful. I had many fears in life then. I overcame them.
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People must laugh at fear, and realize they can overcome it.
When I stepped up to the plate, I would hear boos. Nobody
thought I could be the player I was; they were wrong. I never
let what people said bother me; it only made me want to do
better. Baseball was my life, and helped me throughout it.
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Alice Walker
Knowing the meaning of heritage in Everyday Use The story
“Everyday Use”, is being told by a mother who describes
herself as a big boned woman, with a second grade education.
She had always had to do the work of a man to provide for her
family. A mother of two girls with different views on the family
culture. Dee, a light skinned girl with nice hair and a full figure.
Dee has always scorned the way the family lived. She comes
home to visit and wants to take back some of the family
heritage, such as Grandma Dee’s quilts. Maggie, a dark
skinned, slim and shy girl, who has never been away from
home. Maggie has a different love for the family heritage she
will continue to carry it on, like quilting. While Dee and Maggie
lived in the same house growing up, they have different
believes about their heritage. Two women sat in the yard
awaiting a visit from the older daughter, Dee, and a man who
may are may not be husband. Dee, was very hard on the
family’s way of life, has gone to college and now seems to be a
distant memory. Her mother imagines of being reunited with
her daughter on television. She visions the perfect reunion
someone would tell her what a fine daughter she has raised.
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Dee would come out in tears embracing her mother and
pinning and orchid on her dress. Maggie, who is not bright and
bears scars from a server house fire many years ago still,
remains intimidated by her glamorous sibling. Her mother was
astonished; Dee arrive wearing an ankle-length, gold and
orange dress, bracelets and gold earrings hanging down to her
shoulders. Her hair “it stand straight up like hair the wool on a
sheep”(Walker 283). Dee greets her family with a Swahili good
morning. Her companion offers a Muslim greeting and tries to
show Maggie a ceremonial handshake that she does not
understand. Dee mother tried to start a conversation with Dee
by calling her name. Dee explain that she’s change her name to
Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo, because “I couldn’t bear it any
longer, being named after the people who oppress
me”(Walker 283). Wangero mother attempted to explain to
her how far back her name go into the family history. Dee had
been embarrass of her mothers house and possessions when
she was younger (the mother believe she was happy when the
old house burn down), but now she seem to be happy with the
old way of life. With her newfound joy with her cultural
heritage, she takes photographs of the house, including her
mom, sister, and a wandering cow. Dee, while eating,
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remembered she wanted to ask her mother if she could have
the butter churn top whittled by her Uncle Buddy, do she may
use it as a centerpiece for her table. Dee, after getting the
churn top, she then ask for the dasher. Now her attention
turns to a trunk at the foot of her mother’s bed. After she goes
through the trunk, she returns with two quilts. “The quilts
become symbolic of the story’s theme; in a sense, they
represent the past of the women in the family”(Master Plots
733). Dee asks if she can have the quilts. Maggie in disbelief
that Dee asked for the quilts slammed the kitchen door. The
mother offers some other quilts that were in the trunk to her,
she refused because the quilts because they were made with a
machine. Then she tells Dee that she had promised the quilts
to Maggie a wedding present. Dee tells her mother that
Maggie would not appreciate the quilts and that she would use
them in “everyday use”. Dee’s mother says she hope Maggie
would use the quilts. “The two sister’s values concerning the
quilt represent the two meaning approaches to art
appreciation in our society. Art can be valued for financial and
aesthetic reasons, or it can be valued for personal and
emotional reasons”(Jokinen)
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1984 And Big Brother
1984 shows how our lives will not be as secret as they are
now. Oceania has no privacy and America is turning into that.
In some ways America already is like Oceania. There are many
elements in the book to compare with aspects in American
society today. So in many ways George Orwell was right and
maybe there soon will be a government very similar to the one
in 1984. One element in the book 1984 is Big Brother. He is the
ruler of Oceania. He is not one person but a name for the
whole government. Big Brother could represent our
government today. We may not know it but the government
knows everything about us. All they need is our name and
social security number and they could learn a lot about us. The
government has our previous jobs, where we went to school
and where we live. Big Brother is also like that in the book,
probably even worse. Big Brother is even more intruding than
our government today and the only way to get away with
things is by thinking them. It even says on a sign, “BIG
BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU” (5). Another element in the
book is the Thought Police. They are much different than the
police in our society today. The police in American society can
164
arrest you for things you only do while the thought police can
arrest you for things you think. “It was even conceivable that
the Thought Police watched everybody all the time” (6). If they
don’t see you getting involved or screaming during the two
minute hate they will arrest you. The only similarity is that they
both enforce the law. Otherwise they are totally different. The
telescreen in the book watches almost every move you do. It
invades your privacy and you have no way of getting away
from it except by thinking. “Any sound Winston made, above
the level of a very low whisper, would be picked up by it” (6).
Today we have surveillance cameras, which watch you too, but
these are for safety purposes so no one can rob a store or
commit a crime. These cameras are not everywhere either,
only in stores, banks, buildings, etc. So I don’t think
surveillance cameras and the telescreen are comparable.
Another element is The Brotherhood, “an underground
network of conspirators dedicated to the overthrow of the
state” (15). This can be compared to God. It is the people’s
hope. This is the only way the people will overthrow the
government. God is our hope in society while Big Brother was
their hope. Only some people knew it because others were
happy with the government. But they didn’t know the
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government was taking too much control. The Brotherhood is
trying to save the people. I think there is a similarity between
that and God. One last element are the Ministries. There are
four ministries “between which the entire apparatus of
government was divided” (8). This can be compared to our
government. We are divided into sections too. Ours are
different and we usually have one main person in charge of
those sections such as, the secretary of defense and secretary
of state. These are much similar to the Ministry of Peace and
Ministry of Plenty. So it shows they had a state of order as we
do. In conclusion I think America is turning into Oceania. Your
credit card knows a lot about you, like what you buy. With
computers today all your information is out there. We give out
our credit card number when it comes to computers so we
have to trust a lot of people. Certain people know things about
us that we don’t know about. It is not as bad as Oceania but
they are secretly taking over.
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Translate into English
*****
يرر بعض ررنعاد اررربعاد رر اعم عاد رررد عاد ضررحعجعيررىااعدررحع ر رر عمدرر عا باع
ومر سحع,عدرد ومر سي عتبعوعمد عادر و عادر بير عادمسرتاو عواد ر ذعادةاتير عادترحعاد
ت ضثقعع عشخصي عادشرع ع,عوتؤم عضتم بعادر بععوحعا وضرععادررسبذعادتحعت يطع
ضهع,ع هرعدحع وه هرعبعوذعمد عا يمر عضكاعمرعهوع مياعوع ي عوأخالقحع.عوم ع
عمد عأ يرءعاآلبااعادابيم عوتم يربعادترر ي عث عدهحعتم بعادضطود عوتبعوعاد ومر سي
عاداومحعضإدارءع ذع بيث ععوي عديهرعد بي عادشرع عو تهعادةاتي ع.
كررةدفعدررر عاد ومر سرري عتم رربعاد واطرروعاد يرر ع,عواد رطرررهعديهرررعتكررربعترر ابوع
اإل سر ي ع.عوتؤم عاد ومر سي عض يوي عادوغرتعاإل سر ي عوقب تهرععورحعادت رببع,عوقربع
د ومر سيو عضصريرتته عدوصرو عوادتشرضيهرتعواجسرت ر اتعاد بيربذع.عومر عع وعا
مالمحعاد ومر سي عدحعادش عصرر عادغ ريير عادترحعت رسراعصرر عاسرتثر ذعاد واطروع
اداومي عدو مرهي عادكضي ذع,عوي بعهؤجءعاد اربعضأ رع خس عادكثير ع ري ع تخور ععر ع
اد ومر سي عو ت قعات رهرتعأخ ىعدحعادش ع.
ع
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عدحعيو عاد يبعيتي
ع****
عدحعاديو عا واعدحعأير عاد يبعواد رسعدحعه جعوم جعوا طررراعيو ضرو ع
درررحعادشرررر ععوقررربعامسررركواعضأد ررررضه عوا تررربواعمالضسررره عاد بيررربذعوتسررررم واعوهررر ع
عيض كو عويارىو ع.
واآلضرءعا ش تعصبو ه عومشواعدحعادشر ععوه عياودو عض ضهعدض نعكاع
ي عا طرراعطراع ياعاد س ععاصر عادو رهعي ر عد درقرهععر عوا ت عضخي ع,عوكر عض
ر ذعت ضر ععر ع سربعدهر عوعر ع ى رهعد رسرهعد مر رهعمر عسر و ه عوسر ربته ع.ع
وكر عخ روجعمر عدضرسرهعادارة عوأقبامرهعاد ردير عياروعض روا ه عثر عيضر عيرب عخوروع
ه عويضتس عكر عيسأده عادسمر عدهعضمشر كتهعميرره عسر و عاد يربعودريسعدرحعةدرفع
ضرسععويه عىهوعطراعمثوه عيضكحعمةاعأدر عضرهعضر عويضر فعمةاع رراعمررعتصرضوعمديرهع
رسهعأ رعدهعم عي راعضغيتهعوهروعيتري عتوديرتعأمرهعض ربعوجبترهعضخمرسعسر واتعومررتع
عأضوذعض بعودرتهرعض رمي عد رد ععم عوأي ع وعىو عاد عم ع وعا ع.ع
ع
ع
ع
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عادًصـــــــــباقــــــ
ع***
عأسرسعدوترره عدحعادم رد عادمشت ك ع,عوكومرعكر عادتررره عم عم سرسعادصباقع
ضي عا د ابعسهاعادم رراعخردصررعمر عادشرفعسرهاعترأديوعادشر كرتعدرر عاد مراعيربد رع
عوررحعم عادمشرر وعرتعادخطيرر ذع,عم مرررعتودرربتعدررحعبايرر ذعضرريا عضرري ع مرعرر عمرر ع
أتخيراعا صبقرءعكسضواعضثارتهعوتضرم ه عثا عاد مرهي عد تعمش وعرته عودسرتع
أ عاع وعمش وعرعكر عادترروععوحعاداير عضرهعضري ععربوي عدررت بعاد القر عأوعضري ع
تي عصبياي ع.عهةاعمرعجع ومهعمد عاآل ع,عدأ عمهمرعكرر عأسررسعادمشرر ي عادمريربذع
هروعات رربعادم ر ر عدررر عاجترررقععورحعادم ر ر عوتارربي ع تري هررعواج تضررطعضت صرريوهرع
عاعهوععسي عضي عتي عا صبقرءع.اق اعمرعيكو عضي عصبياي ع,عض
أبعرروعمدررر عادصرررباق عجعمرر ع يرررفع تري هررررعادمريررربذعديمرررعت رررواعمررر عاد قررر ع
اج تمرعحعواجقتصرببعوادسيرسحعد ساع,عودكر عاشر عضرر عديهررعدورر بعسر ربذعجع
ت ربدهرعس ربذعأبعوعمد عصباق عاد اعدو اعصباق عضم حعادكوم عجعهة عادصباق ع
خ عدررحعتسررميتهرعط يارر عمرر عطرر قعاد صرراع,عأوعكةضرر عمرر عادمررىو ذعادتررحعجعأتررأ
ا كرةياع,عادتحعي هرعادضوهعسيرس عومررعديهررعمر ع اي ر عادسيرسر عمجعمررعيكرو عضري ع
عاد اينعواد اينع.
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ديستعادصباق عضشرش عدحعادو رهعع ربعادمارضور ع,عومكثرر اعمر عت يررتعوديسرتع
صرربق عصر ي عت ر وعم ععكةدفعع رقرعع بعادوارءعض بعادغيضر ع.عم مررعادصرباق ع ررس
عت اع ضرعهربيرععميارع,عت وعم عتكو عم اعثا عادغي عوت تابعدحعثا عادغي ع.ع
ع)عم عمؤدررتعادكرتاعدطرحعادسيبع(
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
ع
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ادتبخي عأ عاد ردي
ع***
يشكاعادتبخي عآث اعكضي اععوحع يرذعكاعم عيربخ عوكراعمر عيطر عاد ر ووع
ري ع,عوقررربعت ضهرررتعادسررروطرتعادصررر ي ععورررحعادضاررررءعدرررحعضييررر عمووثررر عضررربخر عادسررر
واد كومرتعمد عادخط عادةبعي طروبععورحعادتربخي عضرد سرض عدصر عشر وضهرعوةدرفع
ع بمرع ه عتا ي عاد ا عاد ر عدحعأم يكرعمتهمررعادتربخي عوم رة اعع4691م ةععر ع
ا رهعاصرضحعوضررءاعضشر رعجعسريط ذععوير عودكرر عمررعتر ع تر عأج عدريسعكرديررعدتوعيرر ع
تبخي عأوعاد بعم ع شرطعش كرتعادتضر عاد ردمير عةاتعاد رروةعوادثر اءعاد رسعضخط عاد
عادتحعت وجعوتسوقعهة عادسو عادضر ذعضص عاإل سر عوادخط ععوحع يرتهع.
وكر تعادتار ي عادسرضا عتو حعضر عخط عادتبخي عيهببعاد رراعضشركاعخرر ع
ر عدرحعودك عاتضحعأج عم عادخط عيشمو رع مي رع رجعو سرءع,عأطررجعو ت عا
ضطررو عأمهرتهرررعوكررر عاجعتاررربععوررحعضرروءعتوررفعادتاررر ي عم عا مرر انعادمات رر ع
ضترربخي عادسرر ري عكسرر طر عاد يرر ع,عاد وضرررتعاداوضيرر ع,عتصررواعادشرر ايي عوأمرر انع
اد هرىعادت رسحعوتي هرعقرص ذععوحعاد رد عادصر رع عومب رهعادمووثر عمدر ع ربعكضير ع
بذعأج عضهرةاعادوضررءعادرةبعيسرضضهعاإل سرر عوا م عديسعكةدفعدرر عادربواعاد رمير عمهرب
د رسرررهعوتيررر ذع,عومةاعدررر عتر ررراعشرررييرعسررر ي رعسرررتوا هع ررررسعادمشرررركاعاج تمرعيررر ع
عواجقتصربي عودك عضب عاكض عم عادر رع عممرعي ر يهعاد رد ع.
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السعــــــــــادة
ع***
ادس ربذعهربوعي شرب عاد مير ع,عادشرضراعدرحعماتضراعاد مر ع,عواد رراعواد سررءع
ت عادشيوخعدحعخ يوعاد م عيس و عدت ايقعأموه عديهرعودك عكيوعتت اقعادس ربذع
ع؟
ادت ر اعأثضتتعم عادس ربذعجعتشت بعضردمراع,عكمرعأ ر عجعتو ربعقرعربذعم ي ر ع
دووصررواعمدرر عادسرر ربذعودكرر عمرر عادمؤكرربعم عادشررخ عسررواءعكررر عت يرررعأوعدايرر اع,ع
ضباخورر عبادرر عقرروبعدت ايررقعصررغي عادسرر عأوعشرريخرعيمكرر عم عيكررو عسرر يباعدرروعكررر ع
ادس ربذع,عودوس ربذعاكث عم عت يوعودك عه رفعمرهومرعاكث عشيوعرعواق اعدوواق ع
وهوعم عادس ربذعم سرسعباخوحعضرد ضرعم عاد رسعو ا عادرك عوادش و عضرردتوادقع
عادباخوحع.
اعأوعادشرضراعأوعاد مررراعأوعادشرره ذعأوعوقربعأثضتررتعادت رر اعأيضرررعأ ر عجعادمررر
اد رد عادص ي عادسويم عأوعاد ر عدحعاد ماعي واعدصر ض عادس ربذعادمطوا ع,عوم مررع
عتكو عداطعهة عادصررتعم بىعاد واماعادمؤبي عمد عادس ربذع.
ع
ع
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عتــأمـــــــــــــالعت
ع***
تعادطر قعم عهة عادماليي عادكثي ذعادتحعقضيتعادس ي عادطويو عدحع م هرعضش
ادمش وع عم هرعوتي عادمش وع ع,عأصض تعدحعد عجعتسروبعع حعشييرع.عأ رحع
عوحعاست بابعاآل عم عأتت رىاعع هرعكوهرعوأ رعتي عآسوععويهرع.عكاعهةاعمارضاعشرييرع
وا ربعوهرروعم عيشررر عيعاض ررحعمرر عم ضررهعادررةبعيهررببع يرتررهعم ععمرر ذعدرر عيت ررروىع
ص عدحعقوضرحعداربع ىقرتعضرهعض ربعثرالفعض ررتعثمر حعس واتعوهةاعاجض عدهعم ىذعخر
و رضر عيعو هرعماليكيرعوعي ي ع ررةتي ع.عأ حعدحعكثي عم عا ير عأت رش عاد ع
مديهمرعمةعأ عكر عيتهيرأعدرحعم عيار اعمررعدرحعأعمررقحعويرضرحعمررعأخضيرهعضرباخوهرعمر ع
أسرر ا عوقرربعسررأد حعمرر ذععرر ععموررحعضردضررضطعضررأ حعاعمرراعدررحعم ررراعاجسررتي ابع
دتصبي ع.عدسأد عمرعم حعهةاعيرعأضحعدأ ضتهعاستو بعأشيرءعم عادخر جعأضي هرعدحعوا
ادسوقع.عداراعاجض عدحعآس عدحعادسوءعادسوباءعيرعأضحع؟عدسردت عمر عقرراعدرفعهرةاع؟ع
دأ راعدمحمعاض عاد ي ا ع.عداربعتم يرتعدرحعهرة عادو ر عم عأمروتع.عم عادمروتعيهرببع
أطضرءعاداواعدحعاد رد عودك عدحعكاعم ذععاض حعدحعكاعد عدابعع ضتهععوحعاشه
ك تعاسم ععضر ذعوا بذعجعآماعدحعشرريهعود عأ بعم عاد أعمديهعدحعييسحعسروىعيع
د و عياضاعتوضتحع.عأ حعا ك عكاعديوهعخرش رعقضاعم عآوبعمد عد اشحعأتوساعمديهعم ع
عيشرحعأض حعوي اةع يرتهع,عويغر عدحعخطريربع.
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عـــــب مــــــــــــىعا عســـ
ع***
م عدك ذعاتخرةعا سبعك ص عأسرسحعدحعتكوي عشكاعأضوعادهرواعدوت ضير ععر ع
اداوذع,عضبأتعع بعقبمرءعادمص يي عم عاقب عاد صو ع.عضبأتعض ته عمديرهعك يروا ع
ي م عضي عاداوذعوادش رع عوعىذعاد رسعو مراعادشركاعدكرر واعأواعمر عأطورقععوير ع
ع)عموفعاد يوا رتع.ادوااعادةبعع وعضهععض عادتر ي عوهوع
وقرربعوصرروعادر عررو عدررحعكثيرر عمرر ع صررو عادبودرر عادابيمرر عضأ ررهعا سرربعع
عادش رعع,عوا سبعادم تص ع,عوا سبعقره عا عباءعوا سبعادمابسع.
وكر عا سبعادمب اعيتض عادموفعدحعميبا عاداتراعويشت فعم هعدحعادم ر فع
ر عت ضحعدحعاداصو عوتالى عع بعاده و ععوحعا عباءعودحعادسو عكر تعا سوبعا دي
ادموررفعدررحع رررالتعاجسررتاضراعومررواكضه ع,عكمرررعترر ضنعض رروا عأث رررءع ووسررهععوررحع
اد شعكمرع ه تعدحعكثي عم ع اوشع مسيسعادثر حع.عكمرع هر عا سربعاد رر سع
عوهوعيسي عض ر اع مسيسعادثردفعدحعا تررجتهعادبي ي ع.
ع
ع
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ادكــتــراعوادتــوـيـرـىيـو
ع***
ذعادتحعكر تعتو بعدرحع كر عمررعمر عادضيرتعدرحعم ر ععرريالتعمكتض عا س
ادطضا عادمتوسط عأوعمرعدوقعادمتوسط عم عادمو ري عدحعادمب عأوعادمىا عي عادةي ع
ردواع رعمر عادت وري عثر ععرربواعواسرتا واعدرحعقر اه ع عوادترحعكر رتعت مر عأ واعررع
دكضرررر عادكترررراعمختورررر عمررر عادكتررراعادبي يررر عوبواويررر عادشررر عوادمؤدرررررتعاد بيثررر ع
وادمركرر ي ع.عاخترررتعضردتررب يععمرر عم رر عادضيرروتعادمصرر ي عدررحعادمررب عواد يرروعأوع
كربتعوقبع وتعم وهرعاآل عمكتضرتعدش ايطعادريربيوعأ واعررعادكرسريترتعواسرطوا رتع
ادويى ع بفعا تر حعاد ضي عوادغ ضي عوا ا نعضةدفععص عكر عا ض رءعيشضهو ع
ثارردحعدرحعمت ررواعأيربيه عوعاروده عويغر يه ععورحعديهععوحعمرعي يطعضه عمر عم ررخع
ادارر اءذعواجطررالععمترر اءعبو عضرر وعأوععتخررووعواصررضحعادتورىيررو عوا طضرررقع
ادرضريي عهمرعأسيربعادموقوع,وه عمصب عادم د عوادثارد ع يراععبيبذعاضترباءعمر ع
عا اعوعا عوا تهرءعضردشضراعوا طرراع.
بعدررحعضرر امععادتويرىيررو عض رم رررعوضرسررتث رءعم رر نعادكتررراعدأ ررتعجعت ررع
وا باعي نعأوعي رقشعأوعيورتعا ر عمد عادكتاعاد بيبذعادتحعتصب عدحعميربي ع
عادم د عادمختور ع.
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وعجعأ رربعيسررتطي عأ عيررىع عأ عضرر امععادتويرىيررو عأوعاإلةاعرر عدررحعادرربواع
رءعادكتراعادمتابم عاقاع رةضي عم عادض امععع ب رعودك عةدفعجعيم عم عأ عيكو عاقت
وق اءتهعواج ترراعضهععوحعب ععردي عم عا همي عدببعمختووعادريررتعوا وسررطع
وا عمر عدووكتراعدحعادم تم رتعادمتابم عو ير عأوسر عوا قرحعتضربأعم رةعادو ررتع
ا ود عدومودوبعادطراع تر ع ري عتغ رحعا عدطروهررعأوعتار اعدرهعقضراعأ عي رر عوتشراع
عوتطو عدكحعت و عادطراعكيوعياتصبعمر عمصر ودهعم هعدحعم ا اعاد م عادمختور
عدكحعيشت بعقص عأوعكتراع.
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176
ادمسـرواذعضـيـ عادـ ـاعوادـم أذ
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دابع عاإلعال عاد ردمحعد اوقعاإل سر عدحعض وبععبيربذععورحعادمسررواذعضري ع
اد اعوادم اءعدحعاد اوقعوادوا ضرتع,عودك عمر عادصر اعأ عتتصرو عت ارقعهرة ع
دحعم تم عتت كىعديهعادموا بعاجقتصربي عوادسوط عادسيرسي عدحعأيببعاداو ععادمسرواذ
,عأوعدحعم تم عتاو ععرباتهعوم تاباتهعادسريبذععوحعدك ذع ا عادم أذعو يفعتكرو ع
عد عاد ماعوادت وي عدحعادم تم عم بوبذ.
ومرر عه رررعكررر عاإلب افعضررر عقضرري عادمرر أذعهررحع ررىءعجعيت ررىأعمرر عقضرري ع
ودهعاجقتصربي عواج تمرعي ع,عأ مرطعم تر هعع,ععرباترهعوم تاباترهعادم تم عكوهع,ع
,عوكاعهةاعي ترجعمد عوقتعطوياعو هبعمستم عدحعسضياعادتغواععوحعاد اضرتعادتحع
عت واعبو عمسرواذعاد اعوادم أذ.
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ياعم رو
رريىذع وضراعدرحع،عهروعأواعع ضرحع رريىععور عمص بع وايح ياعم رو ع
.عكتراع يراع6339عأتسطسع03حع،عوتودحعد4644عبيسمض ع44.عُودبعدحعا با
.عتبو عأ بافع مي ع وايرتهعدحع6331م رو عم ةعضباي عا ض ي يرتعواستم ع ت ع
ع .مص ،عوت ه عديهرعثيم عمتك ذعهحعاد ر ذعادتحعت رباعاد رد
ضرربأع يرراعم رررو عادكترضرر عدررحعم تصرروعادثالثي يرررت،عوكررر عي شرر عقصصررهع
ادتحعتاب عععضفعا قبا ،ع ش ع وايتهعا ود ع4606.عدحعم و عاد سرد اداصي ذعدحع
م هيرًعثالثي عتر يخي ععو ابوضيسعكرر عطيض مرهومهعع عادواق ي عادتر يخي .عث ع ش ع
يراعم ررو عخطرهعاد وايرحعادرواق حعادرةبعع4611.عوضربءاًعمر عادر اع دحعىم ع
عخررر عادخويوررح،عثرر عاررره ذعاد بيرربذاد رررد ععويررهعدررحعم رر عمسرري تهعا بضيرر عض وايرر ع
.وىقرقعادمبق
ااع ياعم رو عدحعأعمردهع يرذعادطضا عادمتوسط عدحعأ يرءعاداره ذ،عد ضر ع
.عكمررعع عهمومهررعوأ المهررع،عوعكرسعقواهررعوتو سررتهرع يرراعاداضرريرعادمصري ي
صررو ع يرررذعا سرر ذعادمصرر ي عدررحععالقرتهرررعادباخويرر عوامترربابعهررة عاد القرررتعدررحع
عادم تم .
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