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CONTENTS

Foreword ........................................... viiAcknowledgements ........................................ ixAbbreviations .......................................... xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................... 1.............

1. INTRODUCTION

I. Objectives ...................................... 9

A. The Post UNCED Strategy and theCoastal Zone "Building Block .......... ............. 9

II. The Coastal Zone in Context ........................... 10

A. The Coastal Zone and Marine Environment:Definition and Significance ....................... 10

III. Scope of the Report .12

A. Outline of the Text .12B. Annexes, Bibliographies and Maps .12

2. AFRICA'S COASTAL ZONES: STATUS AND TRENDSIN THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE AND MAJORISSUES UNDERMINING LONG-TERM ECONOMIC GROWTH ...... 13

I. The Ecological Setting .............................. 13

A. West Africa ................................. 13B. East Africa .14

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is the result of a team effort, both within and across World Bank Divisions.It was solicited by the Africa Environmentally Sustainable Development Division(AFrES) as one of the building blocks for a Post-UNCED strategic process towardenvironmentally sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Other building blockshave been prepared of the various facets of sustainable development (see list below). Thetask of incorporating the coastal perspective was given to a unit of the EnvironmentDepartment's Land, Water and Natural Habitat's Division (ENVLW), the Blue Team,specializing in freshwater, coastal and marine resources management. As the study wasbeing prepared, an ongoing exchange of information developed between these twodivisions, building a productive synergy that is expected to continue beyond publicationof the report.

For the Blue Team, Marea Hatziolos and Carl Gustaf Lundin coordinated overallproduction of the report. Technical input was provided by Blue Team members HerbertAcquay, Anders Alm, Marea Hatziolos, Rafik Hirji, Stephen Lintner, and Carl GustafLundin. Special gratitude is due to June Taboroff, formerly of the EnvironmentDepartment's Social Policy and Resettlement Division (ENVSP), who contributed thesection on cultural heritage conservation in the coastal zone, and to Uwe Deichmann ofthe University of California at Santa Barbara, who compiled data on district levelpopulation and area for Africa to provide estimates of population densities throughout thecoastal zone. These data, along with those compiled for West Africa by the West AfricanLong Term Population Study team at OECD, headed by Jean-Marie Cours, will lead toa further refinement of the population/environment dynamic in the coastal zone in afollow-on phase of this report.

Jeff Lecksell of the World Bank's Cartography Section, provided excellent technicalsupport in overseeing the timely preparation of high-quality maps to accompany the text.Puneet Kishor of the Asia Technology Lab offered invaluable assistance in accessing andinterpreting data on critical coastal habitats and marine protected areas from the WorldConservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge and the Great Barrier Reef Marine ParkAuthority in Australia.

Many other World Bank staff commented on the manuscript at different stages of itsdevelopment. Colin Rees, Hassan Hassan and Louise Fallon Scura of ENVLW made

x

valuable comments on an early draft, and Lars Soeftestad of ENVSP suggested ways toincorporate more of a social perspective in the analysis. Robin Broadfield andRichard Paton of the Environment Department's Global Environment CoordinationDivision encouraged our exploration of opportunities to link integrated coastal zonemanagement with the GEF. In AFTES, under Frantois Falloux's guidance, NicolasVernier served as our counterpart and link to the Africa Region. He coordinated reviewof the manuscript and, along with colleagues Michel Audige, Jan Bojo, Robert Clement-Jones, Jean-Roger Mercier, and David Moffat, suggested ways to make it more client-oriented.

The manuscript was prepared as a discussion paper and was, therefore, not formallyreviewed outside the Bank. Special acknowledgement, however, is made of the input ofa number of individuals from the international development community whose materialsand informal comments greatly improved the quality of the paper. These include: TundiAgardy, Paul Akiwumi, Simon Anstey, Erik Arrhenius, Luitzen Bijlsma, Barry Blake,Leif Christoferson, Ned Cyr, Barbara Davidson, Francois Droz, Paul Dutton, DavidElliot, Lynn Hale, Terry Higham, Christer Holtzberg, David Insall, Tiemen Kouwenaar,Andreas Laggis, Olof Linden, Magnus Ngoile, Laura Piriz-Krantz, Jean-Yves Pirot,Sheila Ramsay, Georges Resy-Menu, Phil Reynolds, Phil Reynolds, Rod Salm, AdelediSemesi, Tony Seymour, Marcel van Opstal, Chris West, John Wilson, and Per Wramner.

Finally, the authors gratefully acknowledge Katherin Golitzen for her steadfast supportand attention to detail through countless iterations of the manuscript and Charlotte Maxeyfor her welcome assistance with the final editing of the report. Very sincere thanks isextended to all.

xi

List of Thematic Papers (Building Blocks) produced in the framework of thePost-UNCED study: "Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development in

Sub-Saharan Africa, a World Bank Perspective".'

Knowledge Axis:

A Development Support Communication Strategy for Environmentally SustainableDevelopment in Sub-Saharan Africa.Stanford Garikayi Mukasa, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.

Improving Educational Quality for Sustainable Development in Africa.Paul Spector, Institute for International Research.

Information Technology.Yves Prevost, AFTES, The World Bank.

Population Axis:

Population-Migration Projection, a Software Tool.The Future Group, Washington.

Social Implications of Development Interventions Strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa.Cyprian Fisiy, AFTES, The World Bank.

Natural Resource Management Axis:

A Framework for Integrated Coastal Zone Management.ENVLW, The World Bank.

Coastal Management Model for Africa (COMA), Simulation Model Software.Resource Analysis, Delft, Netherlands.

Water Issues.T. Damhaug, AFTES, The World Bank.

Achieving a Sustainable Agriculture System in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1990-2025.Pierre Crosson and Jock R. Anderson, The World Bank.

' N. B.:1. All papers are in a draft form2. Titles in italics correspond to upcoming papers.

xii

Development of Drylands in Sub-Saharan Africa.Walter Lusigi, AFTES, The World Bank.

Forestry Strategy.S.Rietbergen, J.Patel, C.Heimo, AFTES, The World Bank.

Biodiversity Strategy.I.Bertilsson, AFTES, The World Bank.

Solid Waste and Solid Fertility.E. Arrhenius, University of Stockholm

Rural Energy Policy Paper.D.Barnes, IENPD, The World Bank.

Strategic Tools:

Institutional Structures for Environmentally Sustainable Development.Albert Greve, AFTES, The World Bank.

Country Environmental Strategy Papers.Jan Bojo, AFTES, The World Bank.

Environmental in Sub-Saharan Africa: an Africa Region/World Bank Perspective.J.R. Mercier, AFTES, The World Bank.

National Environmental Action Plans: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa.Julian Lampietti, ENVLW, The World Bank.

Urban Environment Axis:

Planification urbaine et environnement en Afrique au Sud du Sahara.J.L. Venard, Caisse Francaise de Developpement, december 1994.

UTrban Agriculture as a Strategy.Jac Smit and Annu Ratta, The Urban Agriculture Network.

Urban Environment.J.Leitmann and J.Bernstein, TWURD, The World Bank.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADB African Development BankAFTES Environmentally Sustainable Development Division,

Africa Technical DepartmentALCOM Aquaculture for Local Community Development

ProgramBOD Biological Oxygen DemandCGIAR Consultative Group for International Agriculture

ResearchCIDA Canadian International Development Agencycm centimeterCRC Coastal Research Center (Univ. of Rhode Island)DANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDGIS Directorate General of International Cooperation in

Development (Netherlands)DWT Dry Weight TonnageEACC East African Coastal CurrentEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentESD Environmentally Sustainable DevelopmentESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance ProgramEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationGEF Global Environment FacilityGIS Geographic Information SystemGRT Gross Registered TonsGTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische

Zusammenarbeit (Germany)ha hectareICLARM International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources

ManagementICZM Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementIDRC International Development Research CentreIMO International Maritime OrganizationIOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

xiv

IPCC International Panel on Climatic ChangeIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureLME Large Marine EcosystemMARPOL The International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from ShipsMCS Monitoring, Control and SurveillanceMETAP Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance

Programm meterMPA Marine Protected AreasMSY Maximum Sustainable YieldNEAP National Environmental Action PlanNGO Nongovernmental OrganizationNORAD Norwegian Agency for Development CorporationNRI Natural Resources Institute (United Kingdom/ODA)NRM Natural Resources ManagementOCA/PAC Oceans and Coastal Areas Programme Activity

CenterODA Overseas Development AdministrationPERSGA Programme for the Environment of the Red Sea and

Gulf of AdenPMAESA The Port Management Association of East and

Southern Africappt parts per tonPRA Participatory Rural AppraisalRAMSAR The Convention on Wetlands of International

Importance especially on Waterfowl Habitat (1971)SADCC Southern Africa Development Coordinating

ConferenceSAREC Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with

Developing Countriessec secondSIDA Swedish International Development AuthoritySS Suspended SolidsSSA Sub-Saharan AfricaUNCED United Nations Conference on Environmentally

Sustainable DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeURI University of Rhode IslandUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentWACAF West and Central Africa RegionWCMC World Conservation Monitoring CentreWRI World Resources Institute

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A. Introduction

This report has two complementary objectives: (a) to present a rationale for incorporatingintegrated coastal zone management (ICZM) into the Post-UNCED strategy forsustainable development now being developed for Sub-Saharan Africa, and (b) to providea framework for World Bank investments in the sustainable management of marine andcoastal resources in Sub-Saharan Africa as part of the Bank's larger program for ICZM.

The "Post UNCED Strategy Towards Environmentally Sustainable Developmentin Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)" is part of an exercise by the World Bank's AfricaTechnical Department (AFTES) to provide direction and support to the many Africa-related initiatives following the Rio Summit. A Bank discussion paper, based on analysesof key issues and trends in different sectors and geographic settings in Africa, will alsobe published in early 1995. These analyses, including this one for the coastal zone, werecommissioned to help identify the key constraints and fundamentals of a sustainabledevelopment strategy for Africa. Part of the exercise was to construct alternativeprojections for the future based on contrasting scenarios for the year 2025, including"business as usuai" over the next thirty years versus a sustainable alternative leading toan ideal development state. In this paper on the coastal zone, a transition course towardmore sustainable development of Africa's coasts is proposed to maximize the net flow ofbenefits from coastal resources to society, while minimizing environmental costs.

The urbanization, industrialization and environmental transformation along theworld's seacoasts is an emerging issue of global importance. Home to two-thirds of theworld's population, coastal areas and their natural resources are coming under increasingstress. The concentration of human settlements, economic activity and resourcemobilization is exceeding the capacity of natural systems in these areas to respond to andrecover from development pressures. In Africa the lack of systematic policy, planningand management structures for dealing with these complex issues highlights the need forregional and cross-sectoral management. Also evident is the need for a strategicframework to guide Bank investments in this dynamic but fragile zone. Integrated coastalzone management, a key element of Agenda 21, is widely perceived as an effectivemeans for planning growth in the coastal zone and for orchestrating developmentactivities to meet the diverse needs of resource users while maintaining the productivity

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of coastal systems. It is the process--multi-sectoral and participatory--as much as the endresult that distinguishes ICZM from other development planning modes. It is hoped thatthe ICZM framework for Africa presented here will serve World Bank staff involved inoperational support to Africa, as well as stimulate ICZM initiatives and intersectoralplanning in other regions of the Bank.

B. Structure of the Report

The report consists of four chapters and seven technical annexes. Tables and maps helpsummarize the data and provide a geographic focus to the text. Chapter One introducesthe objectives, context, and scope of the report. Chapter Two profiles the coastal zonesof West and East Africa, providing information on the physical setting and the status andtrends in demography, industrialization and exploitation of resources in the coastal zone.It continues with a detailed examination of the major technical and institutional issuesthreatening sustainable economic development along each coast. The chapter ends witha "business as usual" scenario for 2025 based on the current trajectory of demographic,environmental and resource use trends in the coastal zone.

Chapter Three reviews past,and present efforts of the World Bank, other donors,and nongovernmental organizations (NGO) to address some of these issues. The failureof traditional sectoral programs to resolve development problems and to sustainproductivity in coastal systems is contrasted with new approaches that emphasize systemlinkages and cross-sectoral activities in problem identification and planning, integrationof coastal programs into national development and environmental action plans,investments, and achieving broader community participation. The chapter ends with asection on lessons learned from the Bank's experience in regional seas programs in theMediterranean and Europe and the implications for Bank support to coastal zonemanagement efforts in Africa.

The fourth and final chapter begins with a view of sustainable development inAfrica's coastal zone in the year 2025. This optimal state appears in sharp contrast to thebusiness as usual scenario leading to increased human suffering and environmentalbreakdown over the next thirty years if current trends continue. Progress toward a betterfuture is tied to a long-term goal incorporating the principles of integrated coastal zonemanagement and a commitment from the Bank and outside partners to short- andmedium-term objectives supporting sustainable development. A framework is presentedfor promoting ICZM in Africa as part of an overall investment strategy for the Bank,consistent with the objectives of environmentally sustainable development. It includes arange of pre-investment activities related to planning and capacity building in support ofICZM, as well as sector-related investment options aimed at addressing keyenvironmental issues, or developing new opportunities for sustainable use of coastal andmarine resources.

3

C. Major Issues in the Coastal Zone

The major management issues for the coastal zone in West Africa are, in order ofpriority:

* deteriorating water quality and sanitation in urban areas and associated impactson environment and public health;

* pollution of coastal waters;* coastal erosion; and* overexploitation and degradation of marine resources

In East Africa, the main issues are:

* destructive fishing methods and associated habitat degradation;* eutrophication and siltation of coastal waters; and* marine oil pollution from tanker traffic and ballast discharge.

These resource management issues are aggravated by spiralling population growthin the coastal zone, from 4-6% in urban areas, fed by high birth rates and massive in-migration. The institutional constraints that are typical of many parts of Africa compoundthese problems. These include:

* short-term planning horizons and lack of participation due to political instability;* a weak policy and regulatory environment for encouraging rational resource use

and checking the impacts of growth;* administrative weakness and lack of coordination across sectoral agencies; andl * limited opportunities for developing the human potential in these growing

populations.

D. History of World Bank and Other Donor Activityin the Coastal Zone of Sub-Saharan Africa

Rather than having resolved the issues described, development efforts in the coastal zonehave generally contributed to them. With few exceptions, donors have taken a narrow,sectoral approach in developing coastal resources, placing emphasis on harvesting (offorests, fisheries, and minerals, for example) and trade (port development, petroleumshipping, and commerce). World Bank investments have focused on sectoral lending,primarily in water and sanitation, urban infrastructure, ports, and transport. Other donorshave focused on fisheries development and management. Except in the fisheries sector,little attention has been paid to planning and building technical and institutional capacityas important components of management. Although they have accelerated economicgrowth in the coastal zone, development activities have tended to ignore the ecosystemlinkages of coastal habitats and resources, rendering them more vulnerable to impactsboth within and outside the coastal zone. Rather than managing the coastal zone as awhole, countries and donors have dissected it according to sectoral interests, thereby

4

fostering intersectoral competition between stakeholders (and institutions) and excludingmultiple use options.

E. Business as Usual

Continuing business as usual over the next thirty years is likely to result in declininghuman welfare throughout the coastal zone. By 2025 the main features of suchdevelopment can be expected to include:

* degradation of most coral reefs of the East Africa mainland and deforestation of70% of the mangrove forests in Africa;

* coastal lagoons that are so polluted they pose severe human health risks tosurrounding populations;

* coastal biological productivity decimated by the downstream impacts of poor landuse and unregulated industry;

* severe user conflicts and loss of options because of the effects of unplanneddevelopment of coastal areas;

* urban environments rapidly deteriorating under huge pollution loads;* important fisheries collapsing due to overexploitation and degradation of critical

habitats; and* a declining tourist industry hurt by conflicting development activities.

F. The Need for Integrated Coastal Zone Management

A new model is needed to guide development planners and donors away from a sectoralapproach toward a multiple-use, systems-oriented mode of management in the coastalzone. To provide this direction, a plan for integrated coastal zone management isproposed--emphasizing the coordination of policies, management concerns, developmentobjectives and stakeholder interests across the different landscapes of the coastal zone.Although an ICZM plan must be tailored to the particular needs of each country, thefavorable results in Asia, Ecuador and the Middle East indicate its broad applicability asa planning tocl for development. The following goal is therefore proposed to guidedevelopment in Africa's coastal zone over the next thirty years.

Establish a working system for integrated and participatory development planningand natural resource management in the coastal zone by the year 2025. Thissystem will seek to optimize the net benefit flows from coastal resources toindividuals and society by reducing user conflicts, mitigating adverse developmentimpacts and enhancing the productivity of coastal ecosystems.

Progress toward this goal would encourage a transition from the status quo tosustainable development. Environmentally sustainable development in the coastal zonewould embrace (a) a supportive framework for ICZM in coastal Africa; (b) improvedland use planning and multiple use zoning; (c) improved agricultural practices andmanagement of coastal urban areas to address downstream effects; and (d) improvedmanagement of living coastal and marine resources.

5

G. Toward An African ICZM Action Plan for the World Bank

How can this development goal be incorporated into the Bank's operations? Theframework proposed by this paper would guide coastal zone development and Bankinvestments in Africa within the context of ICZM. This framework describes an ongoingprocess and offers opportunities for involvement by many different players (multilateral,bilateral, NGOs, national governments, the private sector, and so forth). It attempts tocombine the planning and management aspects of ICZM with the elements of asustainable investment program for the Bank and other donors. In so doing, theframework describes a logical progression from problem identification (phase 1) andcapacity building andplanning (phase 2) to implementation of a coastal zone managementplan and related investment projects (phase 3).

To date, most investment activity has proceeded directly from minimal planningand intersectoral coordination to implementation. To maximize the likelihood that futureinvestments in the coastal zone will be both profitable to a broad spectrum ofstakeholders and sustainable, activities in the first two phases of the framework areessential.

* Phase 1: (a) issues definition, environmental diagnostics and institutionalprofiling; (b) training in environmental assessment, evaluating linkages anddownstream impacts to the coastal zone and monitoring these over time; and (c)management of data to inform policy and public debate.

* Phase 2: (a) technical training related to coastal habitat and land use mapping,capability analysis and multiple use zoning; (b) use of planning and managementtools including GIS and PRA (participatory rural appraisal); (c) policy research,formulation and coordination; (d) institutional linkages; (e) improving publicadministration and accountability; and (f) drafting a special area or nationalmaster plan for the coastal zone.

Implementation of the phase 3 of the plan is, like the earlier two stages, part ofan ongoing process. It involves reviewing all proposed development activities within thecontext of the CZM plan and proceeding according to agreed investment priorities andfunding.

The paper presents a broad range of investment options responding to the needsand opportunities for coastal zone management in different parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.These investments reflect traditional Bank sectors as well as promising enterprises in eco-tourism, marine pollution mitigation, sustainable agriculture, and marine biodiversityconservation. Among the investments meriting urgent consideration are options foraddressing the dramatic demographic trends that drive coastal urban population growthrates to twice the national average in most countries. This is clearly an area that willrequire analytical input and resources from many different sources.

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H. Next Steps

The World Bank, through its support for national environmental action plans (NEAPs),initiatives in the Land, Water and Natural Habitats Division (ENVLW) and in AFTES,and in collaboration with the Global Environment Facility (GEF), is helping to promoteICZM in selected countries (including Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, Tanzania, Seychelles,Comoros and Mauritius). Other countries, like Guinea-Bissau and South Africa, arealready well along the road to national level planning in ICZM, independent of Banksupport. There is clearly further scope for Bank support of ICZM initiatives in Africa.

In view of this, some basis for prioritizing targets for Bank support is necessary.One criterion is client readiness to invest in ICZM, both in terms of financialcommitment and political stability and governance. Without these, it is unlikely thatICZM initiatives will be successful.

Another basis for prioritizing support is to identify "hot spots" or nodes of rapidcoastal development and environmental degradation. Within West Africa, three hot spotsare immediately apparent in terms of the magnitude of stress and the downstream impacton surrounding systems. These hot spots are located in the urban and peri-urban areasof Abidjan, Accra-Tema and the coast from Lagos to Port Harcourt. In East Africa,Dar-es-Salaam, Mombasa and Maputo are emerging as hot spots by virtue of their rapidpopulation growth and expanding port traffic and their inadequate facilities andinfrastructure for supporting this growth. Other environmental hot spots outside thecoastal zone may have far-reachipg impacts on processes and systems that influence thecoast. These include sites that affect the quality and availability of water downstream andthe areas affected by rural-urban migration toward the coast.

The greatest targets of opportunity may be in countries where client readiness and hotspots overlap. Dialogue between the Bank, government counterparts and interested NGOsshould be initiated in these countries. A combination of trust funds, IDA funds, and co-financing with other donors, NGOs or the GEF should be explored as potential sourcesof support for these activities.

Certain economies of scale may be realized through regional programs in areaswhere ecological and economic objectives overlap. The GEF, through its internationalwaters and biodiversity programs offers an opportunity to support regional coastalresource management initiatives in three or more subregions of Africa--the Gulf ofGuinea, the Southern Africa Development Co-ordination Countries (SADCC), and theRed Sea.

The countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea share a number of characteristics.Their coastal areas are all generally subsiding and erosion-prone, and they share a richbut unprotected system of coastal wetlands, including coastal lagoons and mangroves thatsustain a wealth of biodiversity as well as economically important fisheries. They arelinked through the Guinea Current with surrounding international waters as part of a

7

large marine ecosystem (LME) in which pollution loads as well as migratory species areshared.

The SADCC countries of Namibia, Angola, South Africa and Mozambiqueharbor rich pelagic fisheries within their exclusive economic zones (EEZs). These areoverexploited because of insufficient control, surveillance and monitoring of fishing,mostly by foreign fleets. The potential revenues to these countries from improvedlicensing and enforcement, including cost recovery for fisheries management, isextremely high in view of the maximum sustainable yields estimated for these waters.

The Red Sea also offers the opportunity to develop regional ICZM initiatives withGEF support. One of the world's richest reserves of marine biodiversity, the Red Sea,is subject to pollution from oil tanker traffic, coastal tourism, and the expanding urbancenters built around the ports and industrial facilities along the Red Sea Coast.

Grants from the GEF for assisting these countries with the initial planning andcapacity-building phases of ICZM could encourage their involvement in coastal zonemanagement and their commitment to keeping future investments consistent with thesustainable development of their coastal resources.

1. Conclusions

The coastal zone of Sub-Saharan Africa is in rapid transition. Burgeoning populationsswollen by rural-urban migrants and political refugees, growing competition for naturalresources and living space, widescale pollution and the transformation of vast areas ofthe coast in a bid for rapid economic growth threaten welfare and future development.Planning for growth in the coastal zone and maximizing the net benefits to society forgenerations to come will be the challenge for these countries in partnership with thedevelopment community.

The Bank can play a strategic role in advancing this partnership. By beingproactive in identifying targets of opportunity for promoting ICZM in Africa, the Bankcan leverage its support with other donors to help finance the necessary human resourcedevelopment, institution building and integrated planning that lay the foundation forsuccessful coastal zone management. With these building blocks in place, the Bank willbe in a better position to help client countries assess the impacts of development prioritiesin the coastal zone and identify the range of investment options most likely to lead tosustainable and equitable returns well into the next century.

9

INTRODUCTION

I. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this report are twofold:

* To present a rationale for incorporating integrated coastal zonemanagement (ICZM) into a Post-UNCED Strategy for sustainabledevelopment in Sub-Saharan Africa now being developed;

* To provide a framework for World Bank investment in the rationalmanagement of marine and coastal resources in Africa as part of a largerprogram for ICZMI within the Bank

A. Background: The Post-UNCED strategy and the "Coastal Zone Building Block"

The "Post UNCED Strategy for Environmentally Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)" is part of a World Bank exercise within the Africa TechnicalDepartment (AFTES) to provide direction and support to the many Africa-relatedinitiatives that came out of the Rio Summit. The exercise involves creating a strategicvision for the future (2025) through scenario building based on analyses of current andfuture trends ii a variety of sectors. A transition course toward an ideal scenario iselaborated that seeks to minimize environmental costs while maximizing the net benefitsof development in each sector. To inform this process and articulate a strategic role forthe Bank, a series of building blocks have been commissioned for key resources andsectors, including one from the Land, Water and Natural Habitats Division (ENVLW)for the coastal zone.

Four areas of action identified by the Post UNCED Strategy are: (a) managingcoastal in-migration and population growth; (b) developing the knowledge and capacityto administer previously unmanaged coastal and marine resources; (c) applying integratedcoastal zone management principles and learning from implementation problems in otherparts of the world; and (d) managing coastal cities and the increasing urbanization ofcoastal zones that threaten the biological productivity as well as the scenic value ofAfrica's coasts.

Developing a plan for integrated coastal zone management in Africa fits in wellwith ENVLW's ongoing operational support, publications and training to promote ICZMin the Bank's various country departments. In view of the rapid urbanization andindustrialization of coastal zones throughout the world, the need for integrated planningand management of coastal ecosystems and resources to meet the development challengesahead is becoming a priority for many countries. Africa is particularly fertile ground forICZM because of the emerging hot spots along its increasingly stressed coastal corridor

10

and the virtual lack of systematic policy, planning and management structures in placeto deal with these crises.

Complementing the initiatives by ENVLW and AFTES is the opportunity nowto develop national and regional in the coastal zone through the GEF, particularly in viewof the acknowledged global importance of coastal issues and their underrepresentation inthe current GEF portfolio. Programs for international waters and marine and coastalbiodiversity can encourage new CZM projects in individual countries in Africa as wellas direct new resources and momentum to stalled regional seas programs in the region.

A program of Bank support for ICZM, therefore, is being developed at a crucialtime, and this paper aims to generate interest and commitment on the part of the Bankand the GEF for action on coastal zone management in Africa. It also identifies prospectsand the need for collaboration with outside groups, including other donors and a numberof NGOs already working in the area of ICZM.

II. THE COASTAL ZONE IN CONTEXT

A. The Coastal Zone and Marine Environment: Definition and Significance

What is a coastal zone? The coastal zone is a dynamic area surrounding the interfacebetween the land and sea. It encompasses shoreline environments as well as adjacentcoastal and marine waters. Loosely defined as the corridor where terrestrial and marinefactors interact in their influence on natural and human-altered systems, the coastal zonetypically includes coastal plains, river deltas, wetlands, lagoons, beaches and dunes,mangroves, reefs and other coastal features. In small island states, the entire landmassmay fall within the coastal zone; similarly, in areas with considerable river drainage,portions of the upper watershed may also be included by virtue of their significantimpacts downstream. The limits of the coastal zone are often arbitrarily defined,however, and are sometimes based on jurisdictional limits or demarcated for reasons ofadministrative convenience. For the purposes of this report and the management areaunder review, the coastal zone refers to the area from the Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) landward to the inner edge of the coastal plain, where tidal influences are replacedby continental hydrological processes. (Box 1. 1 describes the special area character ofthe coastal zone, as defined by the Noordwijk Guidelines adopted in 1993 at the WorldCoast Conference.

The Significance of Coastal Resources. Coastal resource systems are valuablenatural endowments that must be managed for present and future generations. Coastalzones offer a range of benefits and opportunities for human use. Integrated coastal zonemanagement seeks the optimum balance between these uses and their effects based on agiven set of objectives. Concern is growing over the destruction of natural coastalecosystems as a result of demands placed upon them by population and economic growth.These natural ecosystems have considerable value for sustainable extractive andnonextractive use that is frequently undervalued in comparison with other, oftennonsustainable, uses. Guidelines for ICZM, therefore, emphasize natural coastal

1 1

ecosystems and the sustainable use of the coastal zone with a minimal impact onenvironmental quality.

In nature, the coastal system maintains a dynamic equilibrium with processes thatregulate shoreline stability, beach replenishment, and nutrient generation and recycling,all of which are of great ecological and socioeconomic importance. These natural systemsare under increasing threat from unmanaged human activities such as shorelineconstruction, pollution, habitat destruction and overexploitation of resources.

In rural coastal areas, fishing of nearshore waters and farming of coastal lowlandsare the major economic activities supplying fish and agricultural products for theinhabitants and urban centers. Activities that add further value to coastal resourcesinclude recreation and tourism, which have become major sources of domestic andforeign exchange earnings in many coastal nations.

The intrinsic economic value of coastal resources is a "natural" capital investmentfor humankind. The goods and services derived from them are the interest generated bythe investment. Hence, the destruction of the resource base is comparable to depletingthe capital and, thus, eliminating the dividends that nature has freely provided.

Box LI Special Characteristics or the Coastal Zone

The Noord" iik Guidelines for Iniegrated Coastal Zone Management define the characterislicsof the coastal zone as follows:

It is a dynanLic area %tch frequenilx changing biological, chemical and geologicalattributes:

It includes highly productive and biologicallh diverse ecosystems that offer crucialnurser} habiiats for many marine species;

CoasLal zone features such as coral reefs, mangrove forests, and beach and dunes%stems serne as critical natural defenses against storms, ilooding. and erosion;

Coastal ecosysLems may act to moderate the impacis of pollution originating fromland (e.g. vetlands absorbing excess nutrients, sedimenms, human wasiet:

The coast attracts vast human settlements due to its proximii! to the ocean's livingand non-huing resources, marine iransporiation and recreation, and

* rhe seaward limit of the coasLal zone can be the edge of the coninental shelf but isfor practical reasons defined as ihe 200 miles Exclusive Econonuc Zone tEEZi.

12

III. SCOPE OF THE REPORT

A. Outline of the Text

This chapter introduces the objectives, context, and scope of the report. Chapter Twocontinues with a brief overview of the physical and socio-economic setting along Africancoasts, presenting information on environmental, demographic, urban and naturalresource use trends in Western and Eastern (including Southern) Africa. Theenvironmental impacts of development that are rapidly transforming large areas of thecoastal zone are detailed in a separate section identifying the major issues contributingto the erosion of the resource base and undermining the prospects for long-term economicgrowth. The chapter culminates in a "business as usual scenario" that describesconditions likely to prevail in the African coastal zone by 2025 if nothing is done to alterthe current course of unsustainable growth.

Chapter Three reviews efforts of the Bank, other donors, and the NGOcommunity toward addressing some of these issues. In contrast to the traditional sectoralapproaches taken in many of these programs, the chapter underscores the need for a new,systems-oriented strategy that emphasizes integrated planning and management of the fullrange of resources within a system and appreciation of the critical links between systemsand sectors. A brief discussion of the groundwork now being laid with Bank support forintegrated coastal zone management in Africa is presented, and the chapter ends with abox on lessons learned from the Bank's experience in regional seas programs in otherregions and the implications for launching successful ICZM programs in Africa.

Chapter Four develops a strategic framework for Bank investments in the coastalzone of African nations, consistent with ICZM. This final chapter starts out with an idealdevelopment scenario for the African coastal zone in the year 2025. Progress toward thisvision is tied to a long-term goal incorporating the principles of ICZM and a commitmentfrom the Bank and outside partners to the short- and medium-term objectives supportingthis goal. A framework for promoting ICZM in the Bank's investment portfolio forAfrica is presented as a guide to task managers and others concerned withenvironmentally sustainable development in Africa. A range of pre-investment activitiesrelated to planning and capacity building in ICZM is presented in Table 4.1, followed inTable 4.2 by sector-related investment options that are linked directly to the idealdevelopment scenario outlined earlier.

B. Annexes, Bibliographies and Maps

The four chapters of text are supported by seven annexes providing detailed informationon the coastal setting in East and West Africa, including information on the ecology,geology, cultural heritage, and development-related impacts that are altering biologicaland social processes in the coastal zone. A summary of current World Bank and GEFinvestments in the coastal zone is included, along with tables outlining the implementationstatus of various marine conventions, including MARPOL and the 1993 ArushaResolution on ICZM in East African States. An annotated bibliography of topical andAfrica-specific references of particular use to Bank staff follows the annexes, along witha more general reference list. And finally, eleven maps have been included to clarify theenvironmental issues at stake in the coastal zones of Sub-Saharan Africa.

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2AFRICA'S COASTAL ZONES:

STATUS AND TRENDS IN THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE ANDMAJOR ISSUES UNDERMINING LONG-TERM ECONOMIC GROWTH

This chapter examines the major issues threatening ecosystem productivity and long-termeconomic growth in the coastal zone. It starts out with a brief overview of the settingalong each coast, then looks at demographic trends, urbanization and industrialization,patterns of natural resource exploitation, habitat degradation and other environmentalproblems that are rapidly and irreversibly transforming Africa's coasts. The key issuesaffecting each region are discussed in more detail. Following this, the institutionalconstraints that impede rational management and discourage sustainable use of coastalhabitats and resources are then examined. (For more detailed information on these topics,the reader is directed to Annexes 1-4.) The chapter ends with a vision of the future in theabsence of significant interventions to effectively manage population growth rates andtrends associated with the coastalization process in Africa. This "business as usual"scenario for the year 2025 contrasts sharply with the ideal vision described at thebeginning of Chapter 4. What happens in the next 30 years across the diverse ecologicaland political landscape of Africa will be determined in part by each country's ability toshape trends--both nationally and regionally--toward a more favorable outcome.

I. THE ECOLOGICAL SETrING

A. West Africa

The coastline of West Africa from Mauritania to Namibia stretches between the Tropicof Cancer and 300 S Latitude for some 8,000 kilometers (km). The coastal zone withinthis biogeographic realm spans a broad range of habitats and biota westward from thecontinental margin, and includes the pristine islands of the Bijagos Archipelago of GuineaBissau, the offshore island nations of Cap Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, and the remotecentral Atlantic Islands of San Helena and Ascension (Annex 1). The continental shelfalong this coast is narrow for the most part, with widths averaging only 20-50 km. Itwidens somewhat along the Guinea Coast, reaching a maximum width of 100 km off thecoast of Guinea Bissau. The continental shelf reaches its narrowest point--less than fourkm--off of Angola (Beazley 1991). Fed by seasonal upwelling, the continental shelf anddeeper offshore waters support commercial stocks of demersal and pelagic fisheries. Thecoastal topography of the mainland consists primarily of highly indented, low elevationplains characterized by vast stretches of sandy beach and berms. Interspersed betweenthese stretches are drowned river valleys, lagoons, estuaries and mudflats. Seaward, thebottom or benthos is soft, heavily overlain with alluvial sediments which create a richhabitat for shrimp, mollusks and other soft-bottom species.

Map 1 reveals the strong influence of river basin drainage along the west-centralcoast of Africa. The 6,000 km stretch of coast from Senegal to the Congo is dissected

14

by five major river systems. Among the most important of these rivers are: the Niger,

whose elaborate delta system (joined by the Benue and Imo Rivers) extends over the

entire Rivers State of Nigeria and drains a catchment area of over 1 million square

kilometers (km2); the Volta River, with a drainage basin of 390,000 km2 (Linden 1992);

and the Zaire River, which, in terms of mean annual runoff and catchment area, is

ranked second in the world (Ly 1980; World Bank 1992). The enormous freshwater

runoff and sediment discharge from these rivers, estimated at 30-80 metric tons/km2 prior

to their regulation (Allersma and Tilmans 1993), contributed at one time to the

flourishing of extensive mangrove forests along the coast, while inhibiting the

development of coral reefs and other hard substrate communities such as those found

along the Indian Ocean (see Map 2 for the distribution of these habitats along the coast).

However, major engineering works, from hydroelectric dams to impoundments for

irrigation and flood control have significantly altered the hydrology and sediment flow

of these rivers, creating considerable downstream impacts and accelerating rates of

erosion in the coastal zone.

The coastal basins along the Gulf of Guinea associated with the flood plains and

deltas of these river systems are gradually subsiding. Although this subsidence is partly

a feature of the natural geology of the area, human activities such as petroleum mining

and natural gas exploitation in the Niger Delta, for example, are accelerating local

patterns of subsidence (Oyegun 1990). These patterns in combination with predicted

trends in sea level rise and related impacts, have far-reaching implications for the human

settlements and capital investments concentrated in these areas (see section III.G.).

B. East Africa

The Coastal Zone of East Africa includes the coastal lowlands from Sudan to South

Africa, the nearshore islands off the coasts of Tanzania and Mozambique and the oceanic

islands of Madagascar, the Seychelles, Comoros, Mauritius and Reunion. Unlike Africa's

Atlantic coast which is frequently buffeted by surge and storms, the western Indian Ocean

experiences relatively calm conditions throughout much of the year. Seasonal cyclones

hit mainly Madagascar and Mauritius and occasionally Mozambique. Although the

continental shelf is narrow along this coast as well, averaging only 15-25 km wide, the

countries bordering this ocean are not exposed to the same high energy oceanographic

conditions which prevail on the West Coast. The white sandy beaches, clear water and

coral reefs along much of this coast offer exceptional tourist potential which has yet to

be developed.

In contrast to the Atlantic coast, the east coast of Africa is drained by only a few

large rivers (see Map 1). The Zambezi, whose drainage basin extends over 1,250,000

km2, is by far the largest river, emptying along the coast of central Mozambique. The

Rufiji and Tana Rivers, whose deltas form further north in Tanzania and Kenya, are

other large rivers with significant impacts on surrounding coastal areas.

Because of the restricted drainage and unindented contours of this coast, well-

developed fringing coral and patch reefs have evolved along major sections of the

continental shelf (see Map 2). The desert margins of the Red Sea feature some of the

15

richest coral reefs in the world. Further south, coral reefs extend from Kenya to theTropic of Capricorn, and are well distributed around most of the oceanic islands. Thesereefs buffer the coastline against the impact of breakers and the full force of storms andcyclones. Although coastal erosion is still a problem in certain areas (for example,Kenya), it is not nearly as dramatic nor pervasive as along the Atlantic Coast. Rather,siltation of coral reefs and seagrass beds due to excessive upstream erosion and sedimentdischarge, is a principle concern. Suspended sediments create turbidity in the watercolumn, blocking photosynthesis by primary producers. Once settled, these sedimentsalso clog the delicate filter feeding apparatus of corals and other reef building organisms.Together, these corrosive effects are degrading the reefs, and undermining the mostproductive and diverse marine ecosystems in these waters.

Il. TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES ANDEXPLOITATION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE

A.(1) Demographic Trends and Urbanization in Coastal West Africa

Along the Atlantic Coast, an estimated 46 million people can be found within a narrowcoastal margin some 60 km wide, between Mauritania and Namibia (see Table 2.1 andMap 3). This narrow belt, which accounts for less than 10% of the land mass of thesecoastal countries, houses a quarter of their population. Indeed, the Atlantic corridorincludes some of the highest centers of population density in Africa (250-500inhabitants/km 2, Maps 2 and 3). This density reflects the very high intrinsic rate ofgrowth among the countries in the region and the location of so many key cities alongthe coast (such as Dakar, Abidjan, Accra-Tema, Cotonou, Lagos, Port Harcourt andDouala). High fertility rates coupled with mounting in-migration from rural areas haveresulted in these cities growing at nearly twice the mean annual rate of population growthof 2.9% in the region (for example, Abidjan 5%, Accra-Tema 6%, Lagos 4.9%'). Bythe year 2000, coastal cities alone (of 750,000 or more inhabitants) in this zone willaccount for nearly 40% of the population of Benin, 25% of that of Cote d'lvoire, 20%of that of Togo, 15% of that of Ghana and 10% of that of Nigeria (see WRI 1994, Table22.6 for coastal urban agglomerations in the year 2000 as compared to UN estimates oftotal country population in the same year). While the continent as a whole is caught upin a vortex of rapid population growth, the coastal corridor along the Gulf of Guinea willmost likely reach saturation--exceeding the area's environmental carrying capacity--longbefore 2025 if current growth rates continue (see Map 5).

Urbanization of the coastal zone in West Africa dates back to pre-colonial times,with the flourishing of trade in gold, slaves and other commodities between Africankingdoms which controlled the coast and emerging European empires seeking to expandtheir influence and trade. Natural harbors and river deltas from modern-day Senegal toZaire became strategic centers of commerce and points of entry to the hinterland forcompeting colonial powers. Extensive cultural artifacts and historical ruins from this pre-

I U.N. World Urbanization Prospects for 1990, U.N. Pop. Division

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modern period remain as testaments to the importance of this corridor to culture and

trade (Annex 1). During the last five hundred years, the economic, political and culturalnodes of many West African states became firmly established along the coast with the

development of port facilities and industry to facilitate trade, and the simultaneousemergence of these economic centers as administrative hubs and cultural crossroads for

the surrounding rural population.

With the build-up in modern times of infrastructure and the concentration ofeconomic and social investments in these urban centers, a development magnet has beencreated. This has attracted floods of migrants, many of them political refugees, anddrawn in surrounding "underserviced" populations within an expanding frontier ofurbanization. Despite the concentration of resources in these urban centers relative toother areas, they have not been able to keep pace with the accelerated rates of populationgrowth experienced in the last two decades. Unemployment is high, up to 50%, housingis overcrowded, water and sanitation is woefully inadequate (in some cases unimprovedsince colonial times), and social services incapable of responding to the needs of growingnumbers of desperately poor, uneducated and landless people.

A.(2) Demographic Trends in East Africa

In contrast to West Africa, coastal populations in the east developed as discrete centerslinked primarily to trade, port and fishing activities--apart from the political hubs situatedin the interior. Human settlements along the Red Sea in eastern Sudan, and along theIndian Ocean coast of Somalia are known from early antiquity. Further south along thecoastal strip and in the offshore archipelagos, the remnants of an extensive Swahilitrading network are evidence of economic activity dating to the mid-eighth century A.D.Because many principal East African cities are located inland, the expansion andcoalescence of urban centers has not yet advanced to the stage reached in the west. Some25 million people are estimated to live in the coastal zone between Somalia andMozambique (Table 2.1). This represents roughly 20% of the combines population ofthese riparian nations on 12% of the land mass. While overall densities in this coastalcorridor are not as high as those in West Africa, coastal cities in East Africa areexperiencing dramatic growth--Dar-es-Salaam 6.7%, Maputo 7.2%, Mombasa 5%(UN 1992). In South Africa, where almost one third of the population lives near thecoast, it is estimated that coastal urban centers of one million or more inhabitants willaccount for 17% of the national population by the year 2000 (WRI 1993).

Given current growth rates of 4-7 % in population nodes throughout the coastalzone, it is likelv that rural population satellites will soon merge with coastal cities to forma continuous population corridor along each coast. See Map 4 (population density mapwith coastal cities for Africa) and Map 5 (population from 1960-2025).

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Table 2.1. Populations in the Coastal Zone in Relation to Country Population and AreaCountry Country Coastal Coastal Country Coastal Coastal

Population Population' Population Area Area 2 Area as1994 1994 as percent (kn 2) (km2) percent of(millions) ( mnions) of Country Country

Popuiation AreaWest Africa'Angola 11.53 2.89 25.07% 1245828 95410 7.66%Benin 5.18 1.86 35.91% 116266 7248 6.23%Cameroon 13.22 1.57 11.88% 465425 29378 6.31%Cape Verde 0.41 0.41 100.00% 4288 4288 100.00%Congo 2.32 0.35 15.09% 345196 11538 3.34%Cote d'lvoire 13.5 3.74 27.70% 322770 32843 10.18%Eq. Guinea 0.39 0.21 53.85% 27207 13414 49.30%Gabon 1.56 0.65 41.67% 261764 53060 20.27%Gambia 0.94 0.5 53.19% 11373 4147 36.46%Ghana 16.7 5.47 32.75% 239312 27644 11.55%Guinea 6.24 1.35 21.63% 245156 25175 10,27%Guinea-Bissau 1.09 0.87 79.82% 33101 22351 67.52%Liberia 2.9 1.3 44.83% 96826 31477 32.51%Mauritania 2.2 0.22 10.00% 1041970 39291 3.77%Namibia 1.55 0.04 2.58% 818346 87802 10.73%Nigeria 97.23 19.29 19.84% 913612 65880 7.21%Sao Tome & Principe 0.13 0.13 100.00% 856 856 100.00%Senegal 8.12 4.37 53.82% 197836 35058 17.72%Sierra Leone 4.55 2.15 47.25% 71706 25802 35.98%Togo 4.05 1.37 33.83% 57334 4570 7.97%Sub-Total 193.81 48.74 25.15% 6516172 617232 9.47%

East AfricaComoros 0.63 0.63 100.00% 2030 2030 100.00%Djibouti 0.45 0.42 93.33% 21592 17711 82.03%Eritrea 3.66 1.34 36.61% 120312 52216 43.40%Kenya 25.84 1.66 6.42% 588045 32447 5.52%Madagascar 13.05 4.8 36.78% 592797 242745 40.95%Mauritius 1.1 1.1 100.00% 1328 1328 100.00%Mozambique 16.6 5.62 33.86% 789508 162938 20.64%Reunion 0.64 0.64 100.00% 2036 2036 100.00%Seychelles 0.07 0.07 100.00% 210 210 100.00%Somalia 9.95 3.79 38.09% 640061 170464 26.63%Sudan 27.71 0.52 1.88% 2507302 46217 1.84%Tanzania 28.39 4.61 16.24% 942654 57225 6.07%Sub-Total 128.09 25.2 19.67% 6207875 787567 12.69%South Africa 40.72 12.4 30.45% 1216919 152734 12.55%TOTAL 362.62 86.34 23.81% 13940966 1557533 11.17%* excluding Zaire

I The estimats of coastal population werc deied froma GIS dat bse of subrational administtive units (Deichmann 1994). which is basd onboundury dat fSotn FAO and oter sources. ad population figurs from tintional ceneus publicatiom. In cases whre only a part of a district lieswithin 60 km of the coat. din coasa popultation of that district was asumed to be proportioral to the share of dth district's area faling into thecoautal zne.2 Defined a die ar fallirg within a 60 km wide buffer of land running parallel to the costline along its entire length (see Map 3)

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B. Development and Industry in the Coastal Zone

Industrial Development. From a global perspective, the level of industrial development

in Africa is still relatively low. However the rate of industrialization, like urban

population growth, is accelerating along the coastal zone. It has been estimated that for

the nations bordering the Gulf of Guinea, over 60% of the industry in this region is

located in coastal cities and towns (UNDP/GEF 1993). This phenomenon is best

illustrated in the rapidly industrializing nations of Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana,

where coastal urban agglomerations are embracing a broad array of industries and

creating negative synergies in terms of impacts on the coastal zone. Table 2.2

summarizes the various urban and economic activities affecting the coastal zone.

Industries range from textile, leather, food and beverage processing to mineral extraction

and processing--most notably petroleum, natural gas and phosphates. About 27 oil

refineries are located in the coastal areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, Gabon, and

Angola, western Africa's largest oil producers, production is heavily concentrated in

offshore and shoreline installations. Between 1982 and 1992, oil production in Nigeria

increased by a factor of three, from 18,500 metric tons (mt) to 61,000 mt (WRI 1994).

In Angola, production increased by a factor of five to 19,000 mt and in Gabon by a

factor of more than two, to 14,000 mt, most of it in the coastal zone.

Section III.B describes the major environmental impacts of industrialization along

the coast. In general, poor siting of industries, old and inefficient conversion processes,

lack of maintenance, and poor supervision of production processes result in high pollution

loads. Despite the rapid growth of these industries over the last two decades and their

evident impacts on the human and natural environment, a regulatory framework to

manage this growth is only now emerging (see section IV. B). The deterioration of water

quality, with its impacts on human health and sanitation, and its central role in the

productivity of marine and coastal ecosystems, is perhaps the most important form of

environmental degradation occurring in the African coastal zone (Table 2.3).

Although industrialization is increasing in parts of coastal East Africa, the pace

is still relatively modest. While manufacturing and food processing industries exist to

some degree, shipping/port development and tourism are the fastest growing industries

in the East African coastal zone. However, even these industries are becoming

incompatible in areas where pollution from oil tanker traffic, marine debris and ballast

discharge threaten to destroy the scenic beauty of nearby beaches and coral reefs.

Tourism. The tourist industry is an important earner of foreign exchange in the

economies of several coastal countries, including the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Kenya,

Tanzania and Mauritius. Large-scale tourism, such as that already developed at points

along the coast from Dakar to Lome, can have severe impacts on the coastal zone.

Construction of hotels, restaurants, recreation facilities, and so forth, located directly on

the shore have been responsible for the clearing of coastal vegetation, filling of wetlands

and increased loading of sewage and solid waste. Many of these facilities, built with

public funds, have since deteriorated due to lack of maintenance or been washed away,

due to the absence of adequate setbacks from shore. The heavy capital losses resulting

from inadequate planning and zoning are compounded by marring of the coastline and

19

destruction of the aesthetic appeal that initially attracted tourists to these areas.Unregulated diving, snorkeling, fishing, speedboating and hunting can also interfere withsensitive coastal ecosystems. The increased demand for water, seafood, fuel, souvenirs,and other amenities puts additional pressure on coastal resources, which are alreadystressed. Because it is readily apparent to visitors, degradation of the coastal zone frompollution, urban sprawl and habitat destruction can rapidly erode a country's tourismbase, jeopardizing existing investments and future foreign exchange earnings.

C. Trends in the Use of Living Marine and Coastal Resources

The coastal aquatic and marine ecosystems of Africa are extraordinarily diverse,including five oceanic realms, four coastal realms, and five faunal provinces (Annex 1).Landward of these marine realms, the terrestrial biogeography of the coastal zone is evenmore varied, ranging from submerged coastal forest to desert scrub. Together, thesesystems harbor a wealth of economically and biologically important resources, fromindividual species to productive habitats. Commercially and culturally, the natural wealthof the coastal zone has been exploited for centuries, through a combination of traditionalrights and formal licensing for use.

The wave of urbanization and development now taking place in the coastal zone,however, is placing increasing pressure on these resources, many of which, because oftheir open access, are treated as free resources. Growing in-migration and poverty amongrural peri-urban households is resulting in exploitative use of open access and commonproperty resources while competing commercial interests in the fisheries and forestrysectors have taken advantage of poorly managed and monitored licensing regimes to mineresources to the point of depletion.

Along with resource overharvesting is habitat degradation. This eliminates thebasis of production of key resources and significantly alters their ability to recover fromheavy use and other disturbances. Habitat degradation is the result of, among otherthings: conversion of wetlands (for example, for rice cultivation and aquaculture, tourismdevelopment and port construction); contamination of lagoons and nearshore waters frommunicipal, agricultural and industrial waste; and elimination of food chains andbiodiversity networks through, for example, clear cutting of mangrove forests anddynamiting of coral reefs.

Along both coasts, increased fishing effort and the introduction of more efficienttechnologies has led to over exploitation of fisheries resources in response to growingdemands for protein and employment. Nearshore waters are being rapidly depleted ofdemersal stocks as artisanal fishermen and a growing number of commercial vesselsconcentrate their efforts along the continent's narrow continental shelf, particularly in theGulf of Guinea. The effects of overfishing are exacerbated in the South, Central Gulf ofGuinea by a permanent thermocline which prevents the mixing of nutrient rich deep seawaters with warmer surface waters, maintaining primary production and fish resourcesin here at relatively low levels. Where seasonal upwelling supports world class sardinefisheries off of Angola and Namibia to the south, and from Senegal to Sierra Leon in theNorth (Map 6), pelagic resources are abundant but are also coming under intense

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Table 2.2. Urban and Economic Activities Affecting the Coastal Zone

Sector Activity Impact in the Coastal Zone Mitigation Measures

Urban - Sewage disposal. - Pollution of coastal - Land-use- Solid waste waters; contamination of planning.

disposal. seafood; eutrophication; - Installation of- Uncontrolled sedimentation; oxygen adequate sewage

sprawl of depletion; fish kills. systems andhousing and - Fouling of beaches, water outfalls.urban intake and fishing gears; - Adequate soliddevelopment. entanglement of marine waste collection

- Modification of life; ghost fishing. and final disposal.coastline through - Habitat destruction andconstruction, depletion of naturalfilling and resources.dredging - Vulnerable to

- Demand for environmental hazardsfood, fuel and and natural disasters suchraw material. as storm surges,

flooding, and sea-levelrise.

- Changed current patterns;coastal erosion.

Industry - Industrial waste - Pollution of coastal - Industrydisposal. waters; contamination localization in less

- Land use. and tainting of seafood. vulnerable areas;- Modification of - Habitat destruction, environmental

coastline. changed coastal current impactpatterns, coastal erosion. assessments.

- Clean productiontechnologies.

- Wastewatertreatment.

Ports - Operational and - Water pollution, turbidity - Land-use planningaccidental spills. and sedimentation, oil and ICZM.

- Modification of spills. - Port receptioncoastline, - Habitat destruction, beach facilities.dredging, filling, erosion.etc.

- Shipping

Shipping - Water pollution - Accidental oil and - Implementationfrom shipping chemical spills. and enforcementoperations. - Accumulation of marine of MARPOL.

- Dumping of debris on beaches, in - Port receptiongarbage and water column and facilities.solid waste. benthos. - Contingency

- Shipping planning.accidents.

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Sector Activity Impact in the Coastal Zone Mitigation Measures

Tourism - Uncontrolled - Habitat destruction, stress - Planned tourismsprawl of to fragile coastal developmenttourism ecosystems, depletion of avoidinginfrastructure. natural resources. ecologically

- Sewage disposal. - Water quality sensitive areas.- Land use. degradation. - Sewage treatment.- Overuse of - Public awareness.

naturalresources.

Agriculture - Soil erosion. - Sedimentation in coastal - Improved land-use- Agro-chemical lagoons, destruction of and application ofrunoff. coral reefs; reduced agro-chemicals;- Habitat flushing of coastal soil conservation.

destruction lagoons. - Intensivethrough - Pollution of marine agriculture whereextensive waters by pesticides, recycling nutrientsagriculture. eutrophication. is possible;

- Withdrawal of - Clearance of mangroves, extensivewater for filling and channeling of agriculture outsideirrigation. wetlands. wetlands.

- Watershedmanagement.

Forestry - Upland - Sedimentation in coastal - Improved forestrydeforestation. lagoons. practices.- Logging for fuel - Clearing of mangroves; - Alternative fueland construction. habitat destruction; loss sources.

of shoreline protection.Electricity - Retention of - Reduced and - Watershedgeneration freshwater flow. unpredictable flow of management.

freshwater; reducedflushing of lagoons.

Fisheries - Overexploitation - Depletion of fish stocks. - Fisheriesof stocks. - Destruction of critical surveillance,

- Destructive habitat and nursery areas; management andfishing methods. ghost fishing from lost control.- Discarded or lost gear. - Limit free access

fishing gear. to fisheries.- Control of foreign

fleets.- Ban on destructive

fishing methods.Aquaculture - Land - Clearing of mangroves; - Controlled

reclamation. wetland destruction. aquaculture- Use of water, - Water quality development

dredging etc. degradation. through ICZM,- Need for natural - Depletion of natural environmentalseed. recruitment stocks. impact assessment

and technicalassistance.

22

pressure. These are being heavily exploited by foreign and commercial interests withminimal monitoring and financial return to the sovereign country (see section III.D).Perhaps the only fishery in which maximum sustainable yields have not been met orexceeded are the deep water demersal stocks, including snapper and bigeye, that cannotbe harvested without more advanced technology (Tobor 1993). In East Africa, "greaterharvesting efficiency" is being achieved through the mining of coral reefs. Indiscriminateharvesting of reef fish of all sizes and kinds is carried out by a combination of netting,poisoning and dynamiting coral reefs. Under such extractive pressure, reefs are unableor very slow to recover former levels of productivity, particularly if nearby recruitmentsites are also destroyed.

Less directly but potentially as damaging, offsite development and poor land usepractices upstream are adversely affecting conditions in the coastal zone. Extensive riverbasin regulation over the last twenty years, much of it with World Bank support, hasresulted in heavily modified river inputs downstream. These include changes in the ratesand volumes of freshwater flow, nutrients and sediment loads reaching coastal estuariesand the sea. In the river basins of West Africa, for example, the comprehensive networkof dams and other impoundments has so reduced the volume of sediments reaching theshore that local sand deficits have been created (see Map 7). In areas where naturalscouring and littoral transport are high, severe coastal erosion is occurring, with shorelineretreat of several meters or more per year (Oyegun 1990; Nwilo and Onuoha 1993 - seealso section III.C and Annex 2).

Poor land use, on the other hand, can accelerate soil erosion and increasesediment loads discharged into the sea. In many parts of East Africa, watersheddegradation has led to severe soil erosion, runoff and excessive deposition of sedimentsalong the coast. The result has been the siltation of port and harbor facilities and thedestruction of large stretches of coral reefs downstream of estuaries, for example, nearthe Rufiji River delta in Tanzania and the Tana River delta in Kenya. In Madagascar,where deforestation is occurring at the rate of 100,000 hectares (ha) annually in theeastern highlands, soil erosion rates of up to 300 t/ha/yr (UNEP 1982) have beenrecorded. The continuous hemorrhaging of clay sediments from the upper watersheds tothe coastal zone has earned this island the name, "The Bleeding Continent." With only5% of Madagascar's forests remaining, the impacts on coastal habitats, includingMadagascar's extensive coral reefs along the western coast, place the island's marinebiodiversity in jeopardy along with its unique terrestrial fauna.

Further examples of the impacts of unsustainable land use practices, includingthose related to mineral extraction, clear cutting and livestock grazing appear in Annex 3.

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differ relative to one another. The major issues, listed in order of priority in each region,appear below.

In West Africa the major issues are:

* deteriorating water quality and sanitation in urban areas and associatedimpacts on environment and public health;

| * pollution of coastal waters;| * coastal erosion; andl * overexploitation and degradation of marine resources.

In East Africa, the main issues are:

* destructivefishing methods and associated habitat degradation;* eutrophication and siltation of coastal waters; and* marine oil pollution from tanker traffic and ballast discharge.

A. Deteriorating Water Quality, Sanitation and Health and Enviromnental Impacts

Coastal zone planning has been inadequate or absent in most coastal cities of Africa. Therapid and chaotic growth of urban populations in coastal West Africa has far exceededthe capacity of municipal governments to provide the public with basic services likeadequate water supply and sewerage. In areas of heavy rainfall (typical in the coastal beltbetween Senegal and Zaire), the absence of latrines and adequate municipal wastedisposal coupled with overburdened sewerage facilities have led to the contamination ofsurface water and shallow aquifers, particularly in the high density, low income sectionsof cities. Epidemics of water borne disease, including outbreaks of cholera, hepatitis,typhoid and malaria are common in these areas, eroding the health and productivity ofthe labor force and maintaining high levels of infant mortality. Low income levels andrates of child survival reinforce large family size among the urban poor, exacerbating theconditions of overcrowding and poverty experienced by growing numbers of people. Interms of downstream impacts the discharge of municipal waste into surface and nearshore waters has resulted in: health risks from the presence of sewage pathogens,eutrophication/oxygen depletion due to nutrients and organic carbon, and contaminationof the aquatic food chain leading to toxification of marine organisms and humans. Thepollution of coastal lagoons associated with urban agglomerations on the Guinea Coasthas compromised fisheries and important biodiversity resources in the subsistenceeconomy of many peri-urban populations (see Box 2.1 on Coastal Lagoons, and the Tablesummarizing data on West African Lagoons in Annex 1). This habitat degradation hasalso created widespread public health hazards through the associated outbreak of waterborne disease, and has jeopardized the nursery grounds of commercial fisheries offshore.

Wastewater and drainage systems, water treatment facilities and well plannedsewageoutfalls for the major cities along both coasts are urgently needed. Low-costsolutions using bioremediation and biological filtration have been effective in other partsof the world and need to be explored for Africa.

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Table 2.3. Water Quality Degradation in African Coastal and Marine Waters

Type of Principal sources Environmental Health and Geographical Actionsdegradation impact biological areas affected required

effects

Contamination Urban Organic deposit Human Coastal lagoons Urbanby organic wastewater; in coastal disease due to close to large wastewaterwaste and wastewater from lagoons; reduced intake or urban centers collection,pathogens textile, beer, oxygen in water contact with in West Africa treatment and

leather, edible oil column and contaminated and main cities well designedand other sediment; water; in East and outfalls.industries; river sedimentation contamination South Africa.input. and beach of seafood;

pollution; reducedcontamination of biodiversity inseafood; coastal areas,turbidity.

Excess Urban Eutrophication of Reduced Coastal lagoons Urbannutrient wastewater; coastal waters. biodiversity close to large wastewaterrunoff agricultural and urban centers collection,

runoff; industrial unaesthetic in West Africa treatment andwastewater; river effects; algal and main cities well designedinputs. blooms and in East and outfalls; use of

red tides; South Africa. wastewater forfouling of irrigation.beaches; fishkills.

Contamination Wastewater from Concentration of Accumulation Industrial Internalby industrial industries and toxics in in marine centers in West processwaste urban sewage into sediments and organisms and South modification,

rivers and coastal marine with potential Africa. reuse andwaters. organisms. effects on recycling;

marine treatment ofmammals, wastewater andbirds and well designedhumans. outfalls.

Pesticide Agricultural Pollution of Toxic effects Coastal Control ofcontamination runoff; public coastal waters; on marine lagoons, mainly production,

health campaigns; persistence in the organisms; in West Africa. import, and useproduction and marine accumulation of pesticide;storage of environment; in seafood. use ofbiocides. concentration in alternative

marine biocides.organisms.

25

Type of Principal sources Environmental Health and Geographical Actionsdegradation impact biological areas affected requiredeffects

Release of Oil exploitation Oil pollution of Tainting of Chronic oil Improvedpetroleum and production; beaches and seafood; pollution from environmentalhydrocarbons urban and coastal reduced production in management inindustrial runoff; ecosystems; tar biodiversity West Africa; oil production;shipping and port accumulating on and death of main tanker treatment ofoperations; beaches. seabirds and routes around urban andaccidental oil other Africa and in industrialspills. organisms; West Africa; runoff;sublethal risk areas for Regionaleffects. accidental oil acceptance and

spills in the implementationMozambique of MARPOL,Channel, Cape port receptionof Good Hope facilities andand West contingencyAfrica; risk of planning.spills in all oilports.

Solid waste Coastal dumping, Accumulation of Death of Garbage Sourcelitter marine debris floating litter; turtles, dumping reduction;from shipping, entanglement of mammals and around main reuse;fishing activities; marine animals; birds through human recycling;beach littering. beach fouling; ingestion and settlements and adequatereduced marine entanglement; from shipping disposal ofsafety. "ghost and fishing urban solid

fishing". activities. waste; portreceptionfacilities;implementationof MARPOL.

Siltation and Land-use in Increased Loss of coral Around the Land-useturbidity coastal and upland sedimentation reefs and large rivers. management;areas; and siltation; associated reduceddeforestation; reduced health of fauna; deforestation.river inputs; coral reefs. excessivedredging. sedimentation

in wetlands.Exotic aquatic Infestation of Reduced Reduced Around large Introduction ofweed exotic aquatic biodiversity and water surface rivers, in biologicalinfestatVon weeds in rivers fouling of coastal in coastal particular in controls.and lakes. waterbodies. lagoons; West Africa.

limited habitatfor marinelife.

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B. Pollution of Coastal Waters

Municipal Waste. As noted earlier, municipal waste is a key component of land-baseddischarges into coastal waters. Direct discharge from point-sources to the coastal areasconsist mainly of domestic sewage and industrial effluents (discussed below). In urbanareas, the two waste streams are often mixed in the sewage systems and are usuallydumped, untreated, into surrounding waters. These discharges contain: organic materialaffecting the oxygen balance of the receiving medium, nutrients, trace elements, syntheticorganic compounds, petroleum compounds, particulates/sediments, and micro-organisms.The heaviest pollution loads are associated with overcrowded cities like Lagos, Abidjan,Accra, Dakar, Luanda and Douala, most of which lack even primary sewerage treatmentfacilities. Of the discharge of BOD5 and SS from these cities, Lagos is responsible forabout half of the total. This pollution is not necessarily confined to national waters,however. In the Gulf of Guinea, a strong littoral transport system may carry oil pollutionand solid waste from point sources upstream to other countries along the coast (Map 5above). Since the prevailing currents are easterly, sewerage discharged from outfalls inAbidjan may end up in Accra or Lome, creating region wide impacts which underscoresystem linkages throughout the coastal zone.

Industrial Effluents. Situated in large urban centers, close to labor supply andports for export markets, some of the most polluting industries in West Africa can befound in Lagos, Port-Harcourt, Dakar and Abidjan. As noted earlier in section II.B,industries range from manufacturing to food and beverage processing to mineralexploitation. Within the manufacturing industries, the chemical (including pesticides,pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and paints), textile and leather industries are among the mostpolluting. These industries contribute high biological oxygen demand (BOD), suspendedsolids, grease and oil, and more complex organic pollutants to the urban wastestreamentering coastal waters. The various dyes, tannins and chromium compounds releasedinto rivers from the leather and textile industries are particularly noxious to aquatic life.In the mineral industry, tailings from gold mining operations upstream (for example, inGhana and Zaire) are washed downstream in river runoff. Along the coast, residues frominshore mining operations (for example, for phosphate in Cote d'Ivoire and Togo, andoffshore diamond mining in Namibia) are released directly into the sea, causingsignificant loading of suspended solids. Coastal petroleum mining and processing are alsosignificant point sources of marine pollution, releasing large quantities of oil, grease,nutrients and other organic compounds into surrounding waters.

The severity and multiplicity of impacts from pollution and industry along theWest African coast is perhaps best illustrated in the Niger Delta. With over 500,000 haof mangroves, the Niger Delta is regarded as one of the most important wetland systemsin West Africa. The Delta is also the center of Nigeria's petroleum and natural gasindustries (Map 8). Crisscrossed by oil and gas pipelines, and riddled with wells, thisfragile aquatic environment is subject to chronic operational spills and leaks from oil andgas mining operations. Natural subsidence in the Delta is also accelerating due to thesemining operations, exposing settlements in the area to the adverse effects of sea levelrise. The Delta, which accounts for nearly two thirds of the Nigerian coastline, is situatedin the highest industrial discharge zone in the WACAF region. The wetland zone from

27

Lagos Lagoon to the corridor between Nigeria and Gabon accounts for the bulk of theeffluent load of the 18 coastal countries between Senegal and Angola. Approximately43% of the BOD5, 36% of the suspended solids, 83% of the oil and grease and 60% ofthe chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the region are dumped into this zone (UNEP1989). Oil tanker transport and port operations in the Niger Delta create additionalsources of pollution through accidental spills and ship-based waste. Within the Delta arefour tanker ports and a major shipping harbor at Port Harcourt, none of which hasadequate reception facilities (Map 10). Despite the risk of major tanker accidents (suchas occurred off Bonny in 1978), and operational spills like the one offshore at the Funiwa5 rig, in which 37 million liters of crude oil were spilled following a blowout (Nwilo andOnuoha 1993), Nigeria is ill-equipped for oil spill contingencies, nor is it a member ofMARPOL.

In East Africa, coastal areas around major cities like Dar-es-Salaam and Maputohave severe pollution problems due to the discharge of urban and industrial wastewater.Even oceanic islands like Mauritius, among the most industrialized countries in EastAfrica, are experiencing water quality degradation in coastal areas. This is the result ofpollution from textile and sugar refining industries in the coastal zone, of agriculturalrunoff from fertilizer and pesticide use and of sewerage outfall.

Solid Waste. Solid waste dumped directly on beaches or in river basins can bewashed into the sea by rain, storm surges, waves and tides. A large portion of marinedebris originates from land due to improper waste disposal and management, and beachlittering. Mangroves and wetlands are often used as garbage dumps, contaminatingsurrounding waters through the introduction of toxic substances and pathogens whichcause physical and hydrological damage to the ecosystem.

Municipal solid waste management and final disposal solutions avoiding opendumping in vulnerable coastal ecosystem are urgently needed throughout the region.Considerable investment is required, but needs to be of the low-cost type for sustainablemanagement.

C. Coastal Erosion

Coastal erosion is a serious problem, particularly in many West African countries, whererates of shoreline erosion or beach retreat average several meters per year. In some areas(for example, in Lagos and Escravos Harbors in Nigeria, and in Keta, Ghana) these havebeen recorded at as high as 23-30 m/yr (Ibe and Quelennec 1989). Although the coastlineis highly prone to natural erosion and sedimentation processes which include the scouringeffects of a high wave energy environment, strong littoral transport, and a subsidingcoastal plate (Allersma and Tilmans 1993), erosion has been intensified by humanactivities (see Annex 2 for a fuller discussion of coastal erosion in West Africa).

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Box 2.1 Coastal Lagoons in Crisis

A system of shallo%%. interconnecting and highly productive coastal lagoons extends for morethan 760 km between Cote d'lvoire and eastern Nigeria. These lagoons, which cover an openwaler area of over 400.000 ha, run parallel lo the coast, separated from the sea by a narrowdune barrier which Is mainLained by the easterly transport of alluvial and marine sediments.Traditionally exploited bv coastal populations for its fisheries, forest and wildlife resources,this distinctive wetlands system is being rapidly degraded as a result of multiple and intensehuman impacts.

Pollution from human and industrial waste dumped directly into the lagoons surroundingmajor urban centers has led to contamination of fisheries resources and other parts of thefood chain. The impact of untreated urban discharge into these lagoons is particularlv severedue to the relafi%ely high Lemperatures and restricted circulation limiting the dissolved oxygencontent of many of ihese shallow backwaters. The high oxygen demand generated by organicdecomposers coupled with high nutrient input from municipal wastes have led to increasinglyanoxic conditions and accelerating eutrophication of the lagoon system. This brackish watersystem has been further stressed bv the steady decrease in fresh s%ater inputs from riversimpounded upstream. Reduction in flow rates and accompanying flushing has led tosuccessive stagnation and salinization of the system during the dry season, wiLh significantreductions in fishenes vields and in overall productivity. Further declines in the productivityof the system have resulted from surrounding mangrove deforestation for agriculture,fuelwood and mineral exploitation. The destruction of mangroves results in a collateral lossto lagoon systems of essential nutrients in the form of plant organic material as well as ofprotective habitat for larval and juvenile stages of important fisheries species found in theselagoons, for example. Penaeus duorarum, Macrobrachium sp., Callinecies amnicola,Ethmalosa fitnbricaia, Chrvsichthys, Tilapia, and Sardinella spp. This in Lurn reduces therecruitment potential and resilience of these populations as well as their representation in thefood chain

These indirect impacts on productivity create a negative synergism with ihe severeoverfishing that occurs in many of Lhese urban lagoons. Conversion of what was once anartisanal fishery to a largely foreign-licensed and highly efficient commercial fishingoperation led to the collapse. in 1981. of the lagoonal fishing industry in Cote d'lvoire. InAby Lagoon, for example, landings of the most abundant species, Eihmalosa imbricata wentfrom 5,000 tons in 1979 to 500 ions in 1981. This collapse precipitaled a number of newregulations on the use of seines. mesh size, number of licenses issued and length of thefishing season. Despite these measures, however, more efficient collecting techniques andlimited enforcement of regulations have led to consistent declines in production and theplacement in jeopardy of employment and subsistence for a sizeable urban fishingcommunit.

Over 9 million ha of mangroves occur in association with coastal lagoons, tidal estuaries anddeltas within the coastal wetlands of West Africa. However, despite their global importanceas critical habitats for biological diversity and producti%iLy %%ithin the region, these lagoonsand wetlands remain largely unprotected. Along the Nigenan coast, where 35% of theregion's mangroves are, not one coastal wetland reserve exists in (Map 2), nor is Nigeria aparty to the RAMSAR convention (Annex 6). The vulnerability of these productive systemsto development is graphically illustrated in the Niger Delia. where mangroves and associatedwetlands are subject to progressive degradation from the plethora of oil and gas miningactivities located in the Delta and nearshore environment.

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Anthropogenic disturbances can have a synergistic effect on coastal erosion.Damage can occur through, for example:

* the manipulation of hydrological cycles through river dam constructionand impoundments for irrigation, reservoirs, and so forth;

* port construction and related engineering works that act as sedimenttraps; and

* mining of sand, gravel or coral for construction purposes.

Other human activities contributing to coastal erosion include constructiondirectly on the beach with insufficient setbacks to account for normal variations inshoreline migration. This includes most of the infrastructure along the coast which hasbeen building up in West Africa since colonial times. In the last two decades, theconstruction of oil refineries and wells, gas and oil pipelines, and storage tanks near portsin the oil producing countries of Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Angola has interferedwith normal coastal accretion processes, leading to recession of the shoreline andexposure of these investments to storm damage and flooding. Sand mining for beachreplenishment, land reclamation or construction is common along the Nigerian coast,around Victoria Island, Escravos, Lekki and Port Harcourt (Nwilo and Onuoha 1993).Like dams which block the flow of sediments downstream, the nearshore mining of sandinterferes with the sand budget regulating beach replenishment over a wide area, leadingto erosion and flooding. Similarly, the placement of groins and jetties to mitigate theimpact of waves around ports and other facilities along the coast, can create severeerosion and scouring downstream of the littoral drift.

Deforestation, particularly of mangrove forests for fuelwood, timber and landreclamation has eliminated a critical source of coastline stabilization. In the Niger Delta,mangrove deforestation has led to severe erosion and flooding and the destruction offishing villages along the mud coast. With the sediment trapping and consolidationfunction of mangrove forests destroyed, sandy beaches and shorelines are completelyexposed to the erosive effects of wind and wave action.

In summary, high erosion potential in the region combined with poor decision-making regarding the siting of coastal infrastructure, ad hoc decisions about the kinds andlocation of mitigation measures and the extraction of coastal resources have allcontributed to high rates of erosion in the West African coastal zone.

D. Overexploitation of Living Marine Resources and Habitat Degradation

Depletion of Fish Stocks. The waters off the northern and southern margins of WestAfrica are productive due to seasonal upwelling of nutrient-rich water. FAO reportedcatches of nearly 4 million tons from the Eastern Central Atlantic Zone was almost 4million tons during 1989-90. However, the landings of the main pelagic resources, suchas sardine, hake and tuna, fluctuate due to climatic conditions and fishing pressure. TheSoutheast Atlantic Region, in particular off Angola and Namibia, is extremely productive,with catches of about 1.5 million tons per year. The fisheries resources off East Africa,with the exception of Somalia, however, are modest (Annex 4).

30

Most fisheries are operated without any management and control, and manycountries, even the main fishing nations, are net importers of fish products (Table 2.4).Landing data from the region is incomplete and knowledge of the fishery stocks in theregion is limited. However, it is highly probable that most of the resources are heavilyexploited and overfished, with the exception of the pelagic resources off East Africawhich are estimated to be slightly underutilized (FAO 1992).

In Africa, as in many parts of the world, overexploitation of fisheries stocks isrelated to several factors: (a) inappropriate or unenforceable offtake quotas for differentspecies; (b) selective harvesting of "preferred species"; (c) hyper-efficient harvestingmethods and use of inappropriate gear; and (d) harvesting of small size classes andreproductive females which limits juvenile recruitment and the potential for recoveryfrom heavy fishing pressure.

Harvest quotas are often based on insufficient information, due to inadequatestock assessment, making calculation of maximum sustainable yields difficult. Even whenquotas and licensing are consistent with natural productivity and rates of recovery,monitoring and enforcement are still major problems. This is particularly true in theEEZs of many West African nations which have been let to a wide range of fishinginterests (see below).

In East Africa, selective harvesting of coral reef fish (for example, the targetingof keystone species or certain grazers) can remove important ecological links from thereef system. In other instances, nonselective fishing through the use of overly efficientgear can be extremely damaging to a wide range of organisms, including many nontargetspecies. Examples include the use of small mesh sizes, which capture all size classes ofvirtually every variety of fish, and the kilometer long floating driftnets, forming invisiblewalls in the oceans and entangling nontarget marine life including endangered marinemammals, turtles, and birds. Lost or discarded nondegradable fishing gear may continueto kill marine life (through ghost fishing) for years. Other forms of destructive fishingare discussed in section III.D dealing with habitat degradation.

Foreign fleets are largely responsible for the heavy fishing of the Eastern CentralAtlantic. Of the total catch reported from this region in 1990, more than half was takenby sixteen foreign fleets with the USSR as a leading nation (although fishing in thesewaters by former Soviet republics has declined since the break-up of the Soviet Unionin 1991). In the Southeast Atlantic Region almost half was taken by ten foreign fleets.Many coastal countries do not have the capacity to harvest the fishery resources in theirEEZ and, therefore, sell licenses to foreign fleets. In 1981, the International Commissionfor Southeast Atlantic established a trust fund for a future independent Namibia. At thedissolution of the commission in 1990, Namibia received US$180,000 as compensationfor the fishing in Namibia's waters since 1969, representing 0.004% of the value of thefish taken. By 1990, the main resource, hake, was estimated to have a biomass of only20% of its 1969 level. At the request of Namibia, foreign operations in their EEZ ceasedat the end of 1990. This hiatus has contributed to the recovery of some of the moreheavily fished stocks, including hake (see Box 2.4).

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Table 2.4. Fish Production and Trade in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990

Total Marine Freshwater TradeCatch Catch Catch Import Export

(thousand tons) (US$ million)

South Africa 536 534 2 118 111Ghana 392 334 58 30 23Tanzania 377 47 330 7Nigeria 316 218 99 171 14Senegal 300 283 17 47 216Namibia 290 290Uganda 245 0 245Zaire 162 2 160 61Kenya 142 8 135 1 27Chad 115 115Cote d'Ivoire 109 77 32 110 175Angola 107 99 8 54 3Madagascar 107 75 32 41Mauritania 91 85 6 141Malawi 80 80Cameroon 78 58 20 55 9

Tot. SS Afr 3,374 809 899

Source: FAO

Artisanal fisheries provide an important source of income and food supply formany poor people in the region. This sector involves women to a great extent inprocessing, marketing and administration of fisheries. Domestic and artisanal fisheriesaccount for about 40% of the total marine catch and practically all freshwater catch.Despite its non-capital intensive aspect, artisanal fishing contributes to overfishing in theGulf of Guinea, concentrating on demersal species along the narrow continental shelf,where waters tend to be warmer and subject to land-based pollution.

Aquaculture Practices. Although there is a potential for aquaculture developmentin many areas in Africa to date, low participation, inappropriate technology, poor pondmanagement and lack of technical assistance have resulted in low production levels (seeTable 2.5). The FAO regional (SADCC countries) project for aquaculture--theAquaculture for Local Community Development Program (ALCOM)--concludes thatfishfarming can best stimulate economic growth when introduced in areas where theeconomy is stagnant and the farmers have underutilized resources of land, water and time(see Box 2.2).

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Table 2.5. Potential for Aquaculture Development in Africa

Aquaculture Species Market Development Commentspotential

Subsistence Tilapia, Subsistence, Low/Moderate - Provide rural communities withfish culture in carp local ---------- an opportunity to produce highsmall, consumption Recent quality protein, as a complementmultipurpose experience has to agriculture, by using availableponds not been resources such as small dams,

promising. agriculture byproducts or waste,Low-price and non-productive time.products have - Base aquaculture developmentto compete on methods at no or low cost forwith cheap, individual farmers, local avail-imported fish ability, easy processing, and highproducts. nutritional value.

- Examine possibilities formultiple use of water forintegrated aquaculture/agricultureactivities such as irrigation, soilimprovement and improvedgeneral landscaping (productionof vegetables, fruits and treesadjacent to the fish pond;integration of fish culture withproduction of ducks, poultry,pigs and cattle.- Obtain strong governmentalcommitment for extensionservices, technical assistance,establishment of local hatcheries,organization of producer groups.

Fish culture Tilapia, Local market Moderate - Carry out fish farming in cagesin irrigation carp ---------- or enclosed sections of channels,systems Drought, or freely by stocking the

irregular water irrigation system.supply and - Fish production in irrigationdegraded water system can benefit agriculturequality hamper activities by increasing nutrientdevelopment. levels; herbivorous species

maintain channels free from plantinfestations. Additional incomefrom fish production maycontribute to cover costs forconstruction of channels and useof water.- Fish culture depends onavailability and flow of water forstocking density, oxygen supplyand removal of waste. Properplanning and distribution schemesmust be developed. Use of agro-chemicals, in particularpesticides, must be controlled toavoid losses and maintain qualityof products.

33

Aquaculture Species Market Development Commentspotential

Stocking and Tilapia, Subsistence, Moderate/High - There is a large potential tofish culture in carp, local market, - --------- enhance fisheries production andnatural waters trout, national Enhancement aquaculture (cages, pens, dams)and reservoirs native market, of freshwater in great lakes, reservoirs, small

species commercial fisheries water bodies and rivers.fisheries, promising. - Any stocking program must besport combined with strict fisheriesfisheries management, including control of

fishing effort, minimum size,gear, and restrictedareas/seasons.- Pathogenicity and competitionwith native species must becontrolled if exotics are to bereleased into natural systems.

Industrial Shrimp, National Moderate/High - This requires large areasaquaculture oyster, market, ---------- suitable for industrial

abalone, export Lack of aquaculture, including areas withmussels, infrastructure high water quality for culture ofother and water abalone, oysters, and mussels.highly quality - Semi-intensive mariculturepriced degradation are requires large investments andspecies limitations. may have serious environmental

implications, (for example,downstream nutrient loading, andacidification and salinization ofsoils) which can undermine itslong-term sustainability in anarea of competing resource use.

Seaweed Marine Export Moderate/High - Seaweed farming has expandedfarming algae - - - - - - - - - - rapidly (Zanzibar) and provided

Recent improved living conditions forexperience has rural villages, mainly through thebeen strong involvement of women.promising. - "Acadja", a traditional

aquaculture system, involvesplanting branches of bamboo inshallow fresh and coastal watersto enhance algae production andattract fish. It can increasefisheries yield up to 100 times.

Aquaculture Duck- Moderate - This can be used to treat urbanfor weed, ---------- sewage to reduce nutrients andwastewater marine Low-cost suspended solids. Products cantreatment algae, technology be used for soil improvement,

tilapia may be only fish and animal feed. The latteroption for must be screened forwastewater pathogenicity before beingtreatment. marketed for human

consumption.

34

Box 2.2 ALCONI - Aquaculture forLocal Community Development Program

The ALCONI project is executed by FAQ and funded by Sweden to encourage aquaculturedevelopment in Angola, Botswana, Lesotho. Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia. Swaziland,Tanzania and Zimbabwve. The program is supponing iniroduction and exiension offishfarming by demonstraling new methods and techniques by which rural populations mayimprove their living standards. It also improves the utilization of reservoirs for fishproduction, Irain exiension personnel, disseminate information and assist the countries inaquaculture planning and project design.

The ALCONI proJect sees the development of inland aquaculture along three lines:

* Expansion of small-scale subsistence-oriented fish farming in areas where the physicalconditions are right, the extension system is in place, and macro-economic changes (tradeliberalizaLion, free markets. reduction of subsidies, retrenchment of governmental staff)are not impacting the sector

* A small-scale semi-inLensive market orienied seclor develops in areas close to markets,pro% ided profitable culture systems demanded on ihe market can be identified

* Large scale commercial sub-sector may give up producing for the local market because ofcompetition w ith cheap imported sea fish, or attempt to export. New entrants intofishfarming will look for high-value products for domestic or e.xport markets.

The ALCOM] project also concludes that mariculture could expand significanily provided:

* Miariculcure is included in coastal management plans* Infrastructure is developed wiLhin marine fisheries* Legislation is enacted* Research is carried oui on species, site selection, and culture sNstems* A better flow of market and technical information to the private sector.

An operational plan for the Tbird Phase of the ALCOM project includes:

* Development of markeL-oriented small-scale inland aquaculture* Feasibility of intervenlions for the management and enhancement of fish Production from

small water bodies* Development of coasial communities through aquaculture* Strengthening of aquaculrure instituLions.

Among the most important factors limiting the scope of aquaculture developmentin the future will be the quantity and quality of water available for cultivation of aquaticspecies. Predictions of water scarcity in many parts of Africa over the next thirty yearssuggest that competition for clean water among downstream users may severely limitfreshwater fish culture. The extensive brackish water lagoon system that runs parallel tothe coast over hundreds of km along the Gulf of Guinea (Annex 1), could be developedfor aquaculture in rural areas unaffected by pollution from urban waste. If managedproperly, the culture of well adapted, high value species (for instance, mangrove oysters,

35

mussels, shrimp and prawns) can be highly compatible with capture fishing in theseareas. However, such extensive mariculture will depend on maintaining the integrity andproductivity of these natural systems to meet the necessary conditions for growth of targetspecies.

In addition to deteriorating water quality, destruction of critical habitat forrecruitment stock, disease and unsanitary conditions can severely constrain production,result in bans on harvests and sales, and lower consumer acceptance, thus threatening thedevelopment of the entire sector. Natural phenomena such as red tides, flooding andstorms may also limit the potential for aquaculture development. On the other hand,poorly sited and managed mariculture operations can pose risks to surrounding productionsystems through salinization of adjacent agricultural land and competition with offshorefisheries for wild recruitment stock.

Mangrove Deforestation and Reclamation. Coastal forests, in particularmangroves, provide a number of important ecosystem functions, including shorelineprotection, nutrient and sediment trapping, pollution filtration, nursery areas for fisheriesspecies, feeding grounds for migratory birds, and breeding and protective habitat for avariety of marine fauna. In addition, mangroves are intensively used for fishing andproduction of salt, charcoal and firewood. The deforestation rate in many coastalcountries is extremely high, and complete depletion of the resource is a real threat.

Clearing of mangrove areas for agriculture, in particular rice cultivation, iscommon in several West-African countries. Filling and channeling of wetlands to increasearable land area is also frequently practiced.

Degradation of Key Habitats/Loss of Biodiversity. Coastal and marine habitatssuch as wetlands, sandy beaches, seagrass beds, coral reefs and other hard bottomcommunities play an important role in ecosystem structure and function. Coastalwetlands, for example, serve as natural filters, extracting nutrients and sediment fromwaters draining through the system into the sea. They also help regulate water flow bystoring excess water during periods of heavy rainfall, thus buffering downstream areasagainst flooding. As the most prominent features of many coastal wetlands, mangrovescounteract coastal erosion by buffering the coastline against storms and creating a matrixfor sediment deposition and coastal accretion. Many of these nearshore habitats are linkedand help maintain marine biodiversity through the broad niche space they create, and byserving as feeding, breeding or nursery grounds for a wide range of species.

Many of these habitats are being rapidly degraded through: sedimentation,contamination pollution, resource mining, and other destructive forms of resourceextraction related to intensifying human pressures on these systems. Such degradationentails a measurable loss of economic value in the natural goods and services providedby these systems as well as an equally important, though less quantifiable, loss ofbiodiversity and genetic resources.

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Table 2.6. Forest Areas, Deforestation Rate and Loss of Mangrovesin Selected African Countries

Closed Forest Deforestation Loss ofRate Mangroves

Country (1000 ha) (% per year) (total %)

Cote d'Ivoire 4,458 6.5 60

Nigeria 5,950 5.0 50

Benin 47 2.6Guinea-Bissau 660 2.6 70

Liberia 2,000 2.3 70

Guinea 2,050 1.8 60

Kenya 1,105 1.7 70

Madagascar 10,300 1.5 40

Angola 2,900 1.5 50

Ghana 1,718 1.3 70

Mozarnbique 935 1.1 60

Sierra Leone 740 0.8 50

Cameroon 17,920 0.4 40

Zaire 105,750 0.2 50

Gabon 20,500 0.1 50

Congo 21,340 0.1

Source: WRI 1992b.

Destructive Extraction Methods. Among the most egregious yet commonexamples of destructive extraction is the dynamiting of coral reefs to maximize fish catchper unit effort. Not only does this jeopardize future catches in the area by destroying thebasis for reef fish productivity, widespread use of this technique eliminates sources forrecolonization and recovery of damaged reefs, leading to the permanent loss of entire reefcommunities. Related to this is the use of encircling nets in open waters around patchreefs followed by poisoning or breaking of coral heads to scare fish into the open.Bottom trawling for shrimp and mollusks is also harmful to soft benthic communities inits non-target harvest of bottom dwelling species and its continuous disturbance tomicrohabitats and sediment structure.

Resource mining is a term used to describe the overexploitation of renewableresources, beyond the point of natural recovery. As noted above, mangroves areparticularly susceptible to this form of use. Because they provide important structure andorganic inputs to many coastal wetlands, their extraction results in a simultaneous lossof habitat and species diversity, with repercussions on other linked systems in the coastalzone.

37

Loss of Biodiversity. The marine flora and fauna of the Southeast Atlantic and theSouth Indian Oceans represent a rich diversity of species, many of which are endemic.(Annex 1 provides a thorough review of this and of the range of habitats andbiogeographic realms included in the African marine environment.) Among the mosttaxonomically diverse fauna are the icthyofauna off the coast of East Africa and theIndian Ocean Islands (over 900 species of fish are known from the Seychelles), and thebird fauna associated with the coastal wetlands of West Africa.

Coastal wetlands are particularly important to migrating shorebirds and waders,which depend on the high productivity of these areas to overwinter. The West Africanmainland coast is visited seasonally by millions of migratory birds, especially waders (seeMap 9 indicating flyways of coastal/wetlands species along both coasts). Internationallyimportant populations of seabirds, for example, Slender-Billed Gulls, the endemic RoyalTern, the Great White Pelican and various kinds of cormorants, form breeding coloniesthroughout the region, particularly on the naturally predator-free offshore and oceanicislands. Of these, Ascension Island is the single most important seabird nesting site in theSouth Atlantic (IUCN 1993). Yet, despite the importance of these sites to overall marinebiodiversity, few are adequately protected. Many species associated with these sites arethreatened or endangered due to hunting and the destruction of critical habitat, forexample breeding and feeding sites in the case of birds, fish and nesting sea-turtles. Manymarine species are over overcollected, such as reef mollusks and some deep-waterspecies, for example, the Coelacanth, a highly prized living marine fossil, while stillothers, like marine mammals (seals, dolphins, dugongs and manatees) fall prey toincidental hunting and trapping in shark nets. Despite being officially protected, manythreatened species and their habitats are the victims of lax enforcement and inadequatemanagement plans. A map of existing marine protected areas (MPAs) and priority sitesfor additional management support are illustrated in Map 2.

E. Siltation of Coastal Waters

Agricultural Runoff and Siltation. Most agricultural activities are carried out in rivervalleys and flood-plains. Extensive agriculture, slash-and-burn practices associated withshort fallow periods, and the resulting soil erosion contribute to increased siltation ofcoastal habitats, particularly beaches and coral reefs found along the East African Coastand Madagascar. The combined effects of sedimentation and turbidity on the fragileorganisms which maintain coral reefs impair both their filter feeding and photosyntheticcapabilities, resulting in widescale declines in both reef productivity and structuralintegrity.

Inland and coastal forests are critical to the health and productivity of the coastalenvironment. Upland deforestation in watersheds increases soil erosion and influences theflow of water and sediments to the sea. Deforestation is a serious problem in severalAfrican countries. In Madagascar for example, it is estimated that 80-90 % of the forestsare already gone; the remainder is being intensively mined for fuel and slash-and-burnagriculture (see section II.C).

38

Irrigation patterns and the extension of agricultural activities to marginal lands,including slopes, may contribute to soil erosion and increased agro-chemical runoff. Thelatter is increasing and along with it eutrophication in some coastal lagoons.

The use of pesticides in agriculture may cause pollution problems in coastal areasand limit the use of already scarce freshwater resources, in particular during the dryseason. According to UNEP (1989b), a wide range of organochlorine and organo-phosphorous pesticides are used in the region, including DDT, aldrin, and dieldrin.

River inputs also carry a heavy load of pollutants from the drainage basin to thecoastal areas. This includes waste from human settlements, industrial activities, miningoperations, agriculture, forestry, and so on. Rivers may also bring exotic aquatic weedsto coastal areas, which has caused considerable problems in the Ivory Coast.

F. Marine Pollution from Oil Tanker Traffic and Ballast Discharge

Under the MARPOL convention, ports are expected to have adequate port receptionfacilities for ship-generated waste, such as oil residues, sewage and solid waste to reducethe pollution of marine and coastal waters. A list of existing facilities and shippingactivities in African ports is included in Annex 6, Table A6.2. It should be noted that theport reception facilities in most African ports are not adequate. Even if collection can bearranged from ships, the treatment and final disposal of the waste is often poorly handled.In many cases, the waste is transported and dumped in or nearby coastal areas, withimplications for human health, habitat degradation and pollution of coastal waters.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons. The most intensively trafficked tanker routes in theworld pass through African waters (Map 10). With the traffic pattern and the highvolume of oil transported, operational spills and large accidental spills must be expectedat any time throughout the area. In particular the Mozambique Channel, waters off theCape of Good Hope, and the Red Sea are high risk areas for major oil spills. 10pollution generally declined in the early 1980s, partly because MARPOL 73/78 enteredinto force. However, although MARPOL and most other international shippingconventions are in force and have been ratified by the majority of maritime nations (Map11), many of the contracting parties fail to comply with the requirements on reporting,providing waste reception facilities, and control and enforcement. The state of ratificationof the MARPOL convention and other IMO conventions in Sub-Saharan Africa, is notsatisfactory, as noted in Annex 6.

Another concern is that the world fleet, in particular tankers, is aging rapidly.Older ships tend to have more accidents than new ones and the standards that apply toolder ships are less stringent than those applying to new ones. The introduction of stricterrequirements for new ships may encourage owners to keep their existing ships longer andwill also result in that ships of low quality and environmental standard will end up incountries where MARPOL is not enforced.

Marine Debris. The oceans have long been a dump for all kinds of waste fromships, but the problem was not obvious until recently because metal and glass sank; and

39

paper, cloth and other organic wastes decayed. Today, plastics have become the world'smost common packing material due to their strength, light weight and durability. Thesesame factors, however, also contribute to their ability to pollute. Plastics float, do noteasily decay and tend to accumulate in the oceans. Plastic waste washes up even on theworld's most remote shorelines. Where ocean currents wash ashore, beaches can literallybe converted to garbage dumps. Plastic in the sea is more than a litter problem, however.Plastic causes mortality in marine species through entanglement and ingestion, it reducesmarine safety and can have a serious aesthetic impact on the environment withimplications for important economic sectors such as tourism.

G. Regional Enviromnental Concerns

Sea Level Rise. Global warming and associated sea-level rise may have considerableimplications for a number of African coastal states. The magnitude of the predicted globalrise in sea-level is not known, but the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Changes(IPCC) estimates the rise to be 0.3-0.5 m by the year 2050 and about 1 meter by the year2100. The implications would vary greatly from one country to another, depending onlocal topography, climate, tectonics and use of the coastal zone.

Some of the most important effects of a rise in sea level would be inundation anddisplacement of coastal lowlands and wetlands, eroding shorelines, increased coastalstorm flooding, increased salinity in estuaries and freshwater aquifers, altered tidalranges, changes in sedimentation patterns, and changed biological production.

Coastal areas with high population densities and human activities that are alreadysubject to natural hazards are of particular concern. This is the case in several countriesalong the Atlantic Coast from Senegal to Nigeria, where coastal erosion is already severe.Most capitals, major towns, industrial centers, and all ports (for example, Lagos, PortHarcourt, and Abidjan) are situated at sea level and are vulnerable to the impacts of sea-level rise (Awosika 1993). Cities located on deltas are particularly vulnerable becauselocal tectonics often generate subsidence of land due to sediment load. In the Niger Delta,the situation is further complicated by intensive extraction of oil. Subsidence and erosionacross the delta have resulted in a retreat of tens of meters per year of the barrier islandsfacing the sea. Under these conditions, even a small rise in sea-level would multiply thenegative impacts of tides, waves, storm surges, coastal erosion and other hazards.Without adequate sewerage and drainage capacity, the increased flooding and stormsurges associated with sea level rise will also have serious implications for human healthand safety. Salinization of agricultural lands due to frequent flooding would considerablydegrade the productive base of rural economies in countries such as the Gambia, Senegal,Nigeria and Mozambique.

Global warming may cause considerable changes in the structure and distributionof marine habitats. Coastal wetlands and other coastal habitats may migrate inland orrespond in other ways to sea-level rise, but intensive human land-use will limit theirdistribution. Changes in ocean circulation, currents and upwelling areas may affectrecruitment, distribution and catchability of commercial fishstocks.

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Adaptive strategies to sea-level rise available to human Box 2.3 IPCC Estimated Cost forpopulations at the local level can Building Shore Structures forbe to retreat, accommodate or to Protection Against Sea-levelprotect. The strategy to be Rise (as percentage of annualselected in each case depends on GNP)the human activities in the coastalareas and the cost of mitigation Guinea-Bissau 8.15measures. Protective measures Seychelles 5.51are costly, however (see Box Liberia 2.662.3). For many African countries, Gambia 2.64accommodation and retreat are Sierra Leone 2 .486the most feasible responses to Sao Tome and Pr. 1.46increased sea-level rise. For the Eq. Guinea 1.02small island states of West and Togo 0.87East Africa, whose economies are Benin 0.74strongly dependent on coastal Senegal 0.65resources, the possibilities for Ghana 0.64retreat are limited. Intensified use Somalia 0.62of the coastal zone, increased Madagascar 0.56population densities and thelimited technical and financial Source: Haq 1993.resources to respond withresources to respond with Note: These costs have been estimated for a sea-adequate mitigation measures level rise of l meter.make African coastal countriesextremely vulnerable to theimplications of global climatechange.

Transboundary Issues. These include:

marine pollution transported across national boundaries, as occurs alongthe Gulf of Guinea Coast (see Box 3.1),

the regulation of rivers with transboundary drainages and thedownstream effects in the coastal zone discussed above in section III.Cand Annex 2, and

International trade in toxic wastes resulting in contamination of thecoastal zone.

Despite the provisions of the Lome Convention prescribing the importation of toxic andhazardous waste and ratified by all nations in Africa, there is still a tremendousinternational trade in hazardous waste disposal. While legal sanctions exist against suchtrade in Africa, smuggling of falsely labeled waste continues to occur in some areas.Often the cargo is dumped at port and left to decompose, where it may infiltrate the soiland groundwater of surrounding areas or be washed to sea. Because the profits from such

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illegal trade are high and enforcement is inadequate (see below) the prospects of thissurreptitious trade continuing are high.

IV. INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT

While most of the major issues in the coastal zone are recognized, if not entirelyunderstood in terms of the full extent and impact of the problem, addressing these issuescan be extremely problematic. Apart from the obvious resource constraints, there aresignificant institutional constraints--both at the national and regional levels-- whichhamper the systematic and coordinated efforts required to launch viable integrated coastalzone management programs in the region. These institutional constraints concern issuesrelated to the political setting, the legal and policy environment, the administrative andorganizational aspects of resource management, and the limited human resourcesavailable to deal effectively with the issues which currently undermine sustainabledevelopment in the coastal zone.

A. Political Setting

Because of political instability in many African countries, creating the institutional settingnecessary for environmental management generally, and ICZM in particular, is difficult.Strategic planning for sustainable development in the coastal zone requires long-termplanning horizons and a long-term commitment of development resources. Theseconditions are rarely met in areas prone to political turmoil and civil unrest. The needfor an integrated approach to management of the coastal zone also places a specialemphasis on appropriate institutional arrangements and accommodations betweenstakeholders. Among other things, this requires cooperation between government sectorsin clarifying their roles and jurisdictional responsibilities over coastal resources, andharmonizing their policies and management interventions in line with agreed on objectivesfor the coastal zone. Institutional mechanisms are also required to resolve the many userconflicts that arising over increasingly limited resources in the coastal zone, and acommitment to their sustainable use. Compliance with sustainability objectives willdepend in part on the degree of ownership and participatory involvement realized bystakeholders in different stages of coastal zone planning and management. Among theincentives necessary for such voluntary compliance is a partnership between the privatesector and government, transparency in decision-making and management accountability,all of which are severely constrained by the current political regimes in many parts of theregion.

B. Policy and Legal Aspects

An important factor which has contributed to the rapid degradation of natural resourcesand habitats in the coastal zone has been a weak policy environment in which to regulateand otherwise influence the impacts of growth. Environmental codes and regulatorylegislation to offset the environmental consequences of industrial expansion and othergrowth sectors of the economy, for example, tourism and agribusiness, are only nowemerging in countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania and South Africa. Similar laws

42

regulating access and use of coastal resources have yet to be developed in manycountries. In terms of market-based incentives, subsidies in the agricultural sector forpesticides and fertilizers, in the water sector for irrigation and domestic use, and taxrelief for investors and developers of export industries (such as access to the free tradezones in West Africa), often lead to misuse of natural resources. Furthermore, hightariffs on the importation of more efficient and waste free equipment and products cancreate disincentives to the adoption of cleaner and greener technologies in many sectors.

An additional factor which undermines the progress being made in thedevelopment of appropriate regulatory policies and standards for industry is lack ofenforcement. This is both a resource issue, in terms of inadequate surveillance staff andbudget, and an accountability issue. (see Box 2.4). While the first can be corrected withsufficient resources, the latter remains more difficult. Given the tremendous profits to bemade in these growth industries and the lack of legal recourse available to injured partiesunder authoritarian regimes where many industries are parastatal operations, there is littleincentive for self-regulation.

Weak enforcement of existing laws and of traditional use rights has importantimplications for the management of coastal resources as well. Many coastal and marineresources (such as fisheries, mangrove forests and wetlands) are considered commonproperty resources within the legal jurisdiction of local or state authorities. Assurance ofcontinuous benefit streams to users of these resources was made possible through systemsof traditional user rights and licensing schemes, which served--at one time--to limit accessto these resources. With high rates of population growth, . urbanization andunemployment, however, the pressure for broader access to these resources has grownalong with the state's inability tc restrict it. Community barriers to over-harvesting havebeen breached by migrants and economic refugees with little incentive to ration theirofftake. A common interest once shared by users in the fate of these resources has ledto a breakdown of management practices, exploitation competition and the "Tragedy ofthe Commons."

C. Administrative Weakness and Jurisdictional Issues

Since the coast is not a traditional sector per se in the economies of most Sub-Saharannations, management of the coastal zone has generally proceeded along ad hoc lines.Overlapping jurisdictions of government agencies with authority on the coast (forexample, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Urban Sanitation andWater) have led to confusion, on the one hand, as to which resources fall under whosedomain, and inertia on the other, as vested interests in conflicting development scenarioscompete with one another, eroding enforcement and preventing coordinated action.

Government ministries charged with environmental oversight have neither thepolitical clout nor the resources to promulgate the necessary policies and regulatoryframework that would balance development with other stakeholder interests in the coast.Because coastal zone management is still a novel concept in Africa and indeed in muchof the developed world, there is a paucity of information on potentially viable approachesto ICZM for African coastal states. Similarly, there is an inadequate data base at the

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Box 2.4 MIonitoring of Offshore Fishing Fleet in W%restern Africa

The western African coast. particularlx the rich fishing grounds in the EEZs of WeslernSahara. MIauritania. Senegal, Guinea Bissau. and Guinea in the nornhern segment of westernAfrica and the coast of Namibia and Angola in the south, has aiuracted several foreign fishing%essels Mlost of the %essel operators come from the Republics of the former Somlet Unionand Romania (Kaczxnski 1989). The foreign fishing fleet account for about half of the toLalhar%esis: ihe proponion is much higher in countries that are yet to de%elop their own longdistance fleet.

Nlost coastal nations in Africa have been unable Lo effectively monitor the activities of foreign%essels in their EEZs because of the high cost of establishing and maintaining a surveillanceand monitoring system. Mlauritania set such a system with Donor assistance in 1987 at aninitial investment cost of $7.5 million and a recurrent cost of $1.8 million annuallyiKaczvnskt 1989: Derham 1986t. There is no doubt that very fevk African nations can affordto acquire such a system % ith their own resources.

The lack of effective monitoring of foreign *essels has led to the loss of substantial economicrent to the coastal nations. Fees collected from licensing vessels are one source of revenuefor these countries. but they typically do not reflect the %alue of fish harvested. During 1969-90 for example. foreign .essels harvested hake valued at $4.5 billion from Narnibia's EEZ,but ihe countrx received only $180,000 (about 0.004%) in economic rent (Morris andBussche 1994). Similariv in Ghana, the value of the harxests of industrial tuna vesselstmostly joint %enturest fishing in the country's EEZ averaged $1.5 million annually, butvessel operators paid only $160 in license fees iAcquay, forthcoming). Even in countries suchas Miauritania vhere license fees are much higher ($92,000 per 350 gross registered tonvessel in 1986,. about two-thirds of the foreign tleet (in joint venture arrangements) areexempted. giving up about $28 million in potential revenue (Crown Agents 1986).

In addition to the loss of economic rent, the unregulated activities of foreign fishing vesselshave contribuLed 'ubstantiall) to overexploitation of fishery resources in western Africa. Forexample. foreign vessels harvested 80%. (8.5 million tons) of the total biomass of hake inNamibia's EEZ during 1969-90, a level well beyond the maximum sustainable y ield for thisfisherv iNlorris and Bussche 1994). Under-reporting of catches by foreign vessels io evadetaxes and poaching also undermine the management of the fisheries in western Africa becausethey make it difficult for fishery managers Lo estimate Lotal biomass. fishing effort, andharvest levels, information needed to develop sound management actions.

The remarkable recovery of Namibia's fisheries. panicularly' the hake fishery. following theintroduction of an effective management regime is an example of how a country can benefitin the long run if it pays attention to sustainable management of its fishery resources. TheNamibian government, in pannership with the private sector, has implemented a quota systemin the fisheries. outlawed the dumping of by-catch at sea. and has placed observers on rishingvessels to monitor compliance with fisheries regulations. The government has also excludedforeign vessels, except the Russian fleet, from operating in the country's EEZ. As a result ofLhese measures. the fisheries' contribution to GNP is growing at about 30% a year. despitekeeping ihe total allowable catch for targeted species belou sustainable le%els (Miullin andThompson. 1994).

Other African nations, with donor support, are exploring ways to take ownership of theirEEZs. ensure sustainable fishing, and to optimize economic renis. The govermment ofLuxembourg, for example, through Lux Development. has been working with Lhe WorldBank and ihe governments of the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and Sierra Leone to pilotan aerial sur%eillance sNstem at the cost of $560.000. The pilot phase was implementedduring the second halt of 1993 and because of its promising results, ihe Luxembourggovernment has provided additional funding to extend it bV tWO vears and to expand itscoverage to include the EEZs of Miauritania and Senegal.

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national level on the full scope of coastal zone issues in order to undertake the kinds ofstrategic analysis and planning required to design the initial phases of an ICZM program.

Related to the unclear lines of authority in resource administration and thegrowing wave of political conflict in the region, is the breakdown in the notion ofnationhood and the permeability of national boundaries (Kaplan, 1993). A nationalidentity cultivated during colonial times had allowed emerging nation-states tosuccessfully transcended cultural and tribal differences through the post-colonial era.However, dislocations caused by environmental degradation, poverty, disease andpolitical conflict have led to massive social upheaval and civil war in many parts ofAfrica, along with a proliferation of political and economic refugees. Many refugeesmigrate across national boundaries to the coast where resources are generally viewed asfree goods. Without systems in place to allocate rights and regulate access to theseresources, conflicts with local resource users may ignite, leading to further environmentaldegradation and socio-economic unrest. Strong national policies and local planning andadministration are needed to anticipate these external pressures on coastal resources andmitigate their impacts at the local level.

D. Liniited Human Resources

Clearly, sustainable management of the coastal zone to meet the development needs ofSub-saharan Africa well into the 21st century will depend on having a large cadre of welltrained and well equipped resource managers. There is currently a paucity of personnelwith experience and access to the latest technologies and methods to deal with thecomplex issues of CZM, (for example, remote sensing, GIS, EIA, participatory ruralappraisal (PRA), and mechanisms to facilitate voluntary compliance with regulations andpolicies among resource users). CZM training curricula are only now being developedand tailored to the needs of African decision-makers. Dissemination of these managementtools and follow-up in their proper use will be critical in terms of meeting the trainingneeds of these staff. Development of and access to well-planned data bases forenvironmental assessment and monitoring will also be required. Career developmentincentives, including prospects for promotion and competitive salaries will also have tobe provided to create a competent and highly motivated corps of coastal zone managers.Without these investments in human resource development, the groundwork cannot belaid for successful integrated coastal zone management programs in the region.

V. A BuSINESS AS USUAL DEVELOPMENT SCENARIO FOR 2025

The coastal zone represents a microcosm of the economic, social and environmentalproblems confronting Africa as a whole. Because of the unique array of natural andcapital resources concentrated along this corridor and the growing populations drawn tothem, the potential for conflict in the allocation and use of these resources is high.Without adequate management structures in place to dampen these conflicts and bufferthe natural resource base against impact to its productivity, a scene like the followingcould easily unfold.

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Business as Usual in 2025. Basic Assumption: Populations in rural coastal areaswill continue to grow at over 3 % in most parts of Africa. In urban areas of coastal Africapopulation growth will vary from 4-6%. This will result in the deforestation of 70% ofmangrove areas in Africa and the degradation of most coral reefs of the East Africanmainland. Many coastal lagoons will be so polluted that adjacent human populations willbe at significant health risk.

Basic human welfare derived from the coast will decline, particularly through theeffects of the following types of activities:

* Downstream impacts from agriculture and industry destroy coastalproductivity. Agriculture runoff, particularly nutrients, and siltationeutrophies most coastal lagoons and leads to disturbances in all fragilecoastal ecosystems. The soil erosion in upland areas forces more peoplein to urban and peri-urban areas of the coastal zone and puts furtherpressure on existing resources. Industrial pollution continues to increase,creating lethal open sewers of the coastal lagoons. Oil pollution is aparticular concern since this is the most important industry in manycountries, and no regulation is enacted to prevent its expansion.Refineries have repeated spills and vast stretches of sea bottoms,mangroves and beaches are degraded.

* Unplanned development of coastal areas leads to severe user conflicts.Human habitation is developed in most of the coastal areas leading todisturbances of almost all productive ecosystems. Major infrastructureinvestments like roads, bridges, hotels and ports are lost due to coastalerosion and poor physical planning. Many ports are silted and have to beabandoned due to the impacts of sea level rise and declining tankertraffic. User conflicts are generally resolved through bribes and criminalbehavior. Subsistence users of coastal resources are pushed aside bycommercial interests and protein deficiencies result.

* Urban environments progressively deteriorate due to huge pollutionloads. Urban water and sanitation service deteriorate further and sewagecontaining bacterial and toxic industrial waste pollutes large stretches ofcoast. High BOD levels create anaerobic conditions and contaminateaquatic habitats, halting further tourism development. Fresh water,increasingly constrained by upland users, is not available for largepopulation groups. This leads to recurring epidemics and high mortalityrates, particularly among children. Energy demand is mainly met by oil,placing many countries further in debt and increasing the particle airpollution in cities.

* Important fish stocks collapse and coastal resources are progressivelymismanaged. As a result of deteriorating water quality from land andmarine-based sources of pollution, biological production in mostecosystems decreases and harvests steadily decline. Poor people are

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deprived of nutrition from the sea and malnutrition and morbiditybecome widespread. Fisheries stocks of several important commercialspecies collapse and public revenues from industrial fleets decline evenfurther. Mariculture is no longer an option in many areas due to coastalpollution and competing land use. Mangrove forests are reduced toremnants, leading to further coastal destabilization and loss of timber andfuelwood. Shrimp fisheries in Mozambique collapse due to a combinationof over harvesting of mangroves, fishing of juvenile shrimp and frequentoil spills from off shore oil exploration.

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3WORLD BANK SUPPORTED PROJECTS AND PROGRAMS AND

BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL INITIATIVES IN THECOASTAL ZONE

I. OVERVIEW

This chapter briefly examines the Bank's past and present involvement in sector relatedactivities in Africa's coastal zones. Separate sections review recent initiatives under theGEF, the role of National Environmental Action Plans and new initiatives withinENVLW and AFTES to promote a more integrated approach to coastal zone managementin Africa. This overview within the Bank is complemented by a brief review of activitiesundertaken by other donors and NGOs under the rubric of coastal resources managementin Africa. These findings are summarized in a series of tables, grouped by World BankCountry Department, which outline key coastal zone management issues and ongoingactivities to address them in each country. The chapter ends with a section on LessonsLearned from the Bank's experience with regional environmental programs and itsimplications for future Bank initiatives in ICZM. Along with a more integratedprogrammatic approach will be the need for intersectoral collaboration within the Bankand a commitment to planning, capacity building and stakeholder participation within theBank's program of support.

The Need for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. In the words of onepractitioner of ICZM, "degradation, destruction and multiple use conflicts are almostalways preconditions for integrated coastal resources management." ICZM is rapidlyemerging as a preferred option to address the cross-cutting ecological and socio-economicissues associated with development in the coastal zone. The last ten years in particular,have seen a growing number of ICZM programs in developing countries. This is due,on the one hand, to the intensifying impacts of decades of unplanned growth onpopulations and resources in the ecologically sensitive tropical coastal zone. On the other,is a growing awareness that traditional, sectoral approaches to problem solving have beeninadequate to address both the institutional constraints to sustainable development and theinteractive effects of development impacts on linked ecosystems in the coastal zone.

The relative success of coastal zone management programs initiated in Asia andLatin America in 1986,' emphasizing integration of systems and sectoral interests andcoordination of institutions and policies has done much to raise the profile of ICZM asa promising approach. Yet despite the proliferation of ICZM efforts in Latin America,Asia and the Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa remains far behind the curve. An

1 The USAID/Asean Coastal Zone Management Program implemented in Brunei Darussalam,Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines, and the USAID Coastal ResourcesManagement Project with pilot activities in Ecuador, Sri Lanka and Thailand.

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inventory of ICZM efforts in 1993, listed only four programs in Sub-Saharan Africa,with just one--in Guinea Bissau--having proceeded into the implementation stage(Sorensen 1993). While a number of incipient ICZM activities have emerged since then,there is clearly an urgent need to broaden both the area and scope of coastal zonemanagement in Africa in order to deal with the increasingly complex problems at handand to meet the challenges of the future.

II. WORLD BANK SUPPORTED PROJECTS: A BREAKDOWN BY SECTOR

The World Bank has, by and large, followed the traditional, sectoral approach towardsdevelopment and management of coastal resources in client countries of Sub-SaharanAfrica. See Annex 5 for a summary of World Bank investments in the coastal zone.Table 3.1 reveals that significant investments are currently being dispersed among threemajor sectors within the coastal zone: Ports and Infrastructure ($35 million), UrbanDevelopment ($31 million) and Water Supply and Sanitation ($102 million). Additionalsupport is being provided for activities in the Environment, Transportation andAgriculture (Fisheries) sectors as either discrete projects or components of largerprograms, bringing the total for ongoing investments in the coastal zone of Sub-SaharanAfrica to some $211 million2 (Map 11).

Water supply and sanitation has rightfully been regarded as a critical sector inWest African coastal states, in response to the growing public health threats andecosystem dysfunction associated with deteriorating water quality throughout the coastalregion. Similarly, ports and urban infrastructure have also been sectoral foci from thestandpoint of rehabilitation as well as expansion and upgrading of roads, ports and touristfacilities in anticipation of future demand.

III. COuNTRY DISTRIBUTION

In line with the Bank's and other donors' renewed commitment following UNCED, toassist client countries improve their environmental management while moving forwardwith development, several environmental initiatives are being funded in conjunction withinvestments in the above-named sectors. These include research into improved utilizationof fisheries resources and protected area management (Madagascar), marine conservation(Seychelles, Mauritius and Ghana) and, perhaps, most importantly, pollution monitoringand abatement in the lagoon and nearshore waters of the three most industrialized statesbordering the Gulf of Guinea (Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria). These national levelpollution mitigation efforts will soon be supplemented by a regional program for pollutionmonitoring and control under a UNDP GEF project for the Gulf of Guinea (see Box 3.1).This GEF initiative along with two in East Africa (Lake Malawi and the Seychelles) andthree initiatives in the Red Sea (Egypt, Yemen, and Eritrea, in preparation) are some ofthe more important activities with respect to current Bank and GEF supported efforts incoastal and marine resources management in Africa (Map 12).

2 The total portfolio amount for projects with significant investments in the coastal zones of SSAclient countries is nearly $700 million in credits and loans (see Annex 6).

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Table 3.1. World Bank and GEF Investments inEnviromnental Projects and Activities in the Coastal Zone

Country Total Sectors for GEF Projects TotalInvestments World Bank (Implementing Projects

(in US$millions, Credits/Loans Agency)incl. GEF)

Cote d'Ivoire $106.0 Water & 1 National (UNDP) 4Sanitation 1 Regional (UNDP)

Egypt 5.7 n/a (GEF) 1 National (WB) 1w/regionalimplications for RedSea

Eritrea 3.2 n/a (GEF) 1 National (UNDP) 1w/regionalimplications for RedSea

The Gambia 15.0 Ports & n/a 1Infrastructure

Ghana 8.3 n/a (GEF) 1 National (WB) 21 Regional (UNDP)

Guinea 6.8 Agriculture n/a 1(Fisheries)

Madagascar 4.2 Environment n/a

Malawi 12.8 Agriculture 1 National (WB) 2(Fisheries) w/regional

implications

Mauritius 21.15 Environment; n/a 2Ports &Infrastructure

Mozambique 32.0 Urban & n/a 4Transportation

Nigeria 18.0 Agriculture 1 Regional (UNDP) 3(Fisheries);Environment

Seychelles 3.6 Environment 1 National (WB) 2Yemen 2.8 n/a (GEF) 1 National (UNDP) 1

w/regionalimplications for RedSea

n/a = Not applicable* GEF Project: "Water Pollution Control and Biodiversity Conservation in the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine

Ecosystem" (participating countries: Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon).

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IV. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY

The recent replenishment of the GEF opens the opportunity to develop projects linkedto international conventions like MARPOL and the Biodiversity Convention. In thecoastal and marine area, environmental concerns extend across political boundaries. Manyissues, such as marine pollution and coastal wetlands degradation, are common tocountries which share international waters and harbor aquatic species whose home rangesare international. While other problems in the coastal zone may be localized withinnational boundaries, (such as surface and groundwater quality and institutional issues),these are often common themes throughout the region, suggesting the need for regionalaction.

The ongoing GEF initiatives are an important aspect of Bank supported effortsto improve African client countries' stewardship of their marine and aquatic resources.In Ghana for example, the $7.2 million Coastal Wetlands Management component of theBank-funded Environmental Management Project, is a GEF project whose aim is tosustain the ecological integrity of key wetland sites along the coast. These include thefamous Sakumo Lagoon, currently a receptacle for urban effluent discharge (see TableA1.2 in Annex 1). Under the project, wastewater would be treated and subsequentlydiverted offshore through a new marine outfall, reducing nutrient build-up andeutrophication of the Lagoon. Designed in tandem with this project, is a complementaryeffort by ODA entitled the Lower Volta Mangrove Project. The purpose of the projectis to develop a series of practically oriented management approaches for the sustainableuse of mangroves and aquatic resources by communities dependent on the extensivesystem of coastal lagoons (1,530 km2) located on either side of the Volta River.Similarly, the $6 million UNDP/GEF regional project in the Gulf of Guinea (see Box3.1) will lend support to Bank-sponsored national efforts in Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria, andGhana to address water quality issues in the coastal zone.

Altogether, GEF projects in Africa supporting aquatic biodiversity conservationand the protection of international waters account for an additional $23.5 million. Theseinnovative activities represent a significant departure from the focused, sectoral activitiesthat characterize the Bank's traditional investment portfolio. Their emphasis instead is onan integrative, systems approach that is the hallmark of true coastal zone management.Because the GEF, by definition, embraces problems of global concern, its non-parochialtreatment of key transboundary issues such as marine pollution and loss of biodiversityis a promising foundation for future ICZM efforts. This is particularly relevant increating a synergism with existing programs for regional cooperation.

V. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLANS (NEAPs)

The Bank's support for the preparation of National Environmental Action Plans hasraised the level of awareness of the severity of coastal zone issues in many coastal states.To date, NFAPs have been completed or are in preparation in twenty-two coastalcountries of Sub-Saharan Africa. Not surprisingly, coastal issues such as erosion,pollution of groundwater and surface waters, siltation and eutrophication of wetlands and

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Box 3.1 GEF Projects in the Red Sea and the Guir or Guinea:Biodi%ersitz Conser%alion and Pollulion Control

In the Red Sea, GEF suppori is creating exciting opponunities for coasial zone management inan ecosystems approach to conserving the area's rich marine biological diversits. The RedSea's unique phxsiographv has gi%en rise to unusually clear and isolated waters, which in iurnhase supported flourishing coral reefs and sketland conimunities stith high degrees ofendemism. At ihe same time, competing interests in the form of oil exploration, shipping andtourism pose grossing threats to the integricN of (he Red Sea ecosy stern and its abilmtt to susiainthe high lesels of productivity on sshich ihe sesen nations surrounding n depend. Proposals tohie GEF from three of these nations, Eg!pt. 'emen and Eritrea, hase been deseloped s*ithcoastal zone management as a common theme. In Egypt a CZNI program is being developedthrough government agencies to balance opuions for oil exploration and tourism that stouldrespond io Eg!pt's needs for foreign exchange while proteciing the natural source of theserevenues. This $5.7 million prolect h! GEF ssill link up ssith an $800 millioti program forPrisate Sector Tourism Infrastructure and Environmental Mtanagement being impleniented tithWorld Bank suppon. Through its CZNI framessork. ihe GEF prolect sull faciliuate ecosmstemassessment and monitoring. tourism planning. pollution control. recreation and protected areamanagement. Another feature of the GEF supported CZNI1 plan will be to iransfer to otherriparians institutional. legislatise. scientific and management solutions to mitigate pollution andprotect ihe region's unique biodisersityIn Yemen. a counirs with less tourist potential than Egypt. but subject to significantmarine pollution from oil tarLnker traffic, a community based approach to marine biodisersitvconsernation is ensisioned. The main goal of this LINDP managed initiatie is to assure asustainable fishing industrs and to protect species-rich manne ecos%stems for their ecologicaland tourist salues Enstronmenial sursev and monitoring capabilities using rapid appraisaltechniques to track- oil and indusirial pollution along ihe Red Sea coast, an ensironmentalinformation a%%areness canipaign ssith assistance from local NGOs. and technical supporn toens ironmental research and polics institutions ssill be developed under the GEF.In Eritrea, protection otf marine and coastal biological disersitN is a high priorirN ofthe ness gosernment. With fess resources to rebuild its star-torn economv, Eriirea is concernedstith managing its pristine coral reefs and Fisheries resources for continuous and long-termbenefits to the communities ss ithin the coastal zone. Like its Y'emeni counterpart. the proposedGEF project wvould emphasize a comniunity approach to biodiversitv conservation, Ens isionedunder the project stould be ecological imentories of nearshore communities. manne protectedarea planning. pollution monitoring. technical training, environmental education and incomegenerating acis% ities related to sustainable use of Red Sea resources b) local communitlies.The assessmeni. monitoring and mitigation of primarily land-based pollution are themajor ihrusis of a UNDP regional GEF proiect in the Gulf of Guinea enitled, "WaterPollution Control and Biodiversitx Conserxation in ihe Gulf of Guinea Large MlaritieEcosystem." This $6 million regional effort insolsing Cote d'Isoire, Ghana. Benin. Nigeriaand Cameroon will establish an ecosvsiem-svide monitoring facilmx staffed b% marinespecialisis from the region that xs ll assess ihe status of ihe ecos stem. monitor and quantitIpollution stress and its impacts on ecosystem siructure and function. and introduce stressmitigation and recoserN techniques for restoring ecosysLeni producis ir The project 'sill maikeuse of new technologies to detect the onset of pollution degradation in marine and coastalconununiiies before it becomes acute. and introduce new standards for measuring and reportingthese results in formats accessible to resource managers. If successful, this regional projectcould pros ide an institutional framessork for future ICZNI programs in the region.

52

coral reefs, threats to biological diversity and the downstream effects of unsustainablepractices upstream have featured in many of these reports. Several nations, includingComoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles, have used the action plan as a basis for

identifying investments in marine resources management with Bank and other donorsupport. These action plans can promote and facilitate participation by a broad spectrumof stakeholders in development planning and management of the coastal zone, buildingpolitical will and laying the groundwork for future policies, institutional arrangements,and resource allocations required to sustain a long-term, national commitment to

integrated coastal zone management.

VI. OTHER DONORS AND IMPLEMENTING ORGANIZATIONS

While the Bank's current lending program has focused on infrastructure development as

a means of promoting and sustaining economic growth in the coastal zone, other donorshave focused on the fisheries sector as a potentially important source of foreign exchange,

employment and nutrition for growing coastal populations. This focus reflects the

comparative advantage of key donors such as SIDA, DANIDA, NORAD, CIDA, and the

EU in fisheries management, representing countries with significant capabilities and

interests in the fisheries sector (see Box 3.2). In view of the high stakes involved in

fisheries harvests, fisheries management has become a strategic concern of host countries

and foreign interests alike. Tens of millions of dollars have been invested in efforts to

improve host country management of fisheries resources, from stock assessment, to

control, surveillance and monitoring of offtake (see Box 2.5 and Table 3.2 on donor

supported activities in CZM). However, despite considerable investments in technical

assistance and institution building, many of the institutional constraints identified earlier

in section II. D. continue to thwart efforts for rational, sustainable use of Africa's fishery

resources.

While such sectoral support has been the norm for donor sponsored efforts in the

past, the next generation of marine resource management activities promises to be more

systems oriented, taking into account the physical and biological processes which affect

ecosystem productivity and the linkages between systems which can relay impacts

downstream.

Examples of this approach are illustrated by the EU's new regional environmental

program for the islands of the Indian Ocean, which will have CZM as a central theme,

along with various country specific efforts (for example, in Madagascar, Mauritius,

Comoros, Seychelles and Reunion). These will usher in coastal zone planning and

management approaches to address specific issues such as marine pollution, coral reef

degradation and inadequate protected area management.

As implementing agencies, specialized agencies within the U.N. system are also

active in the African coastal zone, working in collaboration with donors and client

countries. FAO, with a long history in the fisheries sector, is the lead implementing

agency for the UNEP Regional Seas Programs in East and West Africa (Annex 6, Table

A6.3). With expertise in coastal agriculture, forestry and aquaculture, FAO is uniquely

poised to promote a more holistic approach to natural resources management in the

53

Box 3.2 Earamples of Donor Supported Activit3 in the Coastal Zone

The Scandina%ian countries have long been active in providing assistance to deLelopingcountries in coastal and marine related affairs. In Sub-Saharan Africa, Lhe emphasis has beenon fisheries managemenl and marine research.

SIDA has a been providing sectoral support to Guinea Bissau and Angola for fisheriesdevelopment and management for over a decade. In both these countries. the focus has beenon the artisana] fishmg sector In Guinea Btssau. technical assistance to Lhis sector has beenprogrammed in two phases over a fourteen-Near period, for a total investment of $14 million.Initiallv. the focus was on increasing production through improsed fishing facilities and gear.Subsequenily. the emphasis has been strengthening the institutional capacNt of' the arrisanalsector to manage siocks and compeLe successfully in Guinea Bissau's ne" marker orieniedeconomy In Angola. SIDA has adopted a three-pronged approach to better management ofthis country's "orld class fisheries resources. A $40 million prograni. launched in 1980.focuses on fisheries research. vocational training. and technical support to the anisanal sectorsinlilar to that pro% ided in Guinea Bissau The centerpiece of this program has been thecreation of a national fishen training cenier. CEFOPESCAS. at a cost of $20 million. Withcapacinx for 30)0 studenis. the cenier's twvo-year training program is creating a cadre of skilledartisans. technicians and managers in all aspects of fisheries operations. Through facultytraining and curriculum de%elopment as collateral actiMities, SIDA hopes lo fully nationalizeAngola's fisheries management capabilui. thereby enhancing prospecis for a signilfican,long-term contribution of this sector to Angola's post-cisil war economN.

In Southem Africa. SIDA has been supporting rural aquaculture de%elopment for the SADCCcountries 1$5 million o%er five years) through the FAO regional program. ALCONI. Since1989. SAREC has been working in East Africa to promote cooperation in applied researchbetween universities in Sweden and those in the region on issues relevant to coastal resourcemanageinent .

Also, active in the fisheries sector in East Africa have been DANIDA, NORAD and the EU.Projects have ranged from elaboration of a M-1aster Plan for De%elopment of the FisheriesSector in Mlozambique (DANIDAi to regional support for technical assistance, gear and%essel improvements by the ELI. An indication of the growing concern xtih over-exploitationby primarily foreign vessels of both demersal and pelagic siocks in West Africa is theincreasing number of control, surveillance and monitoring efforts &CSN;f now under way, orbeing proposed. t% ith donor assistance (for example. SIDA in Angola. EU in Namibia. GTZin Miauritania. L'UX Development and the World Bank in Guinea. the Gambia. etc.. andIDA/World Bank in Sierra Leone.

The importance ot' the fisheries sector to the economies of ihese nations not%%iihstanding.donors are beginning to explore more iniegrated approaches to coastal resource de%elopmentin SSA. In Miozambique. for example. the tremendous economic potenlial pro' ided b! thecountry's 2.800 km coastline. harboring a di%ersity of habitats and resources. has attractedthe altetition of se%eral international organizations. The threat posed by increasing humanpressures--dri%en bs wvar and unsustainable land use practices--on the resources of the coastalzone ha%e prompted organizations like NORAD and World Wide Fund for Nature to developplans for communit ybased management of these resources. NORAD's proposal for Niecufliin the least de%eloped but richly endo%%ed northern province of Cabo Delgado, stressesdemocratic and panicipatorn approaches to communitL resource management. If successful.this demonstraton pilot with help from IUCN. will lay the ground%%ork for a long termstrategx for CZMI tor ihe entire province.

54

coastal zone. UNDP, in addition to its traditional development portfolio, is in the processof developing a training program for integrated management of coastal and marine areas,in recognition of the importance of these heavily populated zones to sustainabledevelopment planning. IMO (the International Maritime Organization) is actively workingto prevent marine pollution through its promotion of MARPOL and other conventions(Annex 6) in the region, and the IOC (Inter-Oceanographic Commission), an affiliate ofUNESCO, is supporting research on Global Climate Change and information networkingin the marine sciences.

VII. THE ROLE OF NGOs

The importance of community participation has emerged as a fundamental principal ofenvironmentally sustainable development across sectors. In their shift towards moreparticipatory approaches to coastal resource management, donors are beginning torecognize the role that nongovernmental organizations can plan in promoting intersectoralperspectives and cooperation between stakeholders. As honest brokers, NGOS canmediate in the resolution of resource conflicts at the local level. At the national level theycan inform public debate on coastal zone issues and lobby for greater transparency in thepublic administration of coastal zone resources. International groups like IUCN andWorld Wildlife Fund are already bringing their own considerable expertise and resourcesto bear on marine systems management and community-based integrated conservation anddevelopment activities in coastal Africa (see Box 3.3).

VIII. EXISTING ACTIVITIES WITHIN ENV/AFTES

Environmental units within the Bank, notably ENV and AFTES, have already embarkedon a series of ICZM activities with a special African focus. One important first step wasa statement made at the ministerial conference on Integrated Coastal Zone Managementin East Africa including Island States, held in Arusha in 1993. This was a formalrecognition of the commitments of governments and the World Bank to jointly addressmany of the issues raised in this paper. Many of the recommendations put forth areechoed in the framework for ICZM in Africa presented in Box 4.1 in Chapter 4. (Theresolution from this conference is contained in Annex 7.) On the ground, thedevelopment of the first NEAPs in Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and Ghana allincluded active participation of staff from AFTES and ENV. These have resulted inprojects with marine and coastal zone management activities that are underimplementation. The support for NEAP work is continuing and there are good prospectsfor future follow-on activities. The Nigeria Environmental Management Project, whichincludes a component for assessing environmental trends in the coastal zone, has alsoinvolved significant support from ENVLW and AFTES.

Development of GEF projects will be one of the major points of activity duringthe current fiscal year, with fifty staff weeks allocated for the development of regionalinternational water and coastal and marine biodiversity projects. AFTES expertise inmarine pollution and port related activities is particularly valuable in this context. A

55

concept paper outlining the basis for a regional ICZM programn in the Red Sea, whichbuilds on current GEF projects in marine biodiversity conservation, is being developedin ENVLW with joint support from EMTEN and AFTES.

Box 3.3 WWFVF and lUCN Programs SupportingCoastal and NMarine Resources NManagement in Arrica

International nongomemmental organizations like WWF and IUCN have identified marine andcoastal svstems as global conservation priorities. Central to their philosophy Is the need iointegrate conser-ation with development in ways thal w&ill meet economic and ecologicalobjeciives- -both locally and within a more global coniext. In Mozambique, WWF-International, in affiliation with two South African NGOs iThe Southern African NatureFoundation and the Endangered Wildlife Trusti is promoting sustainable resource use at tbecommunits level in the Bazaruto Archipelago, a system of pristine coral atolls and sandybeaches with high levels ot biodiversiiy and significant tourist poiential. In NMafia Island offof Tanzania. WWF has also been instrumental in developing a master plan for themanagement of this proposed marine park. A follou-up program to implement this plan hasbeen proposed %hich "xill focus on assessing and monitoring ihe resource base. working withNiafia residents to improve management practices. sirengthening participation by Mafiaresidents in resource planning and management decisions and addressing the institutionalissues which discourage sustainable use of the Island's resources.

IUCN has recently launched a marine conservation program for East Africa, focusing onKensa, Tanzania. and Nlozambique. It is also active here and in other parts of East Africa.As a first step to identifying appropriate pilot activities. IUCN is helping provide importantecological information to resource planners through coastal habitat mapping. In other part ofAfrica. IUCN has helped to elaborate sound resource use policies at the national level (forexaniple. ILICN's drafting of mangrove utilization guidelines for the African DevelopmentBanki. The iniegraLion of FUCN's wetlands conservation program into an expanding mandatefor integrated coastal zone management has culminaLed in a national level program for ICZMin Guinea Bissau with support from the Swiss Government. As part of an expanding effort topromote coastal zone management in the region. IUCN is also planning exploraton missionsto South Africa and Namibia lo advance recent policy initiatives in ICZM.

IX. LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE BANK'S EXPERIENCE WITH ECA/MNAREGIONAL PROGRAMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR NEW INITIATIVES IN ICZM

Background. To promote coastal zone management and the conservation of marineresources on a regional scale, the World Bank has participated in the design andimplementation of a series of regional environmental programs including theEnvironmental Program for the Mediterranean (1978 to date), Baltic Sea EnvironmentalProgram (1990 to date) and the recently initiated Environmental Management andProtection of the Black Sea Program. These are complemented by the EnvironmentalProgramme for the Danube River Basin (1991 to date) which provides a model programfor a large river basin that has significant impacts on the marine environment.

56

Lessons Learned. Key lessons learned from these programs are:

* Existing regional seas environmental conventions and agreements canprovide an effective framework for the development of operationsoriented programs; however, it should be noted the experience to datehas been gained in enclosed seas where the littoral states have greatercommon interests than in the case of open waters.

* Regional environmental programs provide an excellent mechanism for theanalysis and development of a program of preventive and curative actionsto address environmental issues on the national and regional scale.

* High levels of effort are required from all participating countries,international institutions, bilateral donors and nongovernmentalorganizations to establish realistic programs and implementable priorities,create effective management mechanisms for these types of programs anddevelop basic funding arrangements for core program activities.

* Provisions should be made to include the participation of bothinternational and local nongovernmental organizations in the planning andimplementation of these programs.

* Although the analysis of issues and actions is effective at a regionallevel, interventions, with the exception of training, can only beimplemented on a coordinated basis given that loans need to beguaranteed by national governments and bilateral assistance is normallyprovided on a country-to-country basis.

* The experience of the Mediterranean Environmental Technical AssistanceProgram (METAP) provides an excellent example of the types ofactivities that can be conducted under regional seas programs, theiranticipated costs and management requirements.

* The MEDCITIES Network, an element of METAP, has proven to bevery effective in exchanging experience between Mediterranean coastalcities concerning urban environmental management. Its program of urbanenvironmental audits has been especially effective as both a training andaction planning process.

* Regional programs provide an effective basis for long-term resourcemobilization for national environmental issues provided they are designedin a manner that supports the close linkage of problem identification,feasibility studies and financial support. Experience shows that unlessthese items are closely coordinated, actual investment activity will belimited.

57

* A long-term institutional commitment, particularly concerning the use ofstaff resources, is required by the cooperating countries, internationalinstitutions, foreign governments and non-governmental organizations tomake these programs effective.

* A well-managed and properly staffed program secretariat is required forthe effective implementation of these types of programs and representsa significant basic cost item.

ICZM Initiatives and Implications for Bank Staff. As will become clear fromthe ICZM Framework and Table of Options for Bank support presented in the finalchapter, developing programs in ICZM has clear implications for how the Bank doesbusiness. The integrated, intersectoral approach required of national developmentplanners wishing to adopt ICZM will also be required of Bank staff in developinginvestment programs. Sectoral boundaries within the Bank will have to be breached andcritical linkages between resource systems and productive enterprises in the coastal zonewill have to be identified and accounted for. Most importantly, the Bank will need tomake a strong commitment to planning, capacity building and ensuring the participationof stakeholders at all levels in promoting ICZM. Given the Bank's existing mandate andlimited ability to finance these activities through grant funding, collaboration with otherinterested donors and the NGO community should be actively sought.

Table 3.2 Issues and Donor Supported Activities in Coastal and Marine Resources Management

Country Use/Value of Coastal Resources ICZM Issues Ongoing Activities °

AFRICA COUNTRY DEPARTMENT I

Angola - World class fishieries resources, mangroves - Insufficient data for problem - IUCN Regional Wetlands Profilingidentification - SIDA Fisheries Sector Support 1980-ongoing,

- Oil pollution; licensing and monitoring $40 million for:offtake of commercial fishing interests; - fisheries research (stock assessmentdeveloping MSY models for diverse methodology and surveillance training)fislerines - artisanal fisheries management

- fisheries training center

Botswana*

Lesotho* Hydropower

Malawi* - Lake Malawi one of the most biologically - Fish biodiversity. conservation and - GEP LAke Malawi Biodiversitysigpificant freshwater ecosystms in the fisheries managementworld, with world's richest freshwater fishbiodiversity

Mozambique* - Mangroves, coral reefs, fisheries resources - Insufficient data for probiem - USAID, WB/SAREC Training of Coasblidentification Resources Managers

- Urban developmcnt - WWFIGland East Africa Ecological Profiling- Mangrove protection - NORAD East Africa Ecological Profiling- Pesticide runoff - IUCN East Africa Regional Marine Ecological

Profiling- WB Beira Transport Corridor Project- WB First Road and Coastal Shipping Project- NEAP- SAREC East Africa Marine Science Program- DANIDA Fisheries Master Management Plan

Namibia* - Mangroves, seagrass beds, world class - Licensing and surveillance of offshorefisheries resources yielding 600,000 to one fishing by foreign fleets in EEZmillion metric tons annually

South Africa - Fisheries in upwclling areas - Urbanization in coastal areas, industrial - National CZM Policy in preparation- Tourism pollution, land degradation - GIS application & coastal zone planning

- Coastal profiling

Swaziland*

Zimbabwe*

Regional - Fisheries resources - Inadequate Monitoring, Control and * SIDA "ALCOM" Aquaculture program foractivities/ Surveillance (MCS) of lisheries SADCC countries, iilcmenciled by FAO,pmrogram ms resoLirces atid lislihig clIort I 986-omigoinig $5 i uillion

- hI iadequate fislmerics lrodItclfm lordomestic constmlptioml

AleRICA COIJN'I'RY l)l'l'ART''MEN'I' 11 ANI) SE;I,'l'CTIl) RD) SEiA COAS'l'AA, NA'I'IONS

Djibouti - Mangroves - Oil tral'fic and overlishing

Eritrea - Mangroves, sea grass beds and - Oil pollution/eutrophication of coastal habitats - GEF Proposal Preparation for Conservation ofcoral reefs supporting high - Loss of biodiversity Eritrea's Coral Reef Biodiversitybiological diversity in the RedSea

Kenya - Important wetlands and marine - Insufficient data for problem identification - NEAPecosystems, including coral reefs, - Coastal water supply inadequate and at risk from - USAID/URI Ecological Profilinlg around Mombasasea grass beds, mangroves, poor saN1itatio01 and sewerage - IUCN East Al'rica Regional Marine Programdunes. Fishing, coastal - Marine Pollution from land-based and marine - UNEP Training ot' Coastal Managersaquaculture, tourism. Major sources, agricultural runoff, habitat degradation, - WB Second Mombasa and Coastal Water Supply &tanker routes in adjacent waters overfishing. Solid waste dumping in coastal Engineering Rehab Project (feasibility studies)

areas; souvenir hunting on coral reefs - SAREC East Africa Marine Science Program*

Somalia - Mangroves, fisheries resources - Institutional strengthening needs for marineresource management

Sudan - Coral reefs

Tanzania - Important wetlands and marine - Insufficient data for problem identification - NEAPecosystems, including coral reefs, - Pollution, habitat destruction, overfishing, - USAID/URI;WB/SAREC Training of Coastalsea grass beds, mnangroves, coastal erosion, agricultural rutnoff and siltation Resouirces Managersdunies. Fishing, coastal of coastal habitats, e.g., reet:s, seagrass beds. - USAID/URI Ecological Proliling Zanzibara(luaculiture, tourism. Major Solid waste dumping in coastal areas, souvenir - NORAD East Atrica Ecological Profilingtanker routes in adjacent waters hunting on coral reefs - WWF-U.S. Master Management plan for Mafia Island

- IUCN East Atrica Region Ecological Proliling andPilot ICZM activities

- SAREC East Africa Marine Science Program*- IDRC Management of Environmental Pollution in

Dar-es-Salaam (information gathering)

Yemen - Overfishing - Dutch CZM Planning Proposal- GEF Project Protection of Marine Ecosystems on the

Red Sea Coast

Egypt - Rapidly expanding tourism - Dutch CZM Counitry Study- GEF Red Sea Coastal Zone Management Project

Regional - IUCN East Africa Marine Programactivities/ - UNEP/FAO Regional Seas Programmes for Easternprograms Africa

- PERSGA Environment Programme for the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden

* SAREC East Africa Marine Science ProgramApplied Research on Coastal & Marine ResourcesManagement 1991-93, $800,000 t9

0

Country Use/Value of Coastal Resources ICZM Issues Ongoing Activities

AFRICA COUNTRY DEPARTMENT III

Cameroon - Fisheries in seasonal upwelling areas, - Industrial pollution, including oil - GEF Water Pollution Control andmangroves Biodiversity Conservation in the Gulf of

Guinea

Comoros - Extraordinary and endangered endemic - Sandmining and beach erosion - WB National Resources Management &flora and fauna; attractive coastal zone for Environment Project Preparationtourism development; Fishing; shipping - NEAP, WB CRM Project Proposalactivities with related marine pollution. - EU Regional Environment Project*Major tanker routes in adjacent waters

Congo - Mangrove forests - Conservation of critical habitats

Equatorial - Mangrove forests - Conservation of critical habitats andGuinea - Artisanal fisheries cultural heritage sites

- Cultural heritage sites

Gabon - Impacts from oil & gas exploitation

Madagascar - Mangroves, superb coral reefs, important - Marine and coastal research - WB Environmental Programshrimp fisheries - Threats to Biodiversity, marine pollution; - USAID Forest & Biodiversity Conservation

siltation of critical coastal habitats due to - EU Regional Envirojiincmt Project*upstream deforestation

Seychelles - Insufficient data for problem identification - EU Regional Environment Project*- Threats to Biodiversity, marine pollution, - USAID/URI, WB/SAREC Training of

port reception for ship-generated waste Coastal Resources Managers- Souvenir hunting on coral reefs - WB Environment and Transpon Proiect

- GEF Biodiversity and Marine Pollution

Zaire - Mangroves, fisheries in upwelling areas

Regional * EU Regional Environmenlt Project for theactivities/ Islands of the Southerm Indian Ocean, 11programs million ECU over 5 years

- UNEP/FAO Regional Seas Programmes

AFRICA COUNTRY DElll'ARTMENT IV

Benin - Controlling pollution of shared waters - GEF Pollution Control in Gulf ol Guinea**- Coastal erosion - IDRC Hydrogeology of coastal zone and- Pollution of aquifers in the coastal zone development of water exploitation models

Cote - Major system of coastal lagoons with rich - Monitoring impacts in shared waters of LME - GEP Pollution Control in Gulf of Guinea**

d'Ivoire aquatic biodiversity - Aquatic biodiversity restoration, elimination - GEF Aquatic Weed control in rivers andof water hyacinth, water quality in coastal coastal lagoons

- Archaeological artifacts lagoons - WB Abidjan Lagoon Environmental- Urban waste and industrial pollution Protection- Water borne disease due to poor sanitation - WB Water supply and Sanitation Sector- Coastal erosion & loss of culturall heritzage Adj. Loan

Ghana - Important wetlands, including extensive - Insufficient data for problem identification - GEF Pilot ICZM

mangroves and spawning areas for commercial - Habitat and biodiversity protection - WB Environmental Resources Mgmt.

fisheries. Coastal lagoons, estuaries and - Urban waste and industrial pollution Projectseashores: important wetlands for migratory - Pollution control in shared waters - GEF Coastal Wetlands Management

birds and turtles & cultural heritage sites. - Severe coastal erosion in some areas Component- GEP Pollution Control in Gulf of Guinea**

- Major cities and numerous industries on the - ODA Lower Volta Management Project

Nigeria coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Pollutants (organic - Insufficient data for problem identification - NEAPmaterials, toxic waste, etc) transported by the - Disposal of untreated urban/industrial waste - GEF Pollution Control in Gulf of Guinea**

Guiinea current. Important oil production & - Contamination of coastal and int'l waters - WB Third Multi-state Agricultural

natural gas in coastal areas - Severe pollution from oil activities development

- Coastal erosion and flooding - WB Environmental Management Project/- Archaeological and historical sites - Habitat destniction, overexploitation of - ODA Lagos Lagoon Project (component)

marine resources and loss of hiodiversity - WB Lagos Drainage and Sanitation project- Degradation of Lagos Lagoon - WB Lagos Water Supply Project- Loss of cultural heritage

Togo - Important wetlands and spawning areas for - Controlling pollution of shared waterscommercial fisheries. Major port in Lome - Coastal erosion

- Unplanned urban and industrial growth in thecoastal zone

Regional - Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem - - Mangrove overexploitation/degradation * Subregional pilot activity funded by LUX

activities/ Common linkages/benefits to surrounding - Monitoring & mitigating pollution of lagoons Development, phase I @ $0.57 millioni,

programs countries and coastal waters with the Gulf of Guinea phase 11 at $2 millionLME ** UNDP/GEF Regional Project: Water

Pollution Control and Biodiversity* Conservation in the Gulf of Guinea $6

million- IUCN/ADB Guidelines for Development

Planning in Mangrove Habitats of WestAfrica

- IUCN Wetlands Mapping,UNEP/FAO Regional Seas Program

- IOC Marine Debris Waste Management

Country Usc/Value of Coastal Resources ICZM Issues Ongoing Activities N

AFRICA COUNTRY DEPARTMENT V

Cape Verde - Fisheries - Sedimentationi, run-olf from upland erosion - USAID Watershed DevelopmcntGambia - Mangroves and sandy coastline - Water pollution - WB Third Banjul Port Project

- Tourism and fishing major sources of - Coastal erosion and protection of mangroves; - WB Fisheries Surveillance Project*foreign exchange fisheries surveillance

Guinea - Fisheries, mangroves - Fisheries management, control and surveillance - WB Forestry and Fisheries Project- Salt production in mangrove habitat - Mangrove degradation - WB Fisheries Surveillance ProJect*

- IDRC Improved technology for localenterprise

Guinea- - High biological diversity and productivity; - Fisheries management - SIDA Artisanal Fisheries ProgramBissau fisheries resources; half the country lies in - Land use planning and coordinating development - T.A. Phase 1 1979-90 $10 million

the coastal zone activities in the coastal zone - T.A. Phase 11 1980-93 $4 million- WB Fisheries Surveillance Project*- National ICZM program with support

from IUCN/Swiss Cooperation (Phase 1:1988-1994)

Liberia - Inadequate hydrographic mapping- Coastal erosion

Mauritania - Fisheries provides 66% of national - Monitoring and surveillance of fisheries stocks - GTZ support for Fisheries Managementrevenues, critical wetlands habitat for and fishing effort - IUCN support for protected areamigrating birds management

Sao Tome - Fisheries - Tourist development& Principe - Overfishing

Senegal - Important fisheries in upwelling areas - Fisheries data base management - IDRC support for access to fisheries data- Mangrove resources - Limited fresh water resources in the delta - IDRC support for applied research

- 2/3 of country's population lives in the coastal - IDRC support for Red Algaezone resulting in heavy pollution, and high risk valorization and technology forexposure of human settlements and infrastructure production of kappa-carrageenin as ato coastal crosion, sca-level rise, etc. local enterprise

AFRICA COUNTRY DEPARTMENT V (continued)

Sierra - Offshore fisheries worth $300 million/yr in - Coastal erosion - WB Freetown InfrastructureLeone harvests - Fisheries management and Monitoring, Control Rehabilitation Project

and Surveillance (MCS) of fishing fleet - WB Fisheries Surveillanice Project*

Regional - Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem - - Mangrove overexploitation/degradation * Subregional pilot activity funded byactivities/ Common linkages/benefits to surrounding - Monitoring & mitigating pollution of lagoons and LUX Development, phase I @ $0.57programs countries coastal waters with the Gulf ol Guinea LME million, phase 11 at $2 million

** UNDP/GEF Regional Project: WaterPollution Control and BiodiversityConservation in the Gulf of Guinea $6million

- IUCN/ADB Guidelines for DevelopmentPlanning in Mangrove Habitats of WestAfrica

- IUCN Wetlands Mapping- UNEP/FAO Regional Seas Program

0)

64

4PROPOSED PROGRAM

The objective of this chapter is to identify an alternative approach to the currenttrajectory of unsustainable development occurring in many parts of the African coastalzone. Integrated coastal zone management is seen as a key vehicle to making thetransition from unsustainable to sustainable development in the next thirty years.

In this first section we present an ideal development scenario for life on Africa'scoasts in the year 2025. To progress towards this vision, we present a long-term goal andstrategic framework for promoting integrated coastal zone management in Africa. Thisis followed by a table of investment options and priority areas which should beconsidered for World Bank support. Where traditional lending programs are not feasible(that is, planning and capacity building), collaborating organizations which are currentlyproviding grant support for similar activities have been identified. Opportunities forregional collaboration with other donors are noted in a separate section. Finally, thechapter closes with a brief discussion of hot spots on the continent where action isurgently needed, of the importance of intersectoral planning in the design ofinterventions, and financing mechanisms that would facilitate Bank support for ICZM.

I. AN IDEAL DEVELOPMENT SCENARIO FOR 2025

Basic Assumptions. First, African urban coastal populations will continue to grow at nomore than 3% per year. This would mean a doubling of populations in coastal urbancenters within the next 30 years. By 2025, then, the overall population density in urbancoastal areas of Africa will jump from a mean of 200 inhabitants/km2 to 500inhabitants/km 2 (see Map 3 above). Thus, even with declining population growth rates,there will be still be strong competition for existing coastal resources, many of which willhave declined further before a significant reversal in degradation can be effected throughimproved management interventions.

The second basic assumption is that the political turmoil which plagued Africannations during the post-colonial era will have subsided as most countries will have madea successful transition to participatory forms of governance. This stability will lead tomore productivity and higher quality of life for the broader segments of society.

Supportive framework for ICZM in coastal Africa. Public awareness ofthe importance of coastal ecosystems and resources to the nationaleconomy and social welfare will promote integration of coastal zoneplanning into national development plans. Enabling policies andlegislation will support the creation of intersectoral and participatorymanagement structures for the coastal zone. These institutions will besustained by adequate information, human and capital resources, and theresources to implement management strategies. They will include fora for

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debate and conflict resolution among stakeholders through NGOinvolvement and other private sector entities;

* Improved land use planning and multiple use zoning. Ecologicalinventorying and land use planning will result in better siting ofinfrastructure and development activity (for example, ports, industry,tourism, coastal transport) to minimize impacts on human settlements andprotected areas. In dense urban coastal centers, new construction willfocus on upgrading municipal services, port facilities and existinginfrastructure to accommodate the growth of resident populations andexpanding commerce. In response to threats of accelerating sea level rise,non coast dependant human services will be transferred to the hinterlandalong with new investments in industry and infrastructure. This shift,along with the rapid growth in agri-business brought on by sustainableincreases in upland agriculture will become an important source ofemployment. The creation of development magnets inland will slowmigration to the coast. Along the coast, zoning for multiple use willreduce competition between sectors for competing development options.More transparent and accountable management structures will gain thesupport of a broad array of interest groups and sustain the process ofintegrated coastal zone management through its trial phase.

* Improved agriculture practices and management of coastal urban areasto address downstream effects. Sustainable agricultural techniques will beadopted generally as land tenure issues are resolved and incentives forsoil and water conservation are introduced. Downstream sedimentationand nutrient loads will be reduced, slowing the siltation of harbors andthe eutrophication and siltation of coastal habitats. Coastal agriculturewill be semi-intensive and more efficient as a result of geneticergineering and the recycling of organic residues through compostingand conversion to bagasse. Growth in industry will conform to strictzoning and regulatory standards aimed at minimizing environmentalimpacts. Compliance with standards will be enhanced by technologicaladvances in waste recovery and management. Improved design ofindustrial and municipal waste collection facilities will separate industrialeffluents from the main sewage systems, making inorganic wasterecovery easier. Significant progress in closing carbon cycles will beachieved through biological filtering and cleaning of urban sewerage,lowering the loads entering coastal lagoons and nearshore waters. Thefiltered carbon and nutrients will be recycled into agricultural uses,including feed for aquaculture operations. In many urban areas of WestAfrica, natural gas will replace fuelwood use. Photo voltaics will besuccessfully introduced in countries like Somalia and Namibia, relievingpressure on coastal biomass. In some areas wave energy and oceanthermal energy conversion will be utilized as energy substitutes;

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Improved management of living coastal and marine resources. Thebiological production of the systems will be enhanced through propermanagement and enhanced knowledge of the resources. Fisheriesmanagement capability will be internalized so that most fishing effort iscarried out by domestic enterprises or in joint ventures with foreigninterests. International monitoring and surveillance of "shared" migratorystocks and harvest quotas will be supported through regional conventionsdesigned to maintain maximum sustainable yields. Advances in marinebiotechnology and improvements in coastal water quality will lead to thesuccessful development of mariculture, contributing to improvements innutrition, income generation and the ratio of imported to exported fishproducts for many net importers of fish. In West Africa, mangrovereforestation programs, bolstered by the identification and propagationof more salt resistant species, will play an important role in mitigatingthe effects of sea level rise, including coastal erosion. In East Africa, seagrass bed restoration in conjunction with enforcement of non-destructivecoral reef fishing will result in the rehabilitation of many decliningtourist sites and artisanal fisheries. Processing industries will have beendeveloped in conjunction with some of the resources, providingalternative employment and reducing harvest pressure on coastalorganisms by marginal groups. The physical as well as capacity buildinginitiatives supported by the World Bank will have contributed toimproving coastal resources management as well as focusing the attentionof decision makers on the real value of their resources.

II. A LONG-TERM GOAL FOR MANAGEMENT OF THECOASTAL ZONE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

In line with this vision for the future, the following long-term goal is proposed to guideBank investments in the African coastal zone and enhance prospects for sustainabledevelopment of this corridor by the year 2025.

A system for integrated and participatory development planning and naturalresource management in the coastal zone will be in place by 2025. It will seekto optimize the net benefitflows from coastal resources to individuals and societyby reducing user conflicts, mitigating adverse development impacts and enhancingthe productivity of coastal ecosystems.

To achieve this long-term goal, intermediate objectives related to coastalinformation management and planning, policy reform, institution building and publicsupport will need to be embraced. Interim support of pilot activities and demonstrationprojects spanning a diversity of coastlines and management options may be necessary todetermine the most appropriate approaches to successful coastal zone management withina given (national or local) context. To the extent possible, conventional investmentprojects by the Bank and other donors in the coastal zone should reflect the principles ofintersectoralplanning and ecosystem linkages, reinforcing the integration aspect of coastal

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zone management. The Bank can play an important role in furthering the process ofintegrated coastal zone management in Africa through its support of many of theinvestment options outlined in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 below.

III. PROPOSED PROGRAM

A. Framework

In this section we present a framework for the development of integrated coastal zonemanagement in Africa. This framework suggests an ongoing process and offers a broadscope for involvement by many different players (multilateral, bilateral, NGOs, nationalgovernments, private sector). It implies a logical progression in the evolution of ICZMprograms from problem identification and planning through coastal management planadoption to implementation and investment projects. It is important to note that not allAfrican countries are in the same stages of CZM development. Some, for example inEast Africa, are well into the problem identification/early planning stage, while othershave embarked on major investments in urban infrastructure and transportation withoutthe benefit of integrated planning. Guinea-Bissau appears to be unique in Africa in havingcompleted national level plans for the coastal zone and is now poised for the adoption andimplementation of a comprehensive CZM plan.

B. Investment Options

While the above framework is meant to provide a context for World Bank support to thelong-term goal of sustainable development and management of the African coastal zone,it is unrealistic to assume that the Bank, or its clients, will be in a position to commitresources for the full range of activities outlined in the pre-investment process. Fewcountries--particularly those with severe coastal pollution and degradation problems--canafford the luxury of undertaking comprehensive planning, policy reform, public debateand institutional strengthening before taking action to address their problems. Forcountries like Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Mozambique, where heavy investmentshave already been made in coastal infrastructure without the benefit of ICZM planning,the solution may be to incorporate as much of the capacity building, monitoring,evaluation and mitigation aspects of ICZM as possible while investment projects areunder implementation. This may pave the way for policy reform and integrated planningand management during the next round of investment activities. For those countries atthe threshold of large scale development of the coastal zone, such as Guinea-Bissau, theircommitment to a phased approach towards integrated coastal zone management may bemore feasible, with adequate support from the donor community. However, because asignificant portion of the planning and institution building phase (see framework I andII) of the ICZM process will require grant funding, creative financing arrangementsinvolving the Bank and other partners will have to be considered. A range of investmentoptions derived from the framework are provided below in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.

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Box 4.1 A Framework for Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Africa'

I. Problem Identification

A. Issues Definition, Einironmental Diagnostics and Institutional Proriling1. NEAPs--as decentralized assessments of environmental problems. issues and

policies, including those which may affect the coastal zone. NEAPS have beencompleted in 10 coastal African naLions. marine and coastal issues haze beenidentified in 6

2. Ecological profiling of coasLal habilais and resources--ongoing in se%eralAfrican countries '%ithin a varieiy of contexts and at different scales. Ideally.ihese exercises should pro% ide decision makers v% ith useful and up-to-dalemanagement information: data collecied should be consistent within a regionand comparable across countries.

3. Institutional profiling--ofien done Ln conjunction with NEAPS and as part of thesocial soundness analysis in prolect preparation. This is to ensure full coverageof issues and conllicting instiiitional mandates.

B. Training of Coaslal Resources Mlanagers in Environmental Assessment,Evaluating and NMonitoring Downstream Impacts over Time, and ConservingCultural Heritage Sitesl Regional iraining;%%orkshops.In -countri on-the-job training With the help of external technical assistance

C. Information Analysis, Dissemination and UlseI Preparation of land and resource use/capabilitv maps, cadastral survess and

coastal zoning ifor use in planning wiLh GIS and other interactive tools)2 Interpretation and dissemination of data to the public X ia the media, municipal

authorities. universiiies, NGOs. etc.3. National %%orkshops. building public a%%areness!political will (NEAP

preparation. as participatorN, local exercises in some countries to create a senseof ownership of the process of strategic environmental planning)

H. Planning and Capacity Building

A. Technical Capability1. Coastal habitat and land use mappingicapabiliv analysis!zoning for prolected

areas and compaLible use(a) Low altitude aerial photographx and surveillance for coastal mapping(b) Rapid coastal assessment

2. Planning and Mlanagement Toolska) GIS for construction of a dynamic and flexible data base(b) Participators rural appraisal (PRAi to involve communities in resource

assessments, appraisal of needs and definition of goals and objectives

I This framework is illustrative and serves to identify stages in the process of ICZM programdevelopment and support which will require T.A., grant support, and loans for capital investments. Supportfor various elements of this framework is ongoing in several different countries (see Table 3.2, Chapter 3).However, activities tend to be somewhat ad hoc and financial support short-term, with the result that fewcountries have been able to advance logically towards a comprehensive and dynamic management plan forthe coastal zone.

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B. Polic)1. Enabling legislation for coastal development planning2. Regulalorn policies for access to and use of living coastal/marine resources3. Establishment and revtie% of user fee policies. licensing. and penalties for abuse

of coastal resources4. IdenLification of other market-based incentives (for example, Laxes. subsidies.

tradeable quotes) that ma! be applied5. Public administration of coastal resources: sireamline and render more

transparent procedures for gaining access/ iransferring tenure rights toresources or allocating benefits from them

C. Institutional Capabililt1. Training of resource managers in intersectoral planning

2. Selecting a lead agency w:v political clout/executive authority3. Establishment of coastal commission or appropriate institutional linkages to

coordinate development of the coastal zone4. De%olution of oversight responsibilities to local body for management of local

pilot or provincial CZNI projects5. Re' sing ncentile structure for coastal resource managers to become

motivated:well Itrained professionals(ai technical training and equipment(b) public recognition(6& beiter salariesid) increased status through greater institutional visibility tn government

hierarch!

D. Drarting or Plan1. A special area management plan iSANI) or a national plan uhich identifies

priority issues. key policy actions. institutional linkages and arrangements forintersecLoral management of part or all Of the coast

2 Identification of pilot ICZMI activities 'xhich address priority issues whiletesting the %iability of ihe plan and ihe institutional arrangements in place tofoster integrated management of the coastal zone.

E. Adoption or Plan and Identirication or Support for Investment AciiiitiesI Enaciment of policy legislation2 Niaster plan of imesiment activities developed. which is:

* tlexible in terms of le%el of support available* time-limited in terms of launching acti%ities

3. Donor solicitation and coordination

III. Implementation and Investment Actiilies

A. Shift Demographic Trends Away rrom the Coast1. Slo%"ing migration from coast to hinterland

(a) Improve agricultural potential and practices in rural hinterland(b) Create de%elopment magnets in the interior

* infrastructure and social services* agro-industries. free trade zones and other investment

opportunities for employment generation

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kc) Create polics incentives to stem rural pushiurban pull* land tenure reform* decentralization of government sen ices administration* rural security

2. Reducing Fertility Rates in Coastal Urban Centers(a) Female educaiion(b) Child survival strategies (including immunization. growth monitoring,

breast feeding and nutrition campaignsl to loL%er infant monaliry raies(c) Comprehensi%e familv planning campaigns(d) Creating opportunities to improve income earning power from e.isting

industries to increase living standards and qualii! of life arnongestablished coastal populations

B. TourismI Traditional Tourist Developments

(a') In areas of urban concentration where supporting infrastruciure exists andnatural ecosystems have alread% been conertedimodified

2 High Cost.Low Impact Tourism Ecotourism(a,) Resened for pristine areas %iLh high ecological value, less accessible to

public, possibly associated with niarine resenes. in a buffer zone, e.g.:* Bichaizos Archipelago (Guinea-Btssaui* Mafia Island* Seychelles* Comoros* Mozambique* Red Sea (Eritrea)

C. Fisheries1. Ne% ssstem for licensing. sur%eillance and monitoring offshore fishing interests

t,a) Quota system for licensing foreign tleets(b) Revised tariff structure for foreign inierests that will encourage loin

venture operations %%ith naitonal enterprises2. Impro%ed anisanal fisheries management

('a't Policies and regulations demarcating arnisanal fishing grounds(b) Small port and landing facilities(c) Post harvest processing, marketing and iransport(d) MariculLure development and product marketing

D. Infrasiruclure: 'Waler Suppl3 and Sanilation, Miunicipal Waste Treatment andDisposal1. High population dens:tl high cost model: urban se%%erage pipeline network, I

and where possible 2' ireatment. deep sea outfall. Lo%-cost.appropriate tech models for majorit of urban centers. recycling

nuirients for agriculiure3 Solid %%asie disposal: rec%cling indusiries T.A. io set them up4. Industrial %%asie recNcling: environmental services T A. from U.S. or U.K.

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E. Ship and Port-Based NMarine Pollution/NliiigaiionI Bilge and ship%%aste receptioniprocessing facilities at pon2. Deep %%aier poris for super iankers3. Implementation of MlARPOL Convention4. Oil spill contingenc\ planning and training5 Pollution abatemeni and moniloring6. ionitoring of loxic hazardous % aste transport and dumping

F. Land Based Pollutiontat Sewerage. industrial efiluenis, agricultural run-off mitigationibi Coastal lagoon v ater qualit' managementict Regulatory standards for indusiry, compliance incenmiles. pollution fees

G. Shoreline Protection/StabilizationI Natural barrier rehabilitation

(at Coral reef rehabiliiationb) Klangro%e reforestation

ic) Sea grass bed resioration2. Engineering inierxenhions: guidelines for design and siting of engineering works

in the coastal zone(a) groynes. sea %%ails. Jetties and other structureslb) arlificial reefs

H. NIarine Biodiversits ConservationI Ecological profiling,mapping.gis-based information management2. Establishment of protected areas.designing and funding implementation of

master management plans3. Natural habitat rehabilitation. e.g.. coastal lagoons4. Biote'hnolog) research and de%elopment and marine natural products marketing5. Mlicroenterprise development based on:

(a) Sustainable harvests of marine resourcesib) Non-extracti-e marine resource use (e.g., entrepreneurial activities lied to

ecotouLrism)6. GEF: national and regional programs for biodiv,ersiiy conservation

Table 4.1 presents a series of "pre-investment" planning and institution buildingactivities which create a foundation for integrated coastal zone management. Theseactivities help ensure that future investments have the support of a broad base of stakeholders and that in preparing and reviewing future investment projects, full account hasbeen taken of the linkages to other sector and systems in terms of impacts, opportunitycosts and sustainability.

Table 4.2 provides a range of sector-oriented investment options, for considerationby Country Departments and other entities within the Bank. The categories chosen area mix of traditional lending programs (infrastructure, ports, tourism, agriculture,fisheries, and so forth) and environment projects which will require some grant fundingfrom sources like the GEF and Trust Funds within the Bank, as well as external supportfrom other donors. Target areas for specific kinds of activities are identified where thereis a particular need for the investment (such as water supply and sanitation) or where the

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opportunities (as in eco-tourism) are especially apparent. Where appropriate, potentialcollaborating organizations have been listed. Together, the options in Tables 4.1 and 4.2should provide the Bank with a range of opportunities for short and medium-term supportto the long-term goal of sustainable development in the coastal zones of Africa during thefirst half of the next century.

IV. NEXT STEPS: HOT SPOTS AND TARGETS OF OPPORTUNITY

Given the broad scope for Bank involvement in coastal zone management efforts inAfrica, some basis for prioritizing the Bank's investment in this area is necessary. Twoconsiderations might serve to guide the next steps of country departments or otherinterested units within the Bank. The first are hot spots, or nodes of dynamic change incoastal Africa, where demographic and natural resource use trends are acceleratingrapidly towards the critical endpoints described in the business as usual scenario. Thesecond are targets of opportunity, where client country "readiness" to invest in integrateddevelopment planning in the coastal zone coincides with available funding mechanismsin the Bank and elsewhere to support the objectives of ICZM.

Hot spots currently exist in the densely populated capitals and major port cities ofcoastal Africa. The population and urbanization trajectories of these cities, fueled by highrates of fertility and in-migration, and by the concentration of infrastructure, commerceand industry, predict rapidly accelerating pressures on surrounding ecosystems. Relatedto this is a concomitant decline in the productivity of these systems and their ability tosustain projected demand on the resources and services they provide. Within West Africa,three hot spots are immediately apparent in terms of the magnitude of the problems inthe coastal zone and their downstream impacts on surrounding systems. Not surprisingly,these are Abidjan, Accra-Tema and the coast from Lagos to Port Harcourt. With regardto transboundary impacts, both Abidjan and Accra are located upstream of the stronglittoral transport system along the Gulf of Guinea that effectively conveys marinepollution from these port cities eastward to neighboring shores. Nigeria's position at thereceiving end augments the pollution crisis that already exists along its coast.Compounded by severe health and sanitation problems, coastal erosion that threatensbillions of dollars worth of infrastructure and future earnings in oil production and trade,Nigeria's coastal zone is ripe for ICZM. Information from the population, urban andagricultural building blocks should help focus attention on other emerging hot spotswithin the coastal zone.

Targets of opportv .ity exist where countries have identified coastal environmentalissues and potential investment projects in their NEAPs and/or have begun to solicitdonor support for a programmatic approach to management of their coastal resources.These include The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Nigeria Mauritius, Comoros,Seychelles, Mozambique, Tanzania and Eritrea, among others. Activities of various kindsidentified in sections I-III of the framework are ongoing in these countries. Guinea-Bissauis nearing the investment stage after completing a comprehensive and apparentlysuccessful coastal planning phase. South Africa is well into the process of developing aframework of its own for ICZM. Preliminary contacts at the technical level indicate a

73

keen interest on the part of government to move forward on various fronts in anticipationof a national level ICZM program for South Africa.

Clearly, an important criterion by which to judge client country readiness to embarkon ICZM is a country's political stability and a commitment to the participatory processin all aspects of development. Countries involved in political turmoil and militaryconflict, regardless of their need, are poor candidates for the policy reform, institutionbuilding, capacity building and open debate that will be required to lay the groundworkfor sustainable, integrated planning and management of a nation's coastal resources.Investment opportunities in promoting ICZM exist where need, client country interest andcommitment to the process of sustainable development overlap.

From the Bank's perspective, financing mechanisms will clearly play a role indetermining which of these "priority" areas are most worth pursuing. While many of thesectoral investments identified in Table 4.2 could be developed with loan funds, some,including marine pollution mitigation, marine biodiversity conservation, and alternativeenergy investments will require a high proportion of grant funding, as will most of thepre-investment activities outlined in Table 4.1. A combination of trust funds, IDA funds,co-financing with other donors/NGOs and GEF funds should be explored as potentialsources of support for these activities.

V. REGIONAL PROGRAMS AND GEF SuPPORT

Certain economies of scale, in terms of Bank resources and staff time, as well asecological and economic congruencies can often be realized through a regionalprogrammnatic approach. The GEF offers a rare opportunity to develop regional coastalresource management initiatives through a threshold phase of planning and pilot activitiesin three or more subregions of Africa. Among these are the Gulf of Guinea, where aUNDP GEF activity is already planned, the Southern Africa (SADCC) countries, and theRed Sea.

The countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Sierra Leone and Nigeria sharea number of characteristics in common. Their coastal areas are all generally low-lyingand erosion prone, thus highly vulnerable to the effects of sea level rise; they share a richbut unprotected system of coastal wetlands, including coastal lagoons and mangroves andas described above, they are linked through the Guinea Current with surroundinginternational waters as part of a large marine ecosystem (LME). These commonalitiessuggest the appropriateness of regional support through two or more windows of the GEFto address some common problems:

* Global warming and vulnerability to sea level rise* Threats to marine/wetlands biological diversity* Land and ship based pollution of international waters

The SADCC countries of Namibia, Angola, South Africa and Mozambique harborrich pelagic fisheries within their EEZs. However, as noted earlier, these are

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overexploited due to insufficient monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) of fishingeffort, much of which is done by foreign interests. The potential revenues to thesecountries from an improved licensing and enforcement regime, including cost recoveryfor fisheries management, is extremely high given the volume of current harvests fromthese waters. There may be an opportunity for incremental funding under the GEF of theinstitutional arrangements required to coordinate a regional effort in MCS to improve themanagement of these migrating, pelagic stocks. Once the institutional linkages are inplace for coordinating regulations, quotas, licensing and monitoring offtake, the SADCCcountries may be in a better position to invest in a long-term, regional program of MCS.In view of Angola's continuing civil war, however, Angola's participation in such aneffort would likely be delayed.

The Red Sea alsc offers scope for developing a regional framework for ICZM withGEF support. As one of the world's richest repositories of marine biodiversity andamong the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, the Red Sea is a prime candidatefor regional environmental management. Although marine biodiversity and pollutionissues touch all of the countries bordering this regional sea, efforts to coordinate aregional response to these common concerns within the Regional Seas framework havenot been highly successful to date. A GEF/UNDP regional project to provide theinstitutional support required for greater regional cooperation in managing the Red Seahas been authorized but has yet to be implemented. The upcoming Sea to Sea Conferencein Jeddah in early 1995 for countries bordering the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden shouldprovide a better indication of national level interest and regional commitment to ICZM.

The Indian Ocean Islands off of East Africa may provide another framework forregional programmatic support from the Bank. While geographically disparate, theseisland states share many common coastal problems and are allied economically asmembers of the Indian Ocean Commission. This alliance is the focus of a new EuropeanUnion regional environment initiative for the Indian Ocean, focusing on biodiversity andcoral reef management. In view of ongoing or planned Bank investments in the coastalzones of several of these countries (Seychelles, Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros),there may be scope for European TUnion/Bank collaboration in support of ICZM planningin the context of anticipated investment programs.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The coastal zone of Sub-Saharan Africa is in rapid transition. Burgeoning populationsswtollen by ri'ral-urbaii -iigrants and political refugees, growing competition for naturalresources and living space, widescale pollution and the transformation of vast areas ofthe coast in a bid for rapid economic growth threaten welfare and future development.Planning for growth in the coastal zone and maximizing the net benefits to society forgenerations to come will be the challenge for these countries in partnership with thedevelopment community.

The Bank can play a strategi, role in advancing this partnership. By being proactivein identifying targets of opportunity for promoting ICZM in Africa, the Bank can

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leverage its support with other donors to help finance the necessary human resourcedevelopment, institution building and integrated planning that lay the foundation forsuccessful coastal zone management. With these building blocks in place, the Bank willbe in a better position to help client countries assess the impacts of development prioritiesin the coastal zone and identify the range of investment options most likely to lead tosustainable and equitable returns well into the next century.

Table 4.2. Investment Options in the Implementation Phase of ICZMSector/Pr6bict/Activity Country/City World Bank Funding Collaborating

Source Organizations

SHIFTING DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN SENSITIVE COASTAL AREAS

1. Accelerating development of social and physical Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Infrastructure Lending UNDP, Habitatinfrastructure in hinterlands to stem out- Mozambique, Ghana andmigration Tanzania

2. Promoting agri-business and other industries: Agriculture Lending CGIAR,* policy incentives for private investment in the Kenya Bilateral donors,

hinterlands FAO, UNIDO* free trade zones in the rural areas* increased employment opportunities

3. Reducing population growth rates Occidental and West Human Resources USAID, WHO,* female education Coastal Africa, East Lending UNICEF* increased income to female heads of Africa, Madagascar

households* child survival campaigns* family planning campaigns

TOURISM

1. Ecotourism Mafia Island, Comoros GEF Biodiversity NGOs (WWF,Seychelles, Red Sea, Conservation IUCN, LocalBazaruto Archipelago, Groups),Bichagos Archipelago SAREC,

NORAD,internationaltour operators

2. Traditional Tourism Mauritania, Ghana, Benin, Infrastructure Lending University ofCote d'Ivoire, Maputo, Minnesota,Mombasa, Zanzibar, DGISTanzania, Kenya

Table 4.1. Pre-investment Activities in ICZMACTIVITY Country/City World Bank Collaborating

F... Support OrganizationsPROBLEM IDENTIFICATION, PLANNING AND CAPACITY BUILDING

1. Technical Aspects: Coastal hot spots--areas NEAPs, environmental Bilateral donors* Environmental assessment, GIS, remote where high population and social assessment URI/CRC,

sensing, PRXA, rapid coastal assessment growth rates, critical should include analysis of SIDA, SAREC,* Habitat & land use mapping/zoning habitats and increasing coastal issues to identify IUCN* Management training for sustainable use: development pressures in priorities for donor

stock assessment, user fees, non-destructive the coastal zone intersect-- assistance. W.B. coastalharvesting, non-consumptive use, value as in many parts of West activities should includeadded processing Africa, should be high an ICZM planning/

* Drafting a coastal management plan priority areas for ICZM capacity buildingprograms. In East Africa, component in project

2. Institutional Aspects: Mauritius, Comoros and design; countries withMadagascar provide good significant W.B. UNEP/

* Training of resource managers in social opportunities for investments already OCAPAC,assessment and intersectoral planning incorporating ICZM underway in the coastal USAID/URI

* Establishment of coastal commission or planning into Bank funded zone should be considered UNDP, IUCNnetwork of institutions to oversee port expansion and coastal for supplementarydevelopment of the coastal zone protection projects. In planning and capacity

* Creating public/private sector linkages Mozambique, Tanzania building exercises.and Kenya, the Bank could Trust Funds (T.A.),undertake economic sector ENVLW Training Funds,work to support regional IDF funds.

3. Policy Aspects: initiatives in coastal zone Trust Funds (T.A),* Support analysis of legislation, regulatory management. AFTES, ENVLW

policies, fee for service, licensing, tariffs* Supporting adoption of national ICZM

guidelines in place to guide donorinvestments in the coastal zone

4. Public Administration: Policy Dialogue; Trust NGOs* Streamlining & rendering more transparent Funds (T.A.)

procedures for access to resources Training Funds* Revising incentive structure for resource

managers* Decentralization of oversight to local bodies

where appropriate for pilot activities

Table 4.2. Investment Options in the Implementation Phase of ICZM

Sector/Project/Activity Country/City World Bank Funding CollaboratingSource Organizations

INFRASTRUCTURE: WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION

1. Municipal water supply and sanitation facilities: Lagos, Accra/Tema, Infrastructure Lending GTZ, UNDP,* pipeline connections, 10 treatment, deep Mombasa, Dar-es-Salaam, Habitat, WHO,

watt -atfalls (Abidjan model) Mauritius Urban* low tech, biofiltration treatment of organic Agriculture

waste and wastewater Less densely populated Networkurban centers/coastal townswith space for filtrationponds

2. Industrial effluents & solid waste management Nigeria, Ghana, Cote Infrastructure Lending; GTZ, Habitat* recycling of waste d'lvoire, South Africa IFC (joint ventures)* greater efficiency in conversion processes* T.A. in environmental services &

technologies* environmental upgrading during privatization

of industry

IMPROVED PORT FACILITIES

1. Ship waste & cargo reception facilities All Major Ports GEF IMO, PMAESA(Int'l Waters)

2. Oil spill contingency plans and training Strategically located GEF IMOregional centers

3. Emergency response preparedness Mombasa, Durban, Port GEF IMOHarcourt

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

1. Industrial fisheries sector SADCC countries; Fisheries loans EU, FAO,* improved licensing, monitoring and Senegal, Sierra Leone and DANIDA, ADB

surveillance of fishing interests Ghana* revised tariff structure for foreign licenses

2. Artisanal fisheries sector East Africa (coral reef WWF, EU andfishing) IUCNWest Africa, continentalshelf/Gulf of Guinea

3. Aquaculture West Africa Fisheries Lending; IFC Bilateral donors,FAO ICLARM

MARINE POLLUTION MITIGATION/ABATEMENT

1. Implementation & enforcement of MARPOL Throughout Africa (see GEF IMOAnnex 6 for status ofMARPOL Convention inAfrica)

2. Upgrade of tanker fleet Throughout Africa UNEP, UNDP,IMO

MARINE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

1. Protected area management Nigeria, Ghana, Cote GEF, WWF, IUCN,d'Ivoire wetlands, Environment loans UNDPTanzania, Mozambique,Madagascar reefs

2. Habitat rehabilitation East Africa: coral reefs GEF, WWF, IUCN,and seagrass beds Environment loans SARECWest Africa: mangroves,coastal lagoons

3. Marine biotechnology Coastal areas with Education loans UNIDO, FAOaquaculture potential

4. Gene resources management Strategic regional centers Fisheries Project/GEF CGIAR, IUCNin West, East and SouthAfrica

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

* Photovoltaics --Namibia, Angola, ESMAP, Energy loans, Private Sector,* Natural Gas Mozambique GEF Climate Change UNIDO* Bagasse --Lagos, Port Harcourt,

Gabon, Douala--Where coastal agricultureis practiced

(0

Table 4.2. Investment Options in the Implementation Phase of ICZM

Sector/Project/Activity Country/City World Bank Funding CollaboratingSource Organizations o

URBAN PLANNING/COASTAL PROTECTION

1. Zoning for development options; exclusive v. Coastal cities Infrastructure loans Habitatmultiple use, as appropriate

2. Bioiog1cal &/or engineering solutions to coastal West Africa for Coastal Infrastructure loans Appliederosion/sedimentation/sea-level rise Erosion technology

East Africa for groupsSedimentation

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

1. Closing nutrient/carbon cycles West Africa, Kenya Agriculture loans CGIAR

2. Composting/residue recycling Madagascar, Mozambique Agriculture loans NGOs

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ANNEX 11GEOGRAPHY, ECOLOGY, AND

CULTURAL HERITAGE OF AFRICAN COASTS

I. GEOGRAPHY

A. West Africa

General Oceanography. On the west coast of Africa five distinct and relativelypersistent oceanic currents are of importance in respect of the transport of substances,water temperature, meteorology and biological conditions. They are the Benguela Currentflowing along the coast of the south west African zone veering offshore at about 6°S; theGuinea Current flowing eastward and south-eastward along the coast of the Gulf ofGuinea, almost to the Equator, and which essentially constitutes a continuation of theEquatorial Counter-Current; the South Equatorial Current which flows west somedistance from the coast between about 10°S and the Equator and the Canary Currentwhich flows south-westward along the coast in the northern part of the region feedingboth the Guinea current and the North Equatorial Current. Both the Canary Current andthe Benguela Current transport cool water towards the Equator and have current speedsof about 20 cm/sec. The Guinea Current carries warm water towards the coast and hasspeeds of 13 knots with the highest currents in the summer months. All the currents areessentially wind-driven.

The prevailing regional wind-systems along the west coast of the region generatean offshore flow component in the surface layer of the sea due to the combined actionof the wind stress and the rotation of the earth. The offshore transport is compensatedby onshore flow at intermediate, 50-300 m depths and vertical flow towards the surfacelayer (upwelling) in bands of some tens of kilometers width adjacent to the coast. Thisis a very important feature along large parts of the coastline; along the north west partfrom October to April; along limited parts of the northern Gulf of Guinea coast insummer months and along the southern coastline in the Benguela current system withvery strong upwelling in winter (August) and weaker upwelling in summer (Novemberto February).

High precipitation and numerous rivers on the central West African coast resultin large masses of warm (above 24°C) and low salinity (less than 35 ppt) water, knownas Guinean waters, circulating in the Gulf of Guinea, which rest on colder water. Thesewaters are permanent off Sierra Leone and Liberia and in the Bight of Biafra (Nigeria,Cameroon and Gabon), but occur seasonally in other areas where they are replaced bycolder and more saline waters at certain times of year due to other currents andupwellings (UNEP/IUCN 1988).

1 The information for this Annex is derived from Kelleher and Bleakley (1992) and Taboroff andCook (1993).

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Coastal Geography and Geology. The north-west coast from Morocco toSenegal is sandy and relatively unindented. From Dakar, south-east to Monrovia itbecomes very indented and there are a number of offshore islands. Further east, itbecomes more deltaic in nature, low-lying and sandy, with large lagoons separated fromthe sea by dunes, interspersed with rocky areas for example from Monrovia to CapePalmas and in Ghana. The eastern area is dominated by the delta of the Niger River, thesecond largest delta in the world, covering an area of 36,260 km2 (Hughes and Hughes1992). The 3,000 km coastline of South Africa shows a wide variety of habitats, affectedby the different ocean currents running parallel to the coast in the east (warm water) andwest (cold water). The southern region represents a transition zone between these watermasses, having fauna and flora representative of both systems as well as its own endemicspecies.

Much of Guinea-Bissau is below 100 m and is a very indented submergedcoastline (27 km, but measuring at least 1,000 kmn if all the inlets are considered) withlong, branched flooded valleys, estuaries and offshore islands which harbor largemangrove communities (Hughes and Hughes 1992); the largest continental shelf in WestAfrica covering an estimated 53,000 km2. Nigeria has a coastline of 853 km and includessome of the most extensive and valuable coastal wetlands in West Africa, few of whichreceive sufficient protection (Hughes and Hughes 1992; Robinson and De Graaf 1992).Ghana has 540 km of sandy coast backed by a broad coastal plain, with an estimated fiftylagoons (Robinson and de Graaf 1992).

The Macaronesian Islands in the North-east Atlantic include the Azores (coveredin Region 4b), Madeira and the Salvages (see also Region 4n), the Canary Islands andthe Cape Verdes. The Cape Verde archipelago comprises fourteen islands, off the westcoast of Africa, with rocky coastlines; the Canary Islands and Madeira also comprise anumber of volcanic islands.

The South Atlantic has relatively few island groups compared with other majorocean areas. St Helena and Ascension are both isolated volcanic islands with exposedrocky shores. The Tristan da Cunha group comprises three small volcanic islands(Tristan, Inaccessible and Nightingale) in one group, and Gough Island which lies 400km to the southeast. They have rocky shores with kelp. Bouvet Island (Bouvetoya) liessouth-west of Cape Town and is one of the most isolated islands in the world.

Sao Tome, Principe and Annobon (Equatorial Guinea) lie in the Gulf of Guinea.

B. East Africa

General Oceanography. Oceanic current patterns and monsoon seasons have a majorinfluence on the biogeography and biodiversity of the region. The permanently westflowing South Equatorial Current, 6°S-20°S, is partly diverted south along the easternMadagascar coast where it becomes the Madagascar Current. The main South EquatorialCurrent, on approaching the mainland, splits to form the northward flowing East AfricanCoastal Current (EACC), and the southward flowing Mozambique Current. The latterjoins the Madagascar Current to form the Agulhas Current (IUCN/UNEP 1985). On the

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east coast of South Africa the warm surface waters of the Agulhas Current flow south tothe southern tip of the African continent.

From April to October the EACC is under the strong influence of the SEmonsoon, causing it to flow faster (mean velocities of 4-5 knots, occasionally reaching7 knots) along the Somali coast. The increasing offshore component of the winds northof the equator causes a cold water upwelling. This area therefore has potentially highfishery productivity. The NE monsoon (November to March) generates the southwardflowing coastal Somali current which joins the EACC at about 2°N and generates the eastflowing Equatorial Counter Current (IUCN/UNEP 1985).

The Mozambique and Madagascar currents generate internal currents and eddieswithin the Mozambique Channel, and may transport prawn larvae and other marine larvaeto the Mozambique coast from along the mangrove and prawn rich western coast ofMadagascar. The southward flowing Agulhas Current is dominant along the eastern coastof South Africa, rarely dropping below 21 °C (IUCN/UNEP 1985).

The tides in the region are predominantly diurnal with a range of up to 4 m insome areas. Tidal currents can be extremely strong, particularly along breaks in the reefor narrow passages. The surface water temperature affects the distribution of both benthicspecies and fish.

Coastal Geography and Geology. In general, the continental shelf is narrow,averaging 15-25 km in width. Along the mainland it varies from as narrow as a few100m off Pemba on the coast of Mozambique to nearly 145 km in the Bight of Sofala,also in Mozambique. The shelves and banks are areas of intensive biological activity andproductivity and the narrower the shelf, the less productive the sea area. The WesternIndian Ocean is relatively fisheries poor compared to other regions. The sea bed dropsrather sharply after the continental shelf, plunging to depths of about 4000m whichextend eastwards across the Indian Ocean except where interrupted by submergedplatforms and islets associated with the island countries (IUCN/UNEP 1985).

Much of the mainland coast and the eastern coast of Madagascar are relativelyunindented due to the absence of large rivers and the parallel coastal currents. Furthersouth however, notably in Mozambique, low energy coasts are found which are protectedfrom the Indian Ocean waves, resulting in the deposition of large volumes of riverinesediment. The coast of Madagascar consists of sandy beaches with rocky outcrops on thewest coast and fluvial deposits on the east coast (Alusa and Ogallo 1992).

The Seychelles Ridge is principally granitic and is believed to be a fragment ofa previously existing continental mass. It supports the Seychelles, a group of about 100islands spread over a large area. The islands to the northeast are granitic, but to the southand west there are a number of coralline islands and limestone banks. The Comoroscomprise four isolated, volcanic seamounts at the northern end of the MozambiqueChannel, with a number of smaller islands. The Mascarene Plateau is a majordiscontinuous mid-Ocean ridge which breaks at the surface in a series of islands andbanks stretching from Reunion to the Seychelles; it includes Mauritius, Reunion and

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Rodriguez and numerous shoals, seamounts and large submerged shallow banks. Theislands are volcanic and are separated by deep water (IUCN/UNEP 1985; Alusa andOgallo 1992).

II. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

A. Habitat Diversity

A comparison of the eastern and western coasts of Sub-Saharan Africa reveals someinteresting contrasts in the diversity of habitats found in each region. This discussion isfollowed by a summary of species level diversity in each region.

Wetlands

Mangrove Forests. Most apparent in terms of coastal marine geology is the lackof coral reefs along the western coast of Africa. With the exception of the fewarchipelagos found scattered throughout the region, habitats along the coast are primarilythose associated with a submerged coastline and a soft, muddy bottom. Perhaps the mostnotable of these are the extensive mangrove forests and wetlands which still line thecoast, covering an area of 25,000 km from Senegal to Angola. The areas of highestconcentration are found along the coasts of Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, the Gambia,Sierra Leon and in the Niger Delta. While these mangrove forests are the best developedand most extensive in all of Africa, they are less diverse in terms of species than thosefound in East Africa. Despite their acknowledged importance in providing a range ofenvironmental goods and services, among the most notable of which is their function asnursery grounds for valuable fish and shellfish species, they remain unprotected overmost of their distribution.

In East Africa, the total area of mangrove coverage has been estimated at1,200,000 ha. This much lower coverage relative to West Africa is correlated with thecomparative absence of large river systems emptying into the coast which supply thesediments and carve the coastal indentations required for mangrove establishment andgrowth. In East Africa these conditions are best met in parts of Kenya (with 65,000 haof mangrove forests) in Tanzania, where stands are more extensive (totaling some116,000 ha, and especially in Mozambique (with over 500,000 ha), as a result of themany river systems that drain into the coast. Mangroves are also found along the westand north coast of Madagascar (327,000 ha), where large river systems and relativelysparse human populations have contributed to their survival.

Although species diversity in the mangrove communities of East Africa is higherthan that in the West, with 11 species of mangroves, compared to only six, in the easternAtlantic, both provide important habitat for shorebirds and waders.

Coastal Lagoons. In addition to its mangrove forests, the west coast of Africa isalso well endowed with wetlands, ranging from the tidal swamps and seasonal marshlandsassociated with river deltas and estuaries to extensive coastal lagoons which are a

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landmark feature of the Guinea Coast. A combination of oceanographic, hydrological andgeological conditions has given rise to a system of shallow, interconnecting and highlyproductive coastal lagoons which extends over 760 km between Cote d'Ivoire and easternNigeria (see Table Al.1 below). These lagoons, which cover an open water area of over400,000 ha, run parallel to the coast, separated from the sea by a narrow dune barrierwhich is maintained by the easterly transport of alluvial and marine sediments.

Seagrass Beds. While seagrass beds are not well developed in West Africa,seagrass beds are found in all countries of the East Africa region. The most extensivebeds are around the Bazaruto Archipelago in Mozambique (IUCN/UNEP 1984a). InSomalia, there are few on the north coast, but they are extensive along the south coast,from Adale to Chiamboni (UNEP 1987). In Tanzania seagrass beds are found in all baysand on the west side of Pemba, Unguija and Mafia Islands; the inshore area from NjaoGap to Port Cockburn is particularly productive with extensive algal and seagrass beds.In Kenya, seagrass and algal beds are well represented in the Mombasa, Diani andMalindi areas. In the Seychelles, seagrass beds are found in Platte and Coetivy andAldabra (IUCNIUNEP 1984b). Seagrass beds in the region are under threat fromintensive use of bottom traps and beach seines, and from fishing with explosives (UNEP1989).

Coral Reefs. There are no true reefs along the West African coast or in thearchipelagos of the Gulf of Guinea and Cape Verde, due to the cool waters of theBenguela Current and the Canary Current. However, there are a number of sites withrich coral communities, where hard substrate and suitable clear water is available aroundthe oceanic islands and along some of the rocky mainland coasts. Although diversity islow, there are a number of rare and endemic species, some of which are most closelyrelated to Brazilian species (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Coral communities are also present offthe Maputoland coast on the north east coast of South Africa. All of these areas fallwithin marine protected areas (MPAs) (IUCN 1988; WCMC 1992).

In contrast to West Africa, the East African coast features fringing and patchreefs along the coastline from Somalia to Mozambique. Reefs in northern Kenyan arepredominantly rocky/algal reefs and have low coral cover, perhaps related to thecomparatively nutrient-rich waters in this region, and different ecology of the areagenerated by the alternating current system: in the north-east monsoon, these reefsreceive larvae from the Somali coast and Arabian Sea; in the south-east monsoon,recruitment is from the coastal areas to the south (Samoilys 1988 a and b).

South of northern Kenya to the border of Mozambique, there is high coraldiversity and good coral reef growth in many areas. Coral reefs along the coastline ofTanzania and Kenya form an almost continuous fringing reef and are situated relativelyclose to the shore. On offshore islands such as Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia, patch reefspredominate on the western sides and well developed fringing reefs on the eastern sides;these reefs may be sources of larvae to supply other reefs along the mainland coast, giventhe direction of currents, and may be among the finest remaining reefs in the region.

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Fringing reefs along the East African coast are generally only broken in thevicinity of rivers and bay mouths, such as in the delta areas of the Zambezi and furthersouth along the coast of Mozambique where the Limpopo and a network of smaller riversprevent the flourishing of dense coral communities. River systems also block thedevelopment of coral reefs along the eastern coast of Madagascar, but the north andsouthwest coasts of the island feature some of the best developed and diverse coral reefsin the region. The barrier reefs along the southwest coast of Madagascar extend for 200km and constitute one of the largest true barrier reefs in the world. Well developedpatch and fringing reefs also occur in the Seychelles, Mauritius, Rodriguez and theComoros Islands, enhancing the biodiversity and tourist appeal of these isolated tropicalislands.

Like mangrove forests, coral reefs are under severe pressure from humanpopulations in many parts of their distribution. Not only are they subject to the effectsof destructive lands use patterns which lead to increased siltation and water turbidity, theyare directly abused by dynamiting, poisoning and overharvesting by local populations,to extract their rich biological and mineral wealth.

Sandy Beaches. Sandy beaches occur throughout the West African Coast,particularly along the coasts of Mauritania and northern Senegal. While some arevaluable as nesting sites for Green (Chelonia midas and Olive Ridley (Lepidochelysolivacea) sea turtles, they are not generally at the level of world class tourist attractions.This is partly due to the heavy surf and rip tides along much of the exposed coast in theregion, making swimming extremely dangerous. Another important factor underminingtheir tourist potential is the generally fouled condition of most beaches, which are usedas open toilets by the local population.

The situation in East Africa is different. While dunes and sandy beaches arefound throughout the region, they are best developed in Mozambique. Tourist potentialis especially high here because of the relatively pristine condition of many of the beaches,particularly in the isolated northern provinces and the Bazaruto Archipelago.

Open ocean, deep sea, upwellings. There are permanent areas of upwelling offSenegal, Zaire and Namibia, driven by the Canary and Benguela Currents. The areas ofupwelling are characterized by high productivity and the southern part of the region isa particularly rich fish production area. In the northern area the pelagic fish populationis dominated by Sardina pilchardus, whereas in the Benguela Current regime it isSardinops ocellata. Two groups of pelagic species are found throughout the region:Sardinella aurita mainly in the intertropical waters and various Trachurus sp. Demersalfish are also found, with a wide variety of species, but in the equatorial zone fisheriesexploitation of demersal species is not important. Various species of crustacea are foundin the area and there are important fisheries for lobsters in the northern and southernzones, for deep water shrimp off the coast of Senegal and Angola and prawns in the Gulfof Guinea. In the coastal regions and in the lagoons unaffected by man's activitiesexploitable marine resources are abundant, including fish, prawns and mollusks(Portmann anc' others 1989).

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Small upwellings occur seasonally throughout the East Africa region, and moresignificant ones are found in the offshore waters of Somalia (the Ras Hafun upwelling),and off the coast of Mozambique (IUCN/UNEP 1984a). Minor deep sea trenches occuroff Reunion and Mauritius (the Mauritius trench) and Seychelles (the AmiranteTrench)(IUCN/UNEP 1984a). The deepwater resources of the region are still largelyunexploited and poorly known, but potentially may provide rich fisheries.

III. SPECIES DIVERSITY

A. West Africa

The marine resources of the West African region play an important role in the local,national and regional economies, especially the densely populated areas. Fauna and floraof the coastal wetlands, including mangroves, are described in Hughes and Hughes(1992).

Seaweeds. The tropical west coast of Africa is one of the least diverse regionsfor seaweeds. There is also low diversity around isolated oceanic islands such as St.Helena. However relatively high levels of endemism are found in algae around theoceanic islands (St. Helena and Ascension), at the northern (Senegal) and southern(Angola) limits of tropical West Africa and around the south-west Cape of South Africa(WCMC 1992; Norse 1993).

Invertebrates. Lobsters are fished throughout the region while deepwater shrimpsand prawns are trawled as well, with intertidal mollusks being harvested on a daily basis.These marine resources represent a significant source of protein--in Ghana, for instance,consumption of marine products exceeds that of meat derived from terrestrial resources.

Fish. The botanical wealth of estuaries and lagoons makes a major contributionto the diversity of fish life, as does the high primary productivity based on upwellingsof cold, nutrient rich waters, off Senegal, Zaire, Namibia and also within the outflow ofthe Congo/Zaire River drainage system.

The most important fishes are the sardine (Sardinops ocellata) in the southernBenguela upwelling, the pilchard (Sardina pichardus) in the north while the horsemackerel (Tracharus sp.) is found throughout the region with the hake (Merlhiccius sp.)the most important demersal fish. Fishing for pelagic fish such as tuna is an importantindustry in many of the oceanic islands including the Cape Verdes and Canary Islands.

Several of the oceanic islands have high levels of endemism in their fish faunas.Of the eighty shore fishes found around St. Helena, ten (12%) are endemic to thesewaters alone, and sixteen (20%) are found only in the waters of St. Helena andAscension (Edwards 1990; Oldfield 1987). Relatively high levels of endemism are foundin the fish fauna of Ascension as well.

The tropical west coast of West Africa has an estimated 239 species of reef fish,of which over 70% are endemic (Nunan 1992); the Gulf of Guinea islands probably have

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a particularly high level of endemism within the shorefishes (McAllister and others,forthcoming).

Reptiles. Several beaches provide important nesting sites for the Green and OliveRidley turtles (Chelonia midas and Lepidochelys olivacea) as well as for three other turtlespecies. Ascension Island is a globally important nesting beach for green turtles, with1800-2000 females nesting each year; hawksbills also nest there (Mortimer and Carr1984).

Three species of crocodiles occur in marshes near the coast: Crocodylus niloticus,C. palustris, C. Cataphractus.

Birds. The West African mainland coast is visited seasonally by millions ofmigratory birds (especially waders); see Hughes and Hughes (1992) for descriptions ofimportant sites).

The characteristics that make this area so important for waders are coastal mudflats without mangroves, while other areas provide nesting places for sea birds wherethey can safely breed. The only large concentrations of seabirds are in Mauritania, theGambia and Senegal, where the hinterland is arid and coastal deposition of sand createspredator-free islets. This area hosts globally important populations of slender-billed gulls(Larus genei), gull-billed terns (Geochelidon nilotica), and the endemic Royal Tern(Sterna maxima albididorsalis). There are also regionally important populations of GreatWhite Pelican, White-breasted Cormorant, Reed Cormorant, and Caspian Tern (Cooper,Williams and Britton 1984).

There are important seabird colonies off the coast of South Africa, particularlyof the Cape Cormorant, and the threatened Jackass Penguin and Damara Tern. Cooper,Williams and Britton (1984) recommended the creation of marine reserves wherecommercial fishing is banned or restricted around important breeding islands for a radiusof at least 25 km. The most important areas are Shark I., Namibia and Bird I., Labert'sBay and Marcus I.

Many of the oceanic islands have important seabird nesting sites, although inmany places populations are declining, for example on the Cape Verdes and in severalMacaronesian islands (Le Grand and others, 1984). In Madeira, there are importantcolonies on the three Desertas Islands; the Canary Islands have six breeding seabirdspecies including frigate birds and shearwaters, the four islands north of Lanzarote beingparticularly important; and the Salvages have major colonies (Le Grand and others 1984).

Ascension is the single most important seabird site in the South Atlantic in termsof both diversity and abundance, with notable populations of boobies, frigatebirds andsooty terns, particularly on Boatswain Bird Island. The Ascension Frigate bird, Fregataaquila, is endemic and breeds only on Boatswain Bird Island. St. Helena used to supportfifteen breeding seabirds, but nine of these no longer breed and two species (Pterodromarupinarum and Bulweria bifax) are extinct (Williams, 1984). Tristan da Cunha

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(shearwaters, petrels, albatrosses, penguins and other species, especially on Nightingaleand Gough) and Bouvet (penguins) also have important seabird colonies.

On the Gulf of Guinea islands, the Tinhosas islets, near Principe, are the mostimportant site with colonies of terns, noddies and boobies, and the Sette Pedras Islets ofSao Tome are also important (Williams 1984).

Marine mammals. Cetaceans are fairly abundant while the West African manatee(Trichechus senegalensis) occurs in suitable habitat, from Senegal to Angola. Otherwise,both sirenians and cetaceans, despite local protection in places, are threatened by huntingand trapping in shark nets.

Fur seals and elephant seals occur around the southern oceanic islands, such asGough and Bouvet. The endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal occurs in the Madeiranarchipelago and as far south as northern Mauritania.

B. East Africa

Seaweeds. There is little information on the diversity and distribution ofseaweeds in the region. A number of publications exist for Kenya (Moorjani and Simpson1988; Yarish and Wamukoya 1990; Wamukoya 1992), where a total of 350 marine algaehave been recorded. Several seaweeds (Gracillaria, Euchema, Sargassum, Turbinaria)are of commercial importance in the region and are exploited or farmed, notably inKenya and Zanzibar (Jiddawi and Muhando 1990).

Invertebrates. It has not been possible to provide a full review of the diversityof invertebrate groups. Certain groups, such as mollusks, are reasonably well known. Forexample, Kenya has 135 species of coral reef associated gastropods (McClanahan 1989).An number of endemic mollusks are known from the Indian Ocean islands, such as theDouble Harp, Harpa costata, and the Violet Spider Conch, Lambis violacea, bothendemic to Mauritius, but there is little endemism along the mainland coastline. Thispattern is probably reflected in other invertebrate groups, as in fish (see below).

Many marine invertebrate species are of commercial value in the region,including mollusks (green snail, pearl oysters, gastropods and bivalves for the shell trade,a wide range of edible species, including octopus and squid), crustaceans (spiny lobsters,crabs, prawns), coral (black and stony corals for the curio trade; stony corals forconstruction and lime) and echinoderms (sea cucumbers). Information on fisheries andareas of abundance for these species is scattered, and it has not been possible to do a fullreview. However, there is considerable information; for example, Cosmoledo andAldabra are important areas for green snail in the Seychelles (IUCN/UNEP 1984a); thereare major shrimp fisheries in Madagascan waters, lobster and sea cucumber fisheries inTanzania, and the two main prawn fishing grounds in Tanzania are Bagamoyo and areasadjacent to the Rufiji Delta (UNEP 1989).

There are indications that in several areas commercially valuable invertebrateresources are overexploited, but much of the information is anecdotal. There have been

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decreases in the catches of shrimp (prawns) by trawler off the cost of Mozambique (Halin1984; Wynter 1987) but it is unclear whether this is due to silt reduction or mangrovedestruction as a result of damming of rivers, or most likely a combination of both.Studies have been carried out comparing densities of economically important mollusksinside and outside marine protected areas, and there are some suggestions that densitiesmay be more closely related to the density of gastropod predators than to the intensityof collection by humans (McClanahan 1989).

Few marine invertebrates have been designated as threatened in the region. Thecoconut crab which is globally threatened is abundant (and protected) on Aldabra, extinctthroughout much of the Seychelles, occurs on some offshore islands of Tanzania (e.g.Mbudya I.), possibly also occurs in the Comoros and some of the outer MascareneIslands (IUCN/UNEP 1984a).

The Seychelles are unique in that MPAs have been created specifically formollusks (see below) (IUCN/UNEP 1984a). Other countries have introduced legislationto regulate the collection of various marine invertebrates, either by seasonal closures orother licensing and enforcement procedures.

Fish. The reef fish of the region are reasonably well known. Briggs (1974)identified Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues as sites of high endemism for reef fish andMcAllister and others (forthcoming) identified Madagascar and the islands to the northand east as an area of high reef fish diversity. About 900 species of fish are known fromthe Seychelles, of which one third are associated with reefs (GEF 1992). Deep watersaround the Comoros are the home of a unique fish, the Coelacanth which is a livingfossil, and is now under threat from collectors.

Tuna are heavily exploited by foreign vessels and recent indications show over-exploitation (Ardill 1984). Artisanal fisherman in the region have also noticed markeddecreases in catches of large pelagic migratory species (Nhwani 1988; UNEP 1989).Fishing with trawlers is becoming increasingly common in the region. Their impact onbenthic communities and the recruitment of juveniles is not known but the adverseimpacts of trawlers off the coast of Kerala in India should be borne in mind (Kurien andMathew 1982). In the Tanga region of Tanzania, catches from 1984 to 86 suggest thatthere has been a shift from inshore demersal fish normally found on reefs and in coastalareas to pelagic species, present and migrating in the off-shore fishing grounds (UNEP1989). The coast of Somalia is considered to be lightly fished, with potential forexpanded artisanal and industrial fisheries (Ahmed 1988).

Reef fish are heavily exploited in the region and, with a few exceptions, in Kenyaare found in larger sizes and higher population densities within MPAs (McClanahan andObura 1993; Watson and Ormond forthcoming). Another important fishery in the regionis the game fishery for marlin, tuna and sharks in deep waters around the island shelves.

Reptiles. Five species of marine turtle nest along the mainland coast of EastAfrica and on the islands of the western Indian Ocean: Green, Chelonia mydas,Hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata, Loggerhead, Caretta caretta, Leatherback

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Dermochelys coriacea and the Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea. Green and hawksbillturtles are most common and are found in localized nesting populations throughout theregion. In most areas, marine turtles are at risk from exploitation and disturbances of anddamage to their nesting beaches and feeding grounds.

The main nesting beaches for green and hawksbill turtles are on islands. Europa,Tromelin and Aldabra have the highest nesting density of green turtles. Smaller numbersnest in the granitic and south-east islands of the Seychelles, on the west coast ofMadagascar and in the Comoros (Itsamia and Nioumachoa islets on Moheli; Sima onAnjouan; and Mayotte) (IUCN/UNEP 1984b, 1985). The nesting density of hawksbillsis lower, with the largest populations on the granitic islands and in the Amirantes(particularly Poivre and Coetivy) in the Seychelles. Most of the Seychelles nesting sitesare protected but there are important beaches in Mauritius which lie outside MPAs(IUCN/UNEP 1984a, 1985).

Much lower densities of turtle nesting occur on the mainland coast. InMozambique, four species nest at Bazaruto, and the largest site for green turtles is thePrimeiros and Segundos Islands. Mozambique also has significant nesting areas forloggerhead and leatherbacks, and in the north a fairly significant area for olive ridleysand feeding area for loggerheads; most of these sites are protected or proposed forprotection. Although most species also occur in Tanzania and Kenya, nesting populationsare smaller or have declined. In Kenya, only green and hawksbill turtles have beenrecorded recently; the main feeding and nesting areas are in the Ras Tenewi area in thenorth and Mpunguti areas in the south (Olendo 1993). Tanzania reportedly has importantfeeding grounds for loggerheads (IUCN/UNEP 1984a). Misali Island, off Pemba inTanzania, has important nesting sites for two turtle species. Green turtle and hawksbillnest in Somalia; early observations suggested highest numbers at Basaso and Habo in thenorth and also in Marca, Brava and Kismayo waters (UNEP 1987).

The main causes of decline of turtle populations in the region are coastaldevelopment affecting nesting beaches and incidental take of turtles in fishing nets.

Birds. The region has a diverse assemblage of seabirds, including frigate birds,tropic birds, boobies, shearwaters, terns, noddies and gulls. Boobies are of particularconcern as they have declined throughout the western Indian Ocean, and Abbot's booby,Sula abbotti, is now extinct in the region.

Numerous islands and islets support large seabird colonies, including Aldabra,Aride, Cosmoledo, Desnoeufs, Cousin, Cousine, Recif, Farquar, Boudeuse, Bird,African Banks, Astove, Providence and the Amirantes in the Seychelles; St Brandon,Round, Serpent and Coin de Mire islands off Mauritius; Tromelin and Ile du Lys inReunion; I.Magnougni in the Nioumachoua islands and I. M'Chaco (Moheli) in theComoros; Nosy Mangabe in Madagascar (IUCN/UNEP 1984 a and b, 1985; Feare1984). Major colonies along the mainland coast include islands off Kisite/ Mpunguti,Kiunga (which has the single largest population in the world of Roseate Terns Sternadougalli (8,000 breeding pairs) in Kenya, and Lathan I. in Tanzania. The coralline islandof Nosy Manitra, off the southwest coast of Madagascar has a population of about 4,000

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Sterna dougalli, about 10-15% of the world population (Cooper, Williams and Britton1984).

There are also several important areas for waders and migrating birds,particularly on the African mainland coast, such as Inhaca Island and the Zambezi Riverdelta in Mozambique. The Tana River Delta in Kenya is a major wintering ground forthousands of migrant birds and home to hundreds of resident species. Other importantcoastal and marine birds include the Madagascar fish eagle, Haliaeetus vociferoides,which is endemic to Madagascar, of which fewer than forty pairs remain in themangroves and on offshore islets of the northwest coast (Collar and Andrew 1988).

Marine manmmals. The extent of the dugong's distribution and migrations alongthe mainland coast of East Africa is not known, but its most important remaining habitatis thought to be in Mozambique (IUCN/UNEP 1984a), particularly in the BazarutoArchipelago which may have the last viable population in the region (Dutton 1992) andpossibly in Inhaca. Small populations occur in other areas e.g. Kiunga, Ras Tenewi(Kenya) (Olendo 1993), Rufiji Delta and Kilwa region (Tanzania) and possibly alsoAntonio Enes and the Primeiro and Secundos Islands in Mozambique and in themangrove areas between Kismayo and Chiombo in Somalia. The dugong is very rare inthe island states; it is extinct around Mauritius, the Seychelles and Mayotte (IUCN/UNEP1984a, b).

Cetaceans are abundant in the productive areas of the Indian Ocean but there islittle information on their distribution. At least fifteen species have been recorded. Atraining workshop on marine mammals was held for the region in Kenya in 1991, anda field guide to the marine mammals of the West Indian Ocean is being produced.

IV. CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES IN THE COASTAL ZONE

Coastal zones in both East and West Africa have long been areas of human settlement.As such they are important for our understanding of the evolution of human society andits relationship to the natural world. In East Africa coastal settlements served as importantlinks in the maritime trade with the Western Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. In the west,the rich coastal fishing areas and mangroves provided a livelihood for local populations.Estuaries in the Casemance region of Senegal are rich in shell midden sites and containearly evidence of pottery production (perhaps about 4000 B.C.).

The history of coastal settlements in East Africa is only now beginning toemerge. Indicative of the range of early habitation sites are the following examples. Inthe Sudan, along the Red Sea coast a megalithic site has been located at Agig and thereare trading settlements at Aydhab, Suakin, and Er Rih from the Islamic period. InSomalia, along the coast trading and fishing settlements are known from late antiquitywith occupation sites found at Ras Hafun and Daaomo and settlements associated withthe Swahili trading network dating to the 9th century in the case of Geriza. Evidence ofcoastal settlement on the Kenyan coast dates to the mid-8th century A.D. In the Laamuarchipelago the coastal strip contains a large number of Swahili settlements. Mozambiquehas the remains of 16th century portuguese occupation in Tete and Nacala. Offshore

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islands are also important areas of ancient settlement. The two islands of Zanzibar andPemba were settled early in the first millennium A.D. with settlements at Uguja Ukuu,Fujuchani, and Mtanbwe Mkuu. By the 9th century, a series of coastal settlements closelyinvolved in maritime trade can be identified. The Comoros Islands are the site of earlySwahili coastal settlements, with the site of Dembani being the most important. InMadagascar, the island of Nosy Be, part of the natural reserve of Lokobe, contains alarge number of ruined sites associated with the Swahili. The Kerimba islands off thecoast of Mozambique are being investigated for Swahili remains.

In West Africa, pre-European states seem to have existed at Grand Popo andOuidah on the coast of Benin. During the colonial period, coastal cities experiencedwaves of European influence, first by the Portuguese in the 15th century and later by theFrench, Dutch and English. They became centers of trading and slavery, such as the Ilede Goree in Senegal, centers for missionaries such as the Karabane Island in Senegal.Colonial buildings of considerable architectural interest still exist in such cities as Ouidah,Porto Novo, and Cotonou in Benin, Grand Bassam in Cote d'Ivoire. Guinea Bissau'sBijagos archipelago is also an area of potential cultural heritage importance.

Despite their importance and distribution throughout the coastal zone of Africa,unplanned urbanization, pollution, and intensive industrialization pose serious threats tocultural heritage preservation, particularly in view of the scant information availableconcerning the location and history of remains. Coastal erosion and anthropogenicdisturbances such as dam and port construction, dredging, and mining for sand andgravel, also have a strong impact on cultural heritage sites. Under present conditions ofinsufficient planning and community involvement in coastal development, culturalheritage may disappear without even a record.

If properly protected and presented, however, cultural heritage assets can playan important role in tourism development. The twenty-nine forts in Ghana, and thehistoric towns of Zanzibar and Mombasa are good examples of cultural tourismdestinations. Many sites could be developed for ecotourism as well. In a number of cases,a close relationship exists between biodiversity and cultural heritage. Many of the marineparks lie adjacent to areas of important ancient human settlement, such as Ras Tenwi,Kiunga, Malindi Watamu in Kenya, Rufiji and Mafia in Tanzania, and the Dahlacarchipelago in Ethiopia. All have major ruins constructed of coral from the reefs. InSomalia, the proposed Lag Badana National Park contains a large number of coastal sites,including Ras Kiamboni and Bur Gao.

The full tourist benefit of these sites depends greatly on their management.Tourism planning will need to integrate conservation and reuse of heritage assets into itsoverall planning approach.

Archaeological and historical sites are located in all coastal countries. Amongthose with particularly important coastal sites include Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Coted'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, andMadagascar. The existing--and woefully inadequate--data give only a very partial viewof the extent of cultural heritage in coastal areas. As a result, in planning for coastal zoneprotected areas, cultural heritage seems to have been largely ignored by policy makers.Research is urgently needed to locate and conserve sites.

Table A1.1 Coastal Lagoons in the Gulf of GuineaCountry Lagoon Length Coordinates Area Open Mean Water Quality Nearest(kn) Water (ha) Depth Urban

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C e n te r C

COTE Ebrie 150 50 16'N/30 33'-4057'W 56,600 ha 3m highly polluted near Abidjan andD'IVOIRE urban center, better east Grandof city Bassam (on

lagoon)

Tadio 50 5°09'N/5°25'W 19,000 ha 3m same as above GrandLaboa

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(o n (o n ga g o o nAby 60 5°05'-5°23'N/ 41,500 ha 3.8m similar to Ebrie and Adiake (on2°05'-3°20'W Tadio Lagoons lagoon)

BENIN Coastal Lagoon Complex, 96 6°16'-6°26'N/ 2,500 ha n/a high population density Cotonouincludes 1 °48'-2°47'E and industrial discharge Porto NovoCotonou Lagoon' pollute nearshore lagoonwaters; fishing and fishculture practiced in Lakesand Delta region to East

GHANA Unvaiyeb 5°07'N/2°55'W 200 ha n/a n/aLake Amansuri Lagoon 2.5 5°07'N/2°34'W 2,600 ha 2.8m goodAmisa 3 " " /1 0 0'W 300 ha n/a highNakwa 5 "' /0°55'W 850 ha highAccra District Wetlands "' /0°02'W-0°12'E n/a check appraisal report for Accra-Tema(includes 5 small lagoons, NRM project/Lagoone.g., Sakumona) componentVolta Delta (total) 82 " /0°30'E-0°50'E 192,000 ha- Western Block 25,000 ha

- Songaw Lagoon 16 " /0030'E (11,200 ha) 1.75m rich in nitrates, lowI_salinity

- Eastern Block 167,000 ha- Keta Lagoon 27 " /0°50'E (27,000 ha) .8m increased salinities,- Avu Lagoon 11 (5,500 ha) n/a decreased water levelsresulting from dammingof Volta at Akosomboand Kpong

Country Lagoon Length Coordinates Area Open Mean Water Quality Nearest(km) Water (ha) Depth Urban

Center

NIGERIA Complex Including 210 6°22'-6°38'N/ 99,875 ha 3 m heavily contaminated in Lagos onLagos Lagoon (west) 2°48'4°36'E parts due to high WestLeki Lagoon (east) population densities

(250/km2 ) andconcentration ofindustries; sedimentationdue to erosion fromadjacent mangrovedeforestation; ruralwetlands support fisheries(79 spp) and someaquaculture, but nowetlands are protectedin Nigeria

Niger Delta 4°16'-6000'N/ 2,000,000 nearly 700,000 ha of Port4045'-8000'E ha wetland mangrove forest in the Harcourt on

delta being gradually East Deltacleared on landward side and severalfor agriculture, fuelwood populationand oil exploration. Delta centers onhas been center of northernNigerian oil industry flank ofsince 1950s. Criss- deltacrossed by oil and gaspipelines: more than 30oil fields in delta andsimilar number offshore.Two major gas fields atRumuekpe and Teeba.Four tanker ports at DeltaFace: Delta South,Forcados, Brass, &Benny; and shipping portat Port Harcourt

TOGO Coastal Lagoon Complex 75 6°15'-6°33'N/ 6,400 ha 1-lOm polluted in shallow Lome (onLake Togo 15 1° 7'-1°47'E lagoons adjacent to western endLake Vogan 7 towns; fair in Lakes with of Lagoon

freshwater input complex);Aneho ateastern endat openingto sea

Source: Compiled from IUCN Directory of African Wetlands, 1992 (3I(a) Connected to Cotonou Lagoon by a long channel.(b) Connects with Aby Lagoon Complex in Cote D'Ivoire.

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ANNEX 2COASTAL EROSION

Natural Erosional Processes. Two important oceanographic features contribute to naturalerosional processes along the coast of the West and Central African region. These are:

* The high-energy environment of large sections of unindented coastline,with only a narrow continental shelf to absorb the impact of oncomingwaves. During winter storms especially, these areas are exposed to highswell and surge from waves that gather velocity as they travel forhundreds of miles from the southern Atlantic. As they approach thenearest landfall they form high breakers that periodically pound the WestAfrican Coast.

* Littoral transport driven by these high energy waves, which carriessediment from rivers, coastal erosion, and the nearshore seabed eastwardalong the coast. Rates of sediment transport vary according to the localgeology, the incidence of wave impact and the local sediment supply.Where transport rates are high, such as those recorded near LomeHarbor (1 million m3/sec), the Canal de Vridi at the Port of Abidjan(0.8million m3/sec) and Lagos Harbor (0.5-1 million m3/sec.) thepotential for downstream erosion is high, particularly where naturalbarriers or engineering works upstream act as sediment traps (Allersmaand Tilmans 1993).

Human Interference. Superimposed on these natural erosive processes areanthropogenic disturbances that have a synergistic effect on coastal erosion. Theseinclude:

* The manipulation of hydrological cycles through river dam construction.Nearly all the river systems in the West and Central African region havebeen regulated by the construction of dams for hydroelectric power orirrigation purposes. The result has been a considerable alteration in thesediment discharge and flow rates of these river systems, with profoundeffects on the coastal zone. It has been estimated that construction ofdams in this part of Africa has reduced the supply of sediments to thelower catchment areas by 70% (Collins and Evans 1986). Since riverbasins are the principal source of sediments to the coast, the reductionin the supply of sand and alluvium entering the littoral transport systemhas created a negative sediment budget downstream of river deltas andestuaries. Several studies have demonstrated direct linkages between damconstruction and coastal erosion in the region, for example in Nigeria,damming of the Kano River (Olofin 1985) and the Niger River (Ibe andAntia 1983); in Ghana damming of the Volta River (Ly 1980); in Togo,

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construction of the Nangbeto Dam across the Mono River (UNEP 1985)and in Cameroon, the building of the Tiga Dam across the Kano River.

In some cases (for example, following completion of the Akosombo Damacross the Volta), the accompanying loss of freshwater discharge fromregulated rivers can lead to the sealing off of estuaries or tidal channelsby sandbars laid down by longshore transport. Without sufficientfreshwater flows to break through these barriers, those riverine sedimentsthat do enter the estuaries become trapped inside, increasing siltation ofthese wetlands and robbing the surrounding coastline of sand deposition.

* Port construction and related engineering works. As of 1985, there wereeighty-four ports, including wharfs and ore terminals in the WACAFregion. Since many of these ports are located in areas with seriouserosional problems, considerable investments have been made inbreakwater construction to keep these ports operational. These structures,along with regular harbor groins, jetties and piers, lie perpendicular tothe prevailing littoral drift and act as sand traps and barriers to furthersedimentary transport downstream. Examples of the resulting downdrifterosion are evident throughout the region. Construction of harbor groins,breakwaters and other engineering works in the ports of Abidjan, Tema,Lome, Cotonou, Lagos and Escravos have all led to significant beacherosion and infrastructure loss, including coastal highways, tourist andrecreation facilities, artisanal industries and housing.

The combined effects of natural and human induced erosion have led tosignificant investments to try to stabilize the coastal zone. In Nigeriaalone, the cost of coastal stabilization was estimated at N 30 million/yrin 1983 (Oyegun 1990). Public works to stabilize receding shorelines arenot always successful, as in the case of Keta east of the Volta Delta,where extremely high erosion rates have required the periodic rebuildingof the town.

* Mining of sand and gravel for construction purposes in the coastal zone.This is a common practice in West Africa, with parallel practices in EastAfrica including the mining of coral as well as beach sand. The erosionaleffects of mining the substrate and sediment deposits that normally act tooffset the erosive effects of wave action and littoral transport areobvious. However, the large demand for beach sand and buildingmaterial generated by expanding development activities in the coastalzone has already led to severe erosion in many areas. In Cotonou, themining of sand at the rate of 150,000 m3/yr compared with an annuallittoral drift of 1 million m3/yr has contributed to beach retreat in thearea. Similar shoreline retreat has been observed in connection with sandmining operations in Sierra Leone on the Freetown Peninsula, at varioussites in Cote d'Ivoire and along the Nigerian coast at Brass, Forcadosand Ibeno-Eket. Regionally, beach erosion has been attributed to

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practices do not allow the regeneration of the necessary nutrients, diminishing theproductivity of the soil.

Kenya illustrates typical trends in land use patterns and agriculture practices,many of which can be found in other parts of Africa. Kenya's population of around 24million in 1990 is mostly rural and engaged in subsistence and cash crop cultivation.Population growth rates of around 4 percent per year impose significant pressures onscarce arable land, which comprises less than 18% of the total surface area of thecountry. These pressures have resulted in cultivation expanding into unsustainablelocations. Fragile areas with steep slopes (greater than 150) or marginal areas receivinglittle rain that may have been used previously for dry season grazing are now beingcultivated. Such shifts in land use have caused serious land degradation in highlands anddryland areas and made soil erosion a major national problem. Increased soil erosion iscausing rapid and premature siltation of major reservoirs such as the Kamburu Dam andthe Masinga Dam on the upper sections of the Tana Basin. Without strict implementationof soil conservation measures this problem will continue to increase until much of thearable land ends up in the sea.

Deforestation is another factor that can accelerate soil erosion. In many inlandareas, deforestation occurs due to clear cutting of woodlands and tropical forests forcultivation and for timber for building construction and fuel. When cutting rates exceedreplanting rates, soils in cleared areas become unstable and susceptible to erosion.According to FAO (1986), in the early 1980s there was a net loss of 3-4 million ha offorested areas each year; currently, the ratio of deforestation to afforestation in Africais about 30 to 1. Many of the afforestation programs have been unsuccessful due tounclear tenure rights and poor implementation.

Clear cutting is especially detrimental in areas that are vulnerable, such as onsteep slopes or in arid or semi-arid regions. Madagascar, for example, is very vulnerableto soil erosion because two thirds of the country has steep slopes, many of which havevery fragile and erosive soils. Deforestation, through the annual conversion of more than100,000 ha of forested areas of the eastern highlands for agricultural use, hassignificantly reduced the vegetative cover and increased soil degradation. In manywatersheds soil erosion rates of around 25-40 t/ha/yr are typical, with highland areashaving rates as much as 300 t/ha/yr (UNEP 1981). Less than five percent of Madagascarforests remain intact and this has a negative impact on the coastal environment.

Livestock grazing can also advance the process of soil erosion. Cattle, sheep,goats, camels, horses and pigs are important contributors to the economies of manyAfrican countries. Livestock are used to supply nutritional needs, are exported for foreignexchange, used as a means of transportation, and in some societies have importantcultural significance as a unit of exchange. In 1986, the total number of livestock in theSudano-Sahelian zone was estimated to be around 160 million, representing an 80%increase over two decades (FAO 1986).

High livestock densities (exceeding the land's carrying capacity) can cause lossesin top soil and vegetative cover. Overgrazing and repeated trampling by the animals

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destabilizes the soil structure. In arid or semi-arid areas, such consequences are magnifiedas the soil structures are weaker and more vulnerable to damage from the outset.Somalia, prior to the current unrest, derived almost eighty percent of its export earningfrom livestock products. The practice of bringing animals down to the coastal areas fromupland areas during the rainy season in order to escape tsetse flies was destabilizingcoastal sand dunes and enhancing the process of desertification. As a consequence,livestock grazing is thought to have affected more than 500,000 ha of land which aresubject to active dune movement. Overgrazing in the middle and lower sections of theTana Basin in Kenya also contributes to large top soil losses, increasing sediment loadsthat are carried down to the coastal areas.

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ANNEX 4TRENDS IN THE FISHERIES SECTOR

Fisheries. With few exceptions, African coastal fisheries have reached or exceeded theirmaximum sustainable yields. Declines in the production of demersal species, particularlyalong the Coast of Guinea, are the result of a combination of factors: (a) overfishing, dueto open access, lax enforcement of fishing regulations, and poorly set quotas; (b) habitatdegradation which has reduced or eliminated critical breeding and nursery grounds formany species; and (c) pollution of coastal waters from both land and marine-basedsources. The combination of heavy fishing pressure and environmental stress on coastalfisheries has lowered recruitment potential and the ability of these populations to readilyrecover from such stress, lowering productivity and annual harvests.

In Africa, the fisheries sector falls mainly into three categories--artisanal,cooperative or parastatal, and industrial--depending on the level of organization,capitalization and ownership.

Artisanal Sector. Characterized by low technological and capital investments,artisanal fisheries have increased in importance with population growth on Africa's coastsand in some cases due to improved fishing methods. This sector will remain importantfor food security reasons, but is not likely to capture many of the offshore demersalstocks or the more valuable stocks like shrimp or tuna. In those countries lackingindustrial or parastatal fleets, artisanal fisheries will continue to play a major role in fishproduction. They risk being marginalized, however, in countries where industrial fishingis commercially viable.

The Cooperative or Parastatal Sector. The cooperative or parastatal sectorreceived considerable amounts of aid through bilateral programs throughout the 1980sand is consequently relatively well equipped in countries like Mozambique, Angola,Tanzania and Guinea Bissau. In some areas this has meant that artisanal fisheries havehad increasing competition and consequently difficulties in maintaining their resources.In other areas, the cooperatives compete with industrial fleets. In the long run, thesurvival of the para-statal is dependent on capital infusion and the management capacityof the companies.

Industrial Sector. Industrial fisheries capture the greatest share of Africanfisheries. Most fleets are the property of foreign or joint ventures with industrializedcountries. Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa and Cote d'Ivoire are a few countries withindustrial fleets fishing in the region. Foreign fleets are from Spain, France, Russia andsome other Eastern European countries. No increases in catches by industrial fisheriesare expected in the coming years.

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ANNEX 5WORLD BANK SUPPORTED PROJECTS IN AFRICA WITH

SIGNIFICANT COASTAL/MARINE COMPONENTS AND/OR IMPACTSFISCAL 1989-94

THE GAMBIAThird Banjul Port Project

Loan Amount: IDA Credit $ 15 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 28 millionSector: Infrastructure

Year in lending program: FY94Tentative Appraisal date: 10/93, Tentative Board date: 06/94

Main Objective: To safeguard international competitiveness of the port of Banjul byproviding adequate facilities for containerized traffic and expanding quay space toavoid deterioration of services to ships when the growing traffic pushes the berthoccupancy rate above the optimal level.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The new berth construction will notdrastically change the dredging requirements, but studies will be carried out prior toproject design to mitigate the siltation impacts. The Gambia Port Authority will berequested to set up a small unit to remove dirt, waste, and trash and keep the portarea clean and neat. The water pollution caused by fuel residues and ship sewage willbe studied during preparation to identify a mitigation measures.

REPUBLIC OF GHANAEnvironmental Resource Management Proiect

Report No. 10691-GHFY93Loan Amount: $ 18.1 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 35.9 millionSector: Environment

Main Objectives: Primarily to strengthen the capacity of both government and peopleto manage environmental resources. Other project objectives are to assist users ofenvironmental resources to invest in the maintenance of environmental assets throughadoption of improved practices for the sustainable use of those resources. Specificattention would be paid to the fragile coastal wetland ecosystems through therecognition of five sites under the Ramsar Convention and the establishment of asystem for their management and future development.

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Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: One component of the project is theCoastal Wetlands Management Project supported by a grant from GEF ($ 7.2million). The main objectives of this project are to maintain the ecological integrity ofkey coastal wetland sites. Inventory and monitoring of the ecology of the sites, publiceducation programs and studies would be developed to identify types of developmentcompatible with the preservation of these wetlands. Project funding would be targetedat three groups of activities: first, program management should be strengthened tosupport the Department of Game and Wildlife of the Ministry of Lands and NaturalResources for management of the coastal wetland program. Second, site demarcationand management should be clarified by making resources available for boundarysurveys and demarcation. Third, disposal of effluent from Sakumo Lagoon should beprovided. The Sakumo Lagoon poses special problems. Current plans call for a newsewage treatment plant for discharging treated effluent into the lagoon. The projectwould provide funds for the construction of a pipe and marine outfall that woulddischarge the treated effluent into the sea, minimizing the risk of nutrient buildup andconsequent eutrophication in the lagoon.

REPUBLIC OF GUINEAForestry and Fisheries Management Project

Report No. 7830-GUIFY90Loan Amount: $ 8.0 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 21.0 millionSector: Agriculture (forestry and fisheries)

Main Objectives: To assist the Government in establishing operational institutions andsystems for managing forest and fisheries resources through management support andtraining. This will include plans for : (a) forestry protection and management and(b) an integrated fisheries management system aimed at protecting fisheries resources;strengthening and implementing transparent licensing procedures for industrialfisheries; maintaining a sustainable yield; and increasing government revenues.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: One of the project's components involvesthe Management of Off-Shore Fisheries ($ 6.84 million) which consists of threesubcomponents: (a) institutional: to develop a legislative framework to regulate fishingactivities in Guinea's EEZ and limit total fishing in order to maintain adequate fishstock levels for future exploitation ($ 1.65 million of project component);(b) surveillance: to implement a compliance monitoring program for offshore fisheriesthrough a land/sea/air operation and communication system ($ 3.44 million of projectcomponent); and (c) research: to execute research at sea and in the laboratory forscientific analysis of the fish biomass in Guinea's EEZ and to recommend safeharvesting levels ($ 1.75 million of project component).

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COTE D'IVOIREAbidian Lagoon Environmental Protection Project

Report No. 7040-IVCFY90Loan Amount: $ 21.9 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 49.9 millionSector: Water supply (sewerage)

Main Objectives: To reverse the deterioration which has been taking place in theAbidjan environment due to the dumping of urban wastes and industrial effluent intothe Ebrie Lagoon and the ocean and set up appropriate regulatory framework formanaging liquid waste and environmental protection.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: One of the project's components,Studies. Supervision. Training and Pollution Monitoring, includes a Lagoon andOcean Pollution Monitoring Program that would monitor the level of coliformdischarged into the water due to the ocean outfall and ensure that the limit of coliformdoes not exceed acceptable environmental standards.

COTE D'IVOIREWater Supply and Sanitation Sector Adjustment Loan Program

Report No. 5089-IVCFY90Loan Amount: $ 80.0 millionSector: Water supply and Sanitation

Main Objectives: To (a) restore the availability of basic rural services; (b) improveplanning and sustainability of investments; (c) improve control of costs and efficiencyof pricing; (d) strengthen the protection of water resources and of the environment;and (e) restore the financial autonomy of the sector.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: Includes the establishment of regulationsand controls on private extraction of groundwater and on disposal of domestic andindustrial wastewater. There is also an Environment Protection Component relating to(a) pollution control and (b) strengthening groundwater protection. The componentdeals with the major environmental issues created by discharging liquid wastes intothe fragile lagoon environment and aims at controlling pollution parameters ofindustrial effluent before discharge to the sewer and at imposing, as needed,mandatory pretreatment of toxic wastes. To protect groundwater, a decree establishinga system of declaration and notification of well drilling has been drafted and will beenacted under the project.

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MADAGASCAREnvironment Program

Report No. 8348-MAGFY90Loan Amount: $ 26.0 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 85.5 millionSector: Environment

Main Objectives: This program will represent the first five-year segment of a fifteen-year environmental action plan (EAP) for assisting the Malagasy population inprotecting and improving its environment for more sustainable development. This willconsist of seven components--protection and management of biodiversity; soilconservation, agroforestry, reforestation and other rural development activities; andenvironmental research on land, coastal and marine ecosystems.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: One of the program's components,Environmental Research, ($ 4.24 million) will aim to improve technologies thatpreserve natural resources while developing production potential in a sustainablemanner. A marine and coastal research program will strive to develop practicalapproaches to protect marine resources and allow for their sustainable development.

MAURITIUSEnvironmental Monitoring and Development Project

Report No. 8996-MASFY91Loan Amount: $ 12.37 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 20.53 millionSector: Infrastructure

Main Objectives: To (a) design and establish policies, investment strategies andspecific projects for dealing with various forms of pollution and inappropriate landmanagement; (b) implement a program of environmental monitoring and analysis toprovide the basis for setting environmental standards; and (c) determine the viabilityand cost-effectiveness of future investments.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The project includes an agriculturecomponent aimed at assessing the impacts of pesticide and fertilizer use of the waterresources and health of the population of Mauritius ($ 0.25 million), and anothermarine conservation component designed to establish marine parks and conservationprogram including management plan for marine resources and a monitoring programto assess any adverse impacts from development on marine resources (this componentis currently under debate since the funding agency ICOD has been abolished,component is estimated to cost $ 1.15 million).

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MAURITIUSFree Port Development Project

Loan Amount (tentative): $ 20 millionTotal Project Cost (tentative): $ 53 millionSector: Port

Appraisal Date: 05/94, Board Date: 01/95

Main Objectives: To develop port operations, including the newly created Free Port,as a basis for further economic growth. This includes streamlining the currentinstitutional arrangements in the sector and improving port infrastructure and otherfacilities (i.e., development of Free Port) that are technically sound, economically andfinancially justified and environmentally neutral or positive.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: Three of the four project componentscontain environmental considerations. The first, Rehabilitation and Expansion of theContainer Port and Related Infrastructure, has an environmental component whichincludes ship waste disposal facilities and other environmental protection measures.The second, Free Port Capacity Building for Planning and Management, involvesstrengthening the Free Port Administration to ensure respect by users of theenvironmental norms and to advise on the prudent management by ships of ship wasteand bunkering operations. Further, existing environmental legislation relating to portuse will be reviewed and amended. The third, Preparation and Implementation of aLong-Range Plan for Environmentally Sustainable Port Development involves a set ofpolicies and guidelines to be drawn up to guide future port development. A programto implement the MARPOL Convention on ship wastes will be prepared. Severalstudies will be required to prepare the project. One involves an environmentalassessment and other likely related studies concerning coastal management (possiblefunding from GEF).

MAURITIUSFisheries Project

(or referred to as: Agricultural Management and Service Project)

Report No. TO BE REVIEWEDFY92 or 93Loan Amount:Total Project Cost:Sector:

Main Objectives:

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts:

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MOZAMBIQUEBeira Transport Corridor Project

Report No. 7709-MOZFY90Loan Amount: $ 40.0 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 344.9 millionSector: Transport (railways, technical assistance)

Main Objectives: To rehabilitate and upgrade the Beira Corridor to restore costefficient transit functions and help the Government achieve its objective of providingcheap transport for the agricultural, productive areas along the Beira Corridor.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The Beira Transport Corridor Programincludes four categories of subprojects, one being the main port subproject. It involvesdredging the entrance channel to deepen it by 6-8 meters and reconstructing theberths. Beira Corridor Authority has provided assurances that environmental aspectshave been taken into account. In the port, the program will lessen the risk of accidentsand subsequent pollution through improved navigational aids and deepening of theaccess channel.

MOZAMBIQUEFirst Roads and Coastal Shipping Project

Report No. 10336-MOZFY92Loan Amount: $ 74.3 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 144.7 millionSector: Transport (roads, ports and waterways)

Main Objectives: To develop institutional capacity to effectively plan and supervisethe rehabilitation and maintenance of roads and the efficiency improvement of smallcoastal ports serving the priority districts.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The project includes a Small-Ports andCoastal-Shipping Component ($ 10.9 million of total project cost) in support of theproject objectives to invest in port infrastructure and shipping operations rehabilitationand/or improvement. This includes technical assistance and studies for institutionalsupport and policy reform. It involves project engineering for the detailed design ofsolutions for environmental protection facilities at certain locations. Credit lineinvestments in small ports will be contingent on presentation of an environmentalevaluation of all identifiable direct and indirect negative impacts and mitigationmeasures.

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NIGERIAThird Multi-State AgAricultural Development Project

Report No. 7373-UNIFY89Loan Amount: $ 100.9 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 159.4 millionSector: Agriculture (area development)

Main Objectives: To support initiatives to boost small farner production andincomes, create suitable management systems in the states of Ondo, Oyo, Lagos andRivers, while incorporating the lessons learnt to date and refine the organizationalstructures to achieve increasing sustainability.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The project is designed to improve fishproduction technology and small stock management. Statewide Programs ($ 95.2million of total project cost) consist of a Fisheries sub-component ($ 7.3 million) tosupport of aquaculture development, improve the production and productivity ofmarine inshore capture fisheries and apply improved technology in the marine inshorefishery by adapting systems which are commercially accepted under comparableconditions elsewhere. Federal Components ($ 41.0 million) include a FisheriesResource Management sub-component ($ 6.6 million) which involves the design andimplementation of a fisheries resources management program and a fisheriesmonitoring control and surveillance system, in addition to a fuel supplies for thefishing industry for the design and establishment of a private/commercial sector basedfuel distribution infrastructure program and network for coastal and riverine fishingvillages. Impacts: The project could impact the environment in several ways, forinstance, the inappropriate use of agricultural chemical and the mismanagement anddepletion of aquatic life. These impacts have been taken into account in formulatingthe project. With regard to aquatic life, particularly marine resources, specialmeasures to monitor and regulate the rate of fishing will be instituted at the Federallevel.

NIGERIAEnvironmental Management Proiect

Report No. 5573-UNIFY92Loan Amount: IDA Credit $ 25.0 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 37.9 millionSector: Environment

Main Objectives: To create an effective environmental program at the national andstate levels that integrates environmental activities on an inter-sectoral and inter-regional basis.

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Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The Project would consist of: (a)Institution Strengthening activities involving training and studies. One study, CoastalZone and Marine Environment ($ 1.00 million), would assess the environmentaltrends in the coastal areas and offshore waters of Nigeria, such as the effects ofpopulation growth, industrialization, and the effect of the petroleum industry on theenvironment and design strategies for the environmental management of the coastalregions; and (b) a Feasibility Studies Component including the more detailed project-related studies which would provide for the identification of specific investmentprojects critical for alleviating environmental degradation. One study, Lagos LagoonPollution Control ($ 3.00 million), financed under this component would identify thetypes, levels and sources of major pollutants of the Lagos Lagoon and proposemethodology for the long term monitoring of pollution in the lagoon.

SEYCHELLESEnvironment and Transport Project

Report No. 11259-SEYFY93Loan Amount: $ 4.5 million, GEF grant of $ 1.8 millionTotal Project Cost: $ 7.0 millionSector: Environment

Main Objectives: To (a) support environmental programs in resource management,biodiversity conservation, and marine pollution control; (b) assist with implementationof the Environmental Management Plan of Seychelles (EMPS); and (c) improve thebasis for sustained tourism growth by facilitating tourist access, while preserving orrestoring environmentally sensitive areas.

Coastal/Marine Components and Impacts: The project consists of three programs.One program, the Resource Management Program ($ 1.77 million) includes a WaterResources Study and Management Plans for Outer Islands and Marine ResourcesManagement Plans. Another program funded by the GEF is the BiodiversityConservation and Marine Pollution Abatement Program ($ 1.8 million) which containstwo components. First, the Biodiversity Conservation Component that includes: (a)restoration and preservation of the Aldabra ecosystem ($ 0.595 million of programcost); and (b) protection of sea turtles. The Green turtle protection program woulddefine the sustainable exploitation level for the Green turtle to accommodate domesticconsumption. The Hawksbill turtle protection program would include a feasibilitystudy of Hawksbill turtle ranching, a turtle trade compensation study ($ 1.06 millionof program cost). Second, the Abatement of Marine Pollution Component willevaluate the reception and disposal facilities needed to comply with MARPOLrequirements and control fishing and commercial vessels, cruise ships, and yachts($ 0.153 million of program cost).

ANNEX 6THE IMPLEMENTATION STATUS OF

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AMONGAFRICAN COASTAL STATES

The MARPOL Convention

Pollution from ships is regulated by The International Convention for the Prevention ofPollution from Ships - MARPOL 73/78 and its five Annexes on oil, noxious liquidsubstances, harmful substances in packaged form, sewage, and solid waste. TheMARPOL convention provides comprehensive regulations on ship construction andequipment; cargo-waste handling; discharge standards; port reception facilities;enforcement; and technical cooperation.

The greatest quantity of oil from ships enters the oceans as a result of normaltanker operations, usually associated with the cleaning of cargo residues. Theseoperations are still the biggest sources of oil pollution from ships but have declinedconsiderably in recent years, partly because MARPOL 73/78 entered into force. Achange in the largest single source of oil pollution from tanker operations to fuel oilsludge has recently been observed. This is largely attributable to the worldwide lack ofport reception facilities.

Even if MARPOL and other international shipping conventions are in force, havebeen ratified by the majority of maritime nations, most of the worlds tonnage iscomplying with the MARPOL requirements and the convention has proved to be a usefultool to control pollution from ships, less than half of the countries in Africa have ratifiedMARPOL 73/78 (Tab. 3). Also many of the contracting parties fail to comply with therequirements on reporting, providing reception facilities, control and enforcement.

The reluctance among developing countries to ratify the MARPOL conventionis often based on the assumption that costly upgrading of their fleets are necessary or thatthe country commit itself to tasks that are impossible to accomplish. Regarding thecountries obligations under the MARPOL convention, it is important to realize that theimplementation of the convention varies considerably between countries. Just becomingparty of MARPOL does not mean that the convention is being fully implemented.

Other IMO Conventions

Of other conventions, the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,Response and Co-operation (OPRC) has recently been adopted by IMO. To date, veryfew countries in Africa have ratified the OPRC Convention, which is aimed to fostercooperation in oil spill contingency planning and response.

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC) is based on theInternational Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Civil LiabilityConvention - CLC) and the 1971 International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution

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Damage (Fund Convention). Under these conventions, claims for compensation for oilpollution damage can be raised against shipowner or the IOPC and will allow an efficienttool to initiate clean up operations after oil spills.

Within UNEP's Regional Seas Program, the Convention for Cooperation in theProtection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West andCentral African Region, and the associated Protocol concerning Co-operation andCombating Pollution in Cases of Emergency, have been established. A similar conventionexists for the Eastern African Region and the Red Sea Region.

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Table A6.1. State of ratification of IMO conventi os as per 1 December 1993

COUNTRY MARPOL CLC FUND OPRC

Algeria X X X

Angola

Benin X X

Cameroon X X

Cape Verde

Comoros

Cote d'Ivoire X X X

Djibouti X X X

Egypt X X X

Equatorial Guinea

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Gabon X X X

Gambia X X X

Ghana X X X

Guinea

Guinea-Bissau

Kenya X X X

Liberia X X X

Libya

Madagascar

Malawi

Mauritania

Mauritius

Morocco X X X

Mozambique

Namibia _

Nigeria X X X

Sao Tome and Principe

Senegal XSeychelles X X X X

Sierra Leone X X

Somalia

South Africa X X

Sudan

Tanzania

Togo X

Tunisia X X X

Zaire I I_ _

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ShipsCLC International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Civil Liability Convention)FUND 1971 International Convention on the Establishment of a Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage

(Fund Convention).OPRC International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation

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Traffic pattern. One of the world's most intensive tanker routes is from theMiddle East to Europe and the United States, via the Cape of Good Hope, in transitthrough African waters, mainly by very large crude carriers of more than 250,000 tons.The total annual amount shipped from the Arabian Gulf during 1990-1993 was between530 and 613 million tons per year, of which slightly less than half is shipped westward.In addition to the route to Europe and the United States there is an intensive trafficserved by medium sized tankers of 20,000-100,000 tons from the Middle East to the fiveoil refineries in Eastern Africa (Mogadishu, Mombasa, Dar-es-Salaam, Matola andTanatave) and South Africa. A few tankers also travel to Comoros, Seychelles andMauritius with refined oil.

The oil production in West Africa is mostly shipped to the United States andEurope by tankers of about 130,000 dwt. Occasionally, oil is also shipped by Very LargeCrude Carriers to America and Asia.

Extrapolating from these data, one can see that African waters are transited byabout 100 loaded supertankers sailing from the Arabic Gulf westbound each month. Inaddition about 90 tankers are sailing from West Africa a month. It can be expected thatthe same number (or more) of tankers are returning in ballast. In addition to this, anunknown number of tankers with refined petroleum products and in local operations aretrafficking African waters.

Port receptionfacilities. A prerequisite for reducing discharge and dumping (bothlegal and illegal) of waste from ships at sea is the existence of adequate receptionfacilities at ports. The port reception facilities must be part of an integrated wastemanagement system to be functional and meaningful. If not, the waste problem may justbe transferred to an already chaotic landbased waste management system withinappropriate treatment and final disposal options with serious environmentalimplications. The reception of foreign waste is also a delicate issue because of thepotential risk of importing hazardous waste and disease vectors.

A World Bank study of 1991 "The MARPOL 73/78 Convention - The EconomicImplications and Other Issues in Providing Reception Facilities for Ship Wastes in Sub-Saharan African Ports" reviews the situation and constraints in ten major ports in Africaregarding port reception facilities. The study also gives a cost estimate to provide theseports with reception facilities to be in compliance with MARPOL.

Contingency planning. Ships, in particular oil tankers, that are using ports or arein transit through coastal waters present risks of oil pollution from collisions, grounding,oil cargo and bunker transfer, and other marine accidents. Additional risks are associatedwith petroleum exploration and production activities. The traffic pattern and the highvolume of oil transported, operational spills and large accidental spills must be expectedto occur at any time throughout the area. In particular the Red Sea, Mozambique Channeland Cape of Good Hope, and the waters off West Africa are high risk areas foraccidental oil spills.

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Increasing concern is that the world fleet, in particular tankers, is aging rapidly.Older ships tend to have more accidents than new ones and the standards applied to olderships are less stringent than those which apply to new ones. There is a strong tendencythat older ships of low quality and environmental standard end up in countries whereMARPOL is not enforced.

Effective response to an oil spill requires careful planning to ensure that impactsare minimized. This is normally accomplished by means of a contingency plan that canbe quickly put into action in the event of possible, but uncertain, occurrence.Contingency plans should be developed at regional, national or local levels.

Conclusions and Proposed Actions. Although the global marine pollution by oilhas been reduced through legislation and improved on board environmental managementthe weak implementation of the MARPOL convention in Africa, including non-ratification, lack of reception facilities, lack of port state control, etc. are of concern forthe marine environment in the region. The risk of an high ageing rate of the fleetsoperating in African waters and the limited resources to respond to accidental oil spillsare additional factors which are of particular concern for the African region.

Based on the results on the inventory, a strategy for reducing pollution by oilshould be developed. Actions can be seen at four levels:

* Regional international actions to control pollution from ship operations;* Local actions to provide adequate port reception facilities;* Local actions to prevent the discharge of used engine oil into (or from)

urban and industrial sewage; and* Contingency planning to deal with accidental oil spills.

See Table A6.2 below.

UNEP Regional Seas Conventions

Sub-Saharan Africa is covered by three Regional Conventions within UNEP's RegionalSeas Program established in 1974. The general goals of the Action Plans are:

* To promote the sustainable development and sound management of themarine and coastal resources

* To establish policies and objectives to promote appropriate legislation forthe protection and development of the marine and coastal environment

* To prevent pollution of the marine and coastal environment* To provide for the protection and rationale development of the living

resources of the regions* To strengthen and encourage institutional cooperation at regional level* To improve training and technical assistance* To stimulate the growth of public awareness of the regions marine and

coastal environments

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The three Action Plans have been successful in promoting co-operation between thecountries in the region, carrying out reviews of the state of the marine and coastalenvironment and been instrumental in developing regional agreements. Challenges aheadare to increase the geographical coverage and mobilize resources to undertake costlyremedial actions to protect the marine environment.

Table A6.2. Risk Assessment for Pollution by Marine-based Sources in African Waters

Risk Factor Risk Elements Mitigation Mitigation Measures Critical AreasMeasures at at National LevelRegional Level

Legal dumping - Non-ratification of - Ratification - Ratification of - South andof oil MARPOL and MARPOL East Africa,

- Old fleets with implementati - Installing proper port West Africalower on of reception facilities - Ports withenvironmental MARPOL for ballast and fuel intensiverequirements and other sludge maritime

- Lack of port IMO - Implement port-and traffic, inreception facilities conventions flagstate inspection particular

of ships tankers

Illegal dumping - Non-compliance - Control of - Compliance of - West Africaof oil with MARPOL compliance MARPOL - Ports with

requirements with - Installing proper port intensive- Lack of port- and MARPOL reception facilities maritime

flag-state control - Implement port- and traffic, in- Lack of port flagstate inspection particular

reception facilities I of ships tankers

Accidental oil - Intensive tanker - Co-operation and development of - Southspills traffic regional, national and local contingency Africa,

- Inadequate planning including: West Africacontingency * Designation of authority responsible and the Redplanning for development and operation of the Sea

- Old ships with plan - Ports withhigher risks for * Identification of areas of high spill oil terminalsaccidents risk and tanker

* Fate of oil traffic* Movement of oil slicks* Sensitivity mapping* Priorities for protection* Oil spill response policy

- Establishment of marine emergencyresponse centers

Pollution by - Non-ratification - ratification of - Ports withgarbage and non- MARPOL and its intensive

compliance with Annex V maritimeMARPOL - installation of port traffic

- Improper on-board reception facilitieswaste management for solid waste

- Lack of port- andflagstate control

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Table A6.3. State of UNEP's Regional Seas Conventions in Sub-Saharan AfricaConvention for Cooperation Convention for the Protection and Regional Convention forin the Protection and Development of the Marine and the Conservation of theDevelopment of the Marine Coasta[ Enviromment of the Eastem Red Sea and Gulf ofCountry and Coastal Environment of African Region; 21 June 1985 Aden Environment; 14the West and Central African February 1982Region; 23 March 1981.

Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocolconceming Co- conceming conceming conceming

Con- operation in Con- Cooperation Protected Con- Regionalvention Combating vention in Areas and vention Cooperation

Pollution in Cases Combating Wild Fauna in combatingof Emergency in Pollution in and Flora Pollution byWest and Central Cases of in the Oil andAfrican Region; Emergency Eastem Other

in the African HarmfulEastem Region; Substances inAfrican Case ofRegion Emergency

Angola

Benin S SCameroon A A

Cape Verde

Congo R R

Cote d'Ivoire R R _Eq. Guinea

Gabon A A

Gambia R RGhana R R

Guinea R RGuinea-Bissau

Liberia S S

Mauritania S S

Namibia _Nigeria R RSao Tomeand Principe _ _Senegal R RSierra Leone _Toog R R_ _ _

Z aire _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Comoros

EU S S SFrance _ R R R _Kenya _ A A AMadagascar S S SMozambique X _X________X

Sevchelles . R R__RTanzania

Somalia S S S R REgypt A AJordan A APalestine R RSaudi Arabia R RSudan R RYemen R R

S - Signed; R - Ratified; A - Accessed or Approved Source: UNEP 1994.

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ANNEX 7ARUSHA RESOLUTION ON

INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT INEASTERN AFRICA INCLUDING THE ISLAND STATES

RECOGNIZING, that coastal areas contain a number of critical terrestrial and aquatichabitats, as well as diverse and valuable resources; and that coastal ecosystems areintimately linked with social, economic and cultural development processes;

WHEREAS, many major cities of the Eastern African region are located in coastal areas;and these areas include significant populations and are focal points of human activity; andthe economies of the region are extremely dependent on the continuing productivity ofactivities, such as fishing, forestry, agriculture and mining; which are based on naturalresources; and important food and cash crops are grown in coastal areas; and fish andother aquatic resources provide food, materials, employment and income for many coastalpeople; and the region's coastal areas also provide many other economic opportunities,especially tourism and shipping;

WHEREAS, experience in other regions of the world shows that the nature or intensityof coastal activities can give rise to natural resource and environmental managementconcerns and lead to serious deleterious impacts on the productivity of coastalecosystems, adversely affecting the food security, health, nutrition and economic welfareof coastal populations.

WHEREAS, coastal management problems in the Eastern African region are serious, andthere are some localized areas where there are acute problems, such as oil pollution;

WHEREAS, experiences in Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in otherregions have shown that prevention is better than cure, as well as the importance ofbalanced use of coastal resources;

WHEREAS, economic and social development of coastal areas and protecting theresource base and the environment must be mutually supportive if development is to besustainable; and the purpose of integrated management is to allow multisectoraldevelopment to progress with the fewest unintended setbacks and the least possibleimposition of long-run social costs;

WHEREAS coastal planning efforts cannot be divorced from terrestrial management andmust be integrated with national economic and physical planning;

WHEREAS, poor planning and management in coastal areas can increase the lossassociated with natural processes such as coastal erosion and catastrophic events such asmajor storms, floods and oil spills;

WHEREAS, there is a lack of capacity in the region to deal effectively with complexcoastal management issues;

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WHEREAS, political leaders can contribute to meeting this commitment in the region;and government decisionmakers and the private sector, including NGOs, can play acrucial role through their support of management plan development and implementation,and their encouragement of coastal communities to act cohesively to enhance prospectsfor sustainable development of coastal areas; and community participation is essential andshould actively involve all stakeholder, particularly women and resource poor groups;

WHEREAS, international organizations and donor agencies can likewise contributemeaningfully to the course of development of coastal areas by ensuring that all sectoralprojects funded are congruent with multisectoral development plans;

WHEREAS, it is important to increase public awareness regarding the importance ofcoastal resources and the dependence of continued prospects for economic developmentin coastal areas on proper management of coastal resources;

WHEREAS, coastal resource will continue to be essential for the economic welfare offuture generations in the Eastern African region; and there is a growing awareness on thepart of governments of the region regarding the need for sustainable development ofcoastal areas;

WHEREAS, in recognition of the need for effective coastal management strategies, thecountries of the Eastern African region have affirmed their concurrence with the mandatein UNCED's Agenda 21 for new approaches to development and management of coastalareas that are more integrative, precautionary and anticipatory;

THEREFORE, we the Heads of Delegations participating in the Policy Conference onIntegrated Coastal Zone Management in Eastern Africa including the Island States herebyresolve and recommend that the countries of the Eastern African region give emphasisto the sustainable development and integrated management of coastal areas for theprimary benefit of coastal communities by:

* establishing policies that promote and enhance integrated planning and managementof coastal areas by integrating the coastal zone into national economic and physicalplanning;

* developing and implementing ICZM programmes which address environmentalconcerns, particularly resource over exploitation, environmental degradation and lossof biodiversity, and emphasize action at the local level;

* promoting effective sectoral implementation of ICZM programmes through creatingmechanisms and means for cooperation of and coordination among sectoral agencies,and among regional, national and local agencies;

* clarifying the jurisdictional mandates of agencies and governmental units(geographical, sectoral and trans-sectoral) governing the use of coastal resources andassessing and clarifying all legislation (formal and customary) relating to access to

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coastal resources in particular property rights, occupancy patterns, and use rights incoastal areas;

* promoting further links between marine and social sciences and the decision makingprocess;

* strengthening management capabilities of relevant agencies, particularly at the locallevel, for effective management of the overall environment, especially coastal areas;

* implementing and rigorously enforcing effective legislative instruments andsupporting incentives to reduce resource use conflicts as well as to prevent andcontrol environmental degradation in coastal areas;

* investing in public education and awareness programmes to create a broader andstronger constituency for proper management of coastal areas;

* promoting approaches and strategies such as alternative livelihood programs andeconomic diversification to reduce pressure on coastal resources;

* promoting the involvement of all stakeholders in the development and implementationof ICZM programmes particularly the involvement of local communities includingwomen and resource poor groups;

* providing appropriate incentives and guidelines for the private sector to developenvironmental friendly economic activities;

* promoting bilateral and multilateral training relationships between countries of theEastern African region, and between these countries and other countries with morehighly developed coastal zone management capability;

* supporting the building of local capacity, inter alia, through establishment of centersof excellence for ICZM training in the region, such as Mbegani Fisheries TrainingCentre;

* encouraging the preparation and implementation of contingency plans for handlingoil pollution disasters;

* establishing and strengthening other appropriate institutions, such as the proposedMarine and Coastal Biodiversity Centre in Seychelles; and;

* giving consideration to the special problems faced by small island States;

WE also recommend that scientists should:

* adopt a multidisciplinary research approach involving ecological, economic and othersocial sciences to holistically address management problems in coastal areas; and

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provide information, including documentation on indigenous knowledge relevant tocoastal development and management, particularly in providing a diagnostic profileof the coastal areas; resource valuation and environmental accounting; identificationand analysis of resource use conflicts and their resolutions; policy and managementoptions as well as investment opportunities.

WE recognize the importance of the Nairobi Convention on the Protection, Managementand Development of the Coastal and Marine Environment in the Eastern African Regionand related protocols for the regional follow-up of this resolution; and encourageGovernments, which have not done so, to decide upon their ratification or accession inthe shortest possible time, as well as other conventions relevant to coastal zonemanagement, in particular the International Convention on Pollution of the Sea fromShips.

WE agree that a meeting on a ministerial level be held within three years as a follow-upto this policy conference, and invite the Government of the Republic of the Seychellesto consider hosting such a meeting, provided financial resources from external sourcesare available.

WE recognize the role of UNEP in coordinating the Eastern African Action Plan, withinthe framework of the Nairobi Convention, and the role of other internationalorganizations in the promotion of ICZM; further, considering the importance of thisPolicy Conference and the need for follow-up, invite the Government of the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania to serve as coordinator for this purpose.

SIGNED April 23, 1993, on behalf of the Governments of:

Republic of Madagascar:Republic of Mauritius:Democratic Republic of Mozambique:Republic of Seychelles:United Republic of Tanzania:Republic of Kenya:*

* Signed in Nairobi in May 1993

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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED REFERENCES

1. World Bank. 1993. "Noordwijk Guidelines for Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement. " Published for distribution to the World Coast Conference,1993, Noordwijk, The Netherlands by the Environment Department,Division of Land, Water and Natural Habitats of the World Bank,Washington, D.C.

The guidelines were drafted to provide policymakers, resource managers,donors, and other stakeholders with a conceptual framework for integratedcoastal zone management--what it means, how it works, and how it might beapplied to issues in coastal management in the context of a particular geographicsetting, given the prevailing socio-political, institutional and developmentconditions within that setting. The guidelines begin with a discussion of the mainissues in coastal management. The second section articulates the principles ofICZM which hold constant wherever it is applied. The third section serves as anoperational guide to ICZM, identifying the set of key players: interest groups,institutions, individuals, who should be part of the ICZM process from theoutset; outlining the steps from needs identification to ICZM plan formulation,adoption and implementation. A list of the data requirements for the developmentof each stage is included. Monitoring, evaluation and enforcement are identifiedas critical steps in the post-implementation phase, along with suggestions of howto carry these out. A final section of the guidelines introduces the internationaldimension of ICZM in the context of transnational issues which frequentlyemerge in international waters. Global environmental agreements (e.g., the Lawof the Sea Convention (1982); the Montreal Protocol on Land Based Sources ofPollution (1987); and MARPOL 73/79) exist to coordinate national, regional andworldwide responses to these issues. The potential contribution of regionalscientific and regulatory bodies to enhancing the success of these conventions isdiscussed, along with the kinds of support that might be provided to this endfrom national ICZM programs.

2. World Bank. March 1994. "Coastal Zone Management and EnvironmentalAssessment." Environmental Assessment Sourcebook Update.Washington, DC. Environment Department, The World Bank.

The EA Sourcebook Update focuses on the use of environmentalassessment as a coastal zone management tool in Bank-funded projects andprograms. Important subsystems of the coastal zone are described and examplesgiven of relevant approaches in EA work. This Update belongs in Chapter 2 ofthe Update Binder and expands on pp. 87-91, Vol. I, of the EA Sourcebook.

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3. Cicin-Sain, B. and R. Knecht, eds. 1993. "Special Issue on Integrated CoastalManagement: Concepts, Issues and Methods," Ocean and CoastalManagement 21 (1-3): 1-377. England: Elsevier Applied Science.

This special issue presents differing perspectives on the definition,content and methodology of integrated coastal zone management, drawing fromthe experiences of resource managers and nations in the design andimplementation of ICZM. The papers are grouped into four categories: (1)definitional aspects and the linkage between ICZM and sustainable developmentand its incidence around the world, (2) case studies of ICZM implementation andthe efficacy of approach, (3) special issues or contexts for application of ICZM,and (4) capacity building for integrated coastal management, in response to theAgenda 21 mandate.

A total of 16 papers is presented in this issue. Several of the more topicalones are summarized below.

Cicin-Sain, B. 1993. "Sustainable Development and Integrated CoastalManagement. " Oceans and Coastal Management 21 (1-3): 11-44.

The objectives of this paper are several fold. First is to provide readerswith a context for the concept of "integrated coastal zone management" (ICZM)within the framework of the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment and the major actions that emerged from this first Earth Summit in1992. Second is to define ICZM in practical management terms, including thepolicy and operational aspects of "integrated" coastal management. Finally, asynthesis model for implementing ICZM in a variety of national contexts isproposed which takes into account diverse physical, socio-economic and politicalconditions.

The author, who represented the International Coastal and OceanOrganization (ICO) at the Earth Summit, identifies interdependence andintegration as the two central themes underlying the various action agendas(including Agenda 21 and the Conventions on Climate Change and Biodiversity)emerging from the summit. The emphasis on interdependence comes with thegrowing realization that the world is facing a series of global and localenvironmental crises linked to patterns of development in the North and South.This interdependence between environment and development points to the needfor a holistic solution to these crises. In the author's view integration of issuesand actions--that is, integration between systems, between sectors and amongnations--provides the only hope for sustainable development.

To achieve integrated coastal zone management the author argues,policies governing the administration of the coastal zone must also be integrated.They must be consistent with an overall vision or goal for the coastal zone; theremust be vertical integration, whereby specific implementing measures conformto more general policy guidelines and goals, and horizontal integration which

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requires that for any given issue, only one policy is being pursued at a time byall executive agencies involved. For successful integrated coastal zonemanagement, there must be integration of management concerns over fiveprincipal zones spanning the coastal/marine spectrum: inland areas, coastallands (where human activity is concentrated), coastal waters, offshore waters(to the edge of the EEZ), and the high seas (beyond the limit of nationaljurisdiction). This is difficult to achieve on the ground, and the author providesa synthesis model of ICZM, which answers a number of basic questionsincluding, What is ICZM? What are the goals of ICZM? What is being managed?Where is it being managed? How is it being managed? What capacity is needed

for adequate management? and Who should undertake the management? Theauthor stresses the need for flexibility in trying to attain true integrated coastalzone management, noting that this is an ideal model which has yet to be fullyimplemented anywhere on the national level. Citing FAO, she adds thatcompatible multiple use objectives should always be the main focus. ICZMprograms can be simplified to include only: (1) harmonization of sectoral policiesand goals; (2) cross-sectoral enforcement mechanisms; (3) a coordination office,and (4) permit approval and EIA procedures.

Olsen, S.B. 1993. "Will Integrated Coastal Management Programs BeSustainable: The Constituency Problem." Ocean and CoastalManagement 21: 201-225.

In this article, the author, who is Director of the Coastal ResourcesCenter (CRC) at the University of Rhode Island, draws on his experience withthe 8 year cooperative agreement between USAID and the CRC for thedevelopment of three pilot coastal resource management initiatives in Asia andLatin America. His main thesis is that technical aspects of development planningare not sufficient to solve the major problems resulting from uncontrolleddevelopment and degradation of the coastal zone. Rather, it is the effectiveimplementation of sound policies, plans, regulations and procedures broughtabout by an enduring change in people's values and patterns of behavior that willlead to a resolution of these problems. In effect, the challenge is "buildingconstituencies for improved resource management." The author goes on to saythat, " 'environmental' programs are piling up in a great many low incomecountries but they.. .have too little or no discernible impact on the trends inecosystem misuse and overuse that they were designed to modify."

The more successful/sustainable programs in coastal management aroundthe world share several characteristics in common. These include: a clear focuson a few, salient and significant coastal issues; involvement of all partiesconcerned in the analysis of issues and the design and implementation of theresulting management program; application of scientific data on ecosystemfunction and response to evolving human pressures; an equitable and transparentdecision making process underlying the program; and an incremental approachto program design and implementation that promotes learning along the way.

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Olsen illustrates these points with specific examples drawn from hisexperience in launching pilot efforts in Ecuador, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Inconclusion, he identifies a series of guidelines for adoption by coastal resourcemanagers seeking to launch sustainable ICZM programs. Among the mostimportant recommendations are the adoption of a two-tiered approach, whichimplies initiating activities on a local scale in a hypothesis testing mode, then,based on the results, developing an agenda of policy reform at the national scale.Other recommendations include gaining approval and support of the centralgovernment for local CZM initiatives along with a strong constituency amongstakeholders at all levels, and, just as critical, building capacity for effectivemanagement at all levels. This institution building theme is taken up anddeveloped in the paper by Crawford and others, reviewed below.

Crawford, B.R., J.S. Cobb and A. Friedman. 1993. "Building Capacity forIntegrated Coastal Management in Developing Countries." Ocean andCoastal Management 21: 311-338.

In this article, the authors (based at the Coastal Resources Center of theU. of Rhode Island) argue that capacity building, along with adequate resourcesand technology transfer, is essential to the successful implementation of Agenda21. In integrated coastal management, which requires the coordination andoversight of institutions, policies, investments and implementation activities, theimportance of institutional and human resource development in this process canhardly be overemphasized.

Despite this, Crawford and others point out that very few educationalprograms exist to strengthen the capacity of resource managers in ICZM. Tobridge this gap, a two-pronged approach is called for. The first includes a long-term strategy designed to create a highly skilled cadre of coastal resourcemanagers through advanced degree training. A number of degree level programsspecializing in Coastal Zone Management are available in the West, as a resultof the growing demand for practitioners associated with the launching of CZMin the North America and Europe two decades ago. Comparable curricula arestill not available in developing countries, though many universities there arepoised to offer short-term training to professionals in related fields who couldbenefit from intensive, practical skills training in ICZM. The second approach,then, is a short-term strategy for capacity building through intensive, short-termtraining efforts in regional programs (listed in the article). In addressingknowledge gaps within this short-term strategy, the greatest humanpowerconstraints do not appear to be a lack of technical expertise, but rather a lack ofprofessionals with experience in coastal policy, planning and management.

The authors go on to describe the critical factors for a successful trainingstrategy, including the proper selection of participants, the structuring of thecurriculum to balance theory with practice and opportunities to ground skills inongoing programs. Crawford et al close with a section on lessons learned from

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training experiences gleaned in the three URI/USAID pilot CZM project sites:Ecuador, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

4. Chua, T.E. and L.F. Scura, eds. 1990. Managing ASEAN's Coastal Resourcesfor Sustainable Development: Roles of Policymakers. Scientists. Donors,Media and Communities. Philippines: ICLARM Conference Proceedings6.

5. Chua, T.E. and L.F. Scura, eds. 1992. Integrative Framework and Methodsfor Coastal Area Management. Philippines: ICLARM ConferenceProceedings 12.

Though coastal zone management is attracting the attention of a growingnumber of policy makers in coastal nations, it is still a relatively new concept inthe developing world. The pool of experience on which to draw to evaluate thesuccess of CZM methodologies to date comes primarily from Southeast Asia,where coastal resource management programs have been underway since the mid-1980's. The ASEAN countries' experience in coastal area management under theUSAID funded and ICLARM implemented Coastal Resources ManagementProject (CRMP), has given rise to some preliminary lessons learned andrecommended approaches to sustainable ICZM. These have been documented inthe two volumes of proceedings edited by Chua and Scura, compiled fromregional workshops held in the Philippines in 1990 and in Brunei, Darussalam1992.

The first of these proceedings, Chua and Scura, 1990, identifies the needfor coastal resource planning and management in the six ASEAN countriesparticipating in the project. It highlights the interrelated ecological, social andeconomic importance of the coastal zone to ASEAN nations and stresses the needfor political leadership in identifying and prioritizing the major issues in thecoastal zone of each country, developing the appropriate policies and level ofcommitment for intersectoral planning and management of coastal and marineresources, and creating a facilitating environment for community awareness andparticipation in the sustainable development of coastal resources. The proceedingsdocument ongoing (pilot) efforts within each country to achieve the CRMP goalsof sustainable economic development in the ASEAN region. This is to beachieved by strengthening existing capabilities to carry out environmentallysustainable integrated coastal resources management strategies. The ASEANmembers' renewed commitment to this goal is articulated in the BaguioResolution on Coastal Resources Management, adopted at the conference andincluded in these conference proceedings.

The more recent of these volumes (Chua and Scura, 1992) draws on thecountries' 6 years of collaborative coastal zone management experience under theCRM project to identify lessons learned for application to future project activitiesas well as to new initiatives outside the region. The lessons learned are groupedinto three categories: those related to process aspects of CRM (including salient

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features of effective intersectoral and coordinated planning, management andimplementation), the relation between a country's development stage and certainkinds of management issues, and finally, the need to consider the nature oforganizations and institutions already in place when prescribing appropriatemanagement interventions. A final section of the proceedings deals with theapplication of certain diagnostic tools, e.g., remote sensing and GIS, rapidappraisal of coastal environments, and economic valuation methods in theanalysis of CRM issues and the formulation of management decisions.

6. Awosika, L.E., A. C. Ibe and P. Shroeder, eds. 1993. Coastlines of WesternAfrica. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers. 399 pp.

This volume of Coastlines of the World is a compendium of paperspresented at the eighth biennial symposium on comprehensive coastal and oceanmanagement, "Coastal Zone 93," focusing on coastal processes and activities inWest Africa. The coastline from Senegal to Nigeria ranks among the mostrapidly developing areas in continental Africa. The collected papers document thewealth of natural resources found within this coastal zone, their exploitation inthe absence of proper planning and management, the resulting degradation ofcoastal habitats and resources, the adverse effects of these and the impacts ofglobal climate change on human populations and ecosystems in the region, andthe need for concerted action to steer development toward a more sustainablepath. With few exceptions, the authors are from the region. Their contributionto resource managers' and policymakers' understanding of the issues is all themore valid, given their first hand knowledge of both the problems facing coastalpopulations in Western Africa and the consequences to present and futuregenerations of a failure to address these problems.

7. Lundin, C.G. and 0. Linden. 1993. "Coastal Ecosystems: Attempts to Managea Threatened Resource." Ambio 22 (7): 468-473.

In this paper, the authors describe the importance of the tropical coastalzone for communication and trade, nutrition and income, while stressing theaccelerating decline of coastal ecosystems and their ability to furnish these goodsand services as a result of excessive human pressures. Perhaps the mostimportant source of ecosystem degradation, reinforcing declines in habitat andecosystem productivity, is the release of sewage, organic matter, nutrients, andsediment into coastal waters near population centers. Such contamination not onlyaffects target species and ecosystem function directly, it also erodes ecosystemstructure by altering species' resilience and their ability to recover from majordisturbance, a capacity which may have been within the natural regenerativecapability of otherwise non-stressed populations. With so much at risk in termsof the economic and biological benefits of coastal ecosystems, the authors arguethe need for an integrated, multisectoral approach to coastal management toaddress the multi-dimensional aspects of coastal degradation. Loweringpopulation densities in the coastal zone and closing the carbon cycle are identifiedas key objectives for emerging ICZM programs in the tropics.

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8. Magnus, A.K.N. and C.J. Horrill. 1993. "Coastal Ecosystems, Productivityand Ecosystem Protection: Coastal Ecosystem Management," Ambio 22(7): 461-467.

This paper provides a general overview of coastal and marine resourcemanagement issues in the Eastern African region. It highlights the productive andinteractive nature of coastal and marine systems (ranging from the coastalhinterland to the edge of the exclusive economic zone) in supporting certaineconomically important resources and development activities. The paper thenunderscores the need for integration in planning and managing the use of theseresources in ways that are beneficial to the public while being ecologicallysustainable. The authors argue that the complexity of the problems facing coastalresource managers today is compounded by the ambiguous institutional settingin which these issues are being addressed and the inadequate training andresearch facilities available to managers, which seriously limit the quality ofdecision-making.

8. Rowley, J. ed. 1994. "Life on the Edge," People and the Planet 3 (1): 1-36.London: Planet 21, in collaboration with IPPF, UNFPA, and IUCN.

This special issue of People and the Planet deals exclusively with thecrescendoing problems resulting from the build-up of human populations on thecoastal margins of the world. The many authors contributing to this issue providea diverse perspective on the scope of the issues and the array of managementresponses directed at resolving some of the problems, from local communityefforts to far-reaching policy reforms governing the patterns of coastal resourceuse. This issue, which includes articles by Don Hinrichsen, Rodney Salm andLynne Hale and Stephen Olsen, provides many new insights into the underlyingfactors contributing to the decline of the world's oceans. These are backed up byuseful statistics related to trends in coastal demography, habitat degradation andresource use. The recurrent theme throughout these papers is the human-inducedbasis for the crises facing coastal populations worldwide, along with theknowledge that the solution to these problems also lies with humankind, anddepends on fundamental changes in governance and human values vis a vis theworld's oceans.

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S Alexandria AND URBAN AREASCAIRO ESTIMATED POPULATION DENSITIES:

(INHABITANTS/SQ. KM )

U500250 URBAN POPULATIONS10 500,000 MILLION PERSONS'50

25 * 1 4 MILLION PERSONS

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dakar *.

Conakry. -

Abialan P 4WAIo

Ha*rcourt p

j- vr \ Dares Salaam

, .;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;

Map 4~~tDurbar.

Source: UNEP / GRID

The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information Cape Town '

> shown on this reap do not imply, on the port of The World rsank Group,any judgment on the legal stotus of any teritory, or any endorsement

_ or acceptance of such boundaries.a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Map4

1L

I' r

Coastal areas in Africa60 km buffer(Robinson Projection)

10 50 100 250 500

ople / sqkm

Popu ation Density

Map 2

V~~~~~

v~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Aq~~~~~~~

V. v~~~~

Location of Marine Protected Areas inRelation to Critical Coastal Habitats

_ Coastal Wetlands v

/ Coral Reefs 12

A Existing Marine Protected Areas

v Priority Areas for Conservation Management 2t0/

2 vvMC Blodiversity Map Library, 1994.X, Great Rarripr Ree-f Marinp Park Aulthnrity/ilCN, 1994

IBRD 25956

MAJOR RIVER BASINS

Nile

Niger. _ Barako

Senegal Benue

Gambia. Lake

Chad

; Voil/a A A ,mosh

'~ , ''° c r :/>~' Lok juba-

, Zaire Shebell.

°gOOue' ^ X ~(Congo)

fPangan,

. ..Ruvuma

.10mbe:-

Cunene

Oka-ang'o

RIVERS:

CATCHMENT AREA > 1 00,000 KM2 Sabie

CATCHMENT AREA > 32,000 KM2 AND < 1 00,000 KM2 (empopo OTHER MAJOR RIVERS , Komati

Nile~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t Maputo

CrsOrange

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Zaire She bell~~~~~~~~~~~~~T. b d,o,--(Can~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.-- h,. d t)p

-. Wdd0kGP

ony 09- met on th E Iytrwlsobu ot sny Ptem,tior.yT, o. cny endorsementor-Jcepto-ceof.*vh oudfe

Map 1 ~ ~~~~~~~~10/17/1994

Mapau1

MAURITANIA ! , ( -i iMALI IGER

VE'RT tu 4 - iP_ @9/CHADi

; G N /- - t < 1, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SUDANTHE GAMBIA KA6

GUINEA-BISSAAIM GUNE A^ _ s !wr

10,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0

SIER bONE RE j / C O)

SAO TOME/AND PRINCIPE

COASTAL EROSION IN zAIRE

WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICAAREASHIGHLYSUCCEPTIBLETOEROSION A T L A N T I C

- CATCHMENT AREA BOUNDARIES

GENERAL DIRECTICN OF LONGSHORE TRANSPORT ) i_

RIVERS ? p,

10 - - - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Source: WorddRegister of Dams, 1977. /

1000 KILOMETERS

The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information

shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group,

ony judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsementor acceptance of such boundaries.

( )1

'0

0'~~~~~~~~~0O

j 10° °° 1p°0_ * 3 / , _ _, 2pMapMap 7

-

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

Tunms

Algirn * I

Modes,, ColilncoNISIA

fkhf'' )TripoAi AoI,d FISHERIES RESOURCESCorr-7$;qnds /1rr f i Coirr : " WARM WATER CURRENTS

ALGERIA I E RAB COLD WATER CURRENTS

FORMhER jr -- -O "'' LITTORAL TRANSPORT

SPANSH J AREEP. O FGYPT CONTINENTAL SHELF

TseronronsM. - - -~~~Al -4.domeAs. MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS:

N ,-"' ,~ hmr"nror _ _ _ _ _ PELAGIC FISHERIES, HEAVILY EXPLOITED

MAURITANIA j PW "-

Por Sd ""GOOD FISH STOCKS, MODERATE TO HIGH EXPLOITATION

Nsskcir t MALI L Agdr" *Fy.-Lqo i MODERATE FISH STOCKS

Nrmo *Toe,bIGE ou r PRAWNS

t \'/'\v~-~-~} / X NiMney *Zirm ;/ CHAD Kh,oito ( ER1TREA

>~' GUeBeiIioA ( SOu>t Kono. : k '!.N'Djomes SUDANrhr DJlfBOUTg,~tj,s,; MonooSENEGAL'

ERITREA (' -

BURKINA N'Di, SNIEIA J-- Ms

F!-n4N, z NIGERIAoi, Addi,Ai,b6".- SOMALIA

'' .'E/' 'OTE t ,PLtou /N/I ' CENTRAL 'N s.,, ~ETHIOPIA / Rsdu

? / ~~~~t/ ,AFRICAN REPUBLiC

S~~~~~~~ 9 iiI1ii 4, *Yroursde ->>_>/~

°% ,AO

TOME reŽ - / UGANDA r Modinh

S- T- tlIK... / KENYA

_ rent ~~~~&PRINCIPtE7 oLbvil ) Klsongoni* / Kss,pol/KEY ji

Equatorial Countercurrent GA o CN, RWANDpILe7. , Nnirolu,

South EquetOrir/ j brozzovilbiA BURUNDIJ-irs

cSuth u Poinle-Nsire/. ".ZKis,h ZI ',M E. African

(ANGCLAI l \ *Knn-ng. K1lenne TANZANIA t'<~~~~~~~~~~~. .) DoeSoloo- . SEYCHELLES

*Lronds ('ZKo moTm s sl

ANGOLA L Luob-6- COMOROS S o qutohirj/

('- Kite,* -s K MALAWI M.e

ZAMBIA ,, Mite

.N-mib L-ska-_ )./

- _ _- % kh re A / 9~~~~~~~~~e MRoho1ssgo r

----- e -- ,* j MOZAMBIU An.tonnino-

! -8>k-,L P Ber O MADAGASCAR MAURITUS

NAMIBIA , BOTSWANA "-. / *To

/ *Tolioro jif FrI

Lwerit j Q /olione,sbrg * i$M,ZEAND

- - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MLESOTHO /

SOUTH AFRICA ,:D6

Source: World Fisheries Map, [COD Canada, 1983. C P.1

3 The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information -Eiro

> shown on this map do not imply, on the port of The World Bank Group, ;a

4

any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement _ ti,,

or acceptance of such boundaries. 4 rgu/has Cur,e

(J

Map 6

IBRD 25719

POPULATION GROWTH

25,000 PERSONS

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Note: Dots are evenly distributed, thus representing average density within each country. ,

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report WP/91, World Population Profile 1991. rxU.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 991 %r*'

The boundar,es, colors, denominations andl any other informationshown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bonk Group,any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsementor acceptance of such boundlaries.

MAY 1994

Map 5

IBRD 25717

MID-WESTERN REGION \ WEST CENTRAL REGION NORTHERN REGION DISTRIBUTION OF OIL ANDGAS FIELDS AND RELATED

o/ _- __ ___ INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE$/& ~ - -' ___ __NIGER-DELTA, 199 1 -

OIL FIELDSEAST CENTRAL REGION 1 GAS FIELDS

" / , Enuguct EXISTING PIPELINES:'I / l |CRUDE OIL

X / N I / G E R | I A NATURAL GAS/ | .r PRODUCTB El .r PIPELINES PLANNED OR UNDER CONST.:

S ~~~~~~~~CRUDE OIL

r/ --/ NATURAL GAS/ i Abehg / A / I { REFINERIES IN OPERATION

Escravos i Q jL ; Abeb g1 1 / * TANKER TERMINALSWarri -0s

: -1 ) 0 SELECTED CITIES

O Forcados I -r CONTINENTAL SHELF

WATER DEPTH GREATER THAN 200 METERS

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIESc Oshi A bo Town y Sources Internaaionol Tanker Owners Pollulltion Federation LTD 1 994..5 1 * 'j 5-_ Fearnleys WW rld Bulk Trade, 1 990.

Calabar I ~~~~~~~~~~~~International Chamber of Shipping, 1 994.4 ! / * d 5iie .0CaIobi, / l6arInternational Petroleum Encyclopedia, 1991, o. 24

2 '! RIVERS REGION /Por1Ha.rcourt'4 SOUTH EASTERN REGION 0 20 40 60 80 100 MILESSoku sles EtmeX0

40 80 120 160 KILOMETERS! . *rebo Qua boe Ther boundaries, colors, denTominations ond any othe information, , ?'.. j any judgment an the legal status of any territory, or any endcorsement-- - .1 , . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~or

acceptance of such boundaries.

- Bonny

Brosso CAMEROON M A L I NIGE

r E 4 j l r--- NNGER / ~~~~~CHAD BURKINA

-- ,,. , >5.5.X*FASO Yb |

GHANA j\Z NIGERIA j EQUATORIAL G / v-f-.

GUINEA ( ( La Os ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Area of moap / CENTRAL

CAMEROON ! AFRCAN

, T I C OCE A NEQUATORIAL GUINEASAO TOME& PRINCIPEV _ Y-_50

GABON CONGOMAY 1994Map 8

IBRD 25746

'k~ ~ ~~7

ea~~~~~~~~~~~~I

/ SWALLOW SPOBL

BLC-TIE GOWI ABDI STORKC : ;' -X

AtEL W W n o n! -, n t p t /of

d w.A,1'~~~~~t c r

¢-MAJOR FLIGHT PATHS OF 0< &

SELECTED MIGRATORY BIRDS \ n G a judgment

a Seciend sfica, \ 8a I i a end or a n oS PECIES: I 2/1f91. ,b, r

WHITE THROAT *REEVEM/ RUFF

8RBEADSTKART T OSPREY...| 3| j ()SWALLOW * SPOONBILL \;e/t

()GOLDEN ORIOLE *DUNUN\ o }.

*BLACK-TAILED GODWIT *ABDIM STORK\ /i '

*WHITE STORK HONEY BUZZARD \ L _ _noe coobrs, denominations

8YELLOW WAGTAIL dCan Groupwny jugmnt

Source: Flying Visibrs: Migratory Birds of Europe on the legal status of any territory, orond Africa ICBP 1 987 and ICBP Technwal ayedreeto cetneo

_ ~~~~Publication 12j191 WI i.* orrre

Map 9 MAY 1".°4

;i:- ! ;i-0; Qll~~~~~~~1 ACTIVITIFSR IN A RIAt'y * Ol t - 1, | ! .......... I @ >, ,f, ; ..O T4rsKeb F -lrE r.oll.llt ll T:rs: PI,I b -N. T E I 1.I I, F;I. T N1 T N C.iEL, t' L bI'

N- -~~~~ 1 4 * g .14J<^h iarsp Eb :kILL {. g:Ef -,:,,, i,:,rs.l 1 w'P, A1` |;No,iP IL 1-:--'f -:1T-_W I I JJ

ftF'NE IH E _ ., EL� FZ T .L I i: IF- _t lrIt F-k. I;'.I t,; --FIT -IflIEbah A | " , |- 1 1 1- 1 ; e 0 49 iarql,ef i. .Fi liH 4|eQ!4iE fE-EFilE rNNE Ps tg:T I I z|CFQ l.TE EilETiilE. f'-

#'- - I , .,. r A ,Q~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L FEFINJERIEc

<g>e11~~~~~~~~~~ I n E.ML A -:- -:JF *'F-' ' ..... ' 1 aE,.S;;HC)PE OIL F IE LC

Lx,,.2- Nh I , E P..... I EfIPE liE--riTEwRNAs Al b)raljPjrD-%PIE

i N 1--, P t I 4 A -- -3 .:..14LI.4 l t !

(3 IIL L - x - g ( _. ,AL i,ito.t'-wit,

' ' | ; > 4 * ; _ (i3 , t ti 35---04 A

(D ~ ( Gii 3sj- -I l f-a i3s S

.S N '.2C' --D-i LS =

> iElr :t ... .it.-. . :1: . .je.n..l . il l . ;|X il-l ;f.r. I il. .. 22>5gh (311 ) s;¢fi2s1te _ t; ~; ; lI ;inJ; ;;l 1. :.nF.s g i l r#e z l J e.).;;, .|U tS3> w r e J

< jr,, ,, .X j. . n ,, k, I_ l.il J .,.,: F .; ................................ Ie F Sl.; .: n -, * f ; J ' 1 ........................ t<¢i< -s sP Q =g si32L3r sri2x.rsr G l!l 1.; ; ;.-. ;l li ... :1 .. E;, :1: ; ,; 1;; 1 .t.1., _: J ,.

- iz: -r.i ;--;1 , -^ i,, i ............. 3 e 5z38s,2$ I'l ' 1 r :| t.; ....... te * v;; F ir ' I..UE

Map 10~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. j ._

Tunisi

*Tusnginr *oron Constantine

MOROCCO_h GhSmo,. 5 9 * SIGNA-TORIES TOtAl--ad- l * REGIONAL SEAS AND

F. ~~7 ARAB MARPOL CONVENTIONSFORMER' .. toout ALGERIA LIBYA I ARAB MARPOLFORMER F- \ REP OFSPANISH, rj l- EGYPT I'll'' COASTLINE OF COUNTRIESSAHARA]J i \ % Aljawf j AO- u WHICH HAVE SIGNED THE

- .T.Mnrnsrt. _ _ REGIONAL SEAS CONVENTIONSN., |,-~ -. / < I _ COASTLINE OF COUNTRIES

MAURITANIA j \- ~ PorSud W HIC H HAV E RATIFIED THE1Nou-kcho5 MALI L I REGIONAL SEAS CONVENTIONS

Nem. - Tubouuou ! Agadez j uyo<urgnou COASTLINE OF COUNTRIES WHICHD EkNEA NIGER HAVE RATIFIED MARPOL 73/78Br,a0/~ . f /ET n CERITREA INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIESEAO NENIGRL/,CHADRE

GAMBIA:*B nko/ PA L El F-h,t GUt~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~EA C~~~~~~~~~~~BRIAK. , UAB SSAoU __ RKmOk d _ + Kan 'gasiFenS SUDA DJIBOU bt

BISSAU 4 GUINEA , egra

-NDV NGERIA N DSOBAUTAIERRALEONEfr\ " . i~3 ~r *vvou E HIOPu IA SOMALIAM (J HANA - ~~~~N.-CENTRAL \. ETIOI/ AFRICAN REPUBLIC/

a Younde K Koongun (Kneo

BQUATORALGUiNEt7 ^ / UGANDA' M.g.d,

'CONGO) KENYA j{GABON ) - RWAND4, NNO

-~~~~~~~~ K,9e.,1)

' 1 'h~~~Ibr I ~~BURUNDI~3 7ueb,ruPo,-Nur Bouzzule, ZAIREZ A I R E - rn

(ANGOLAIC *Kan=ngu Kulmue- TANZANIAD.r- eso- S E Y C H E L L E S

*Lu-ndn i ( Mbeya

ANGOLA CO.uMOnbusO C0MO

r-* K,nc we-J MALAWI M 4

N ZAMBIA (F,LIngue Noculo M 4 -

H.r-Namibe Lusaka * _Hutro )A J-^

MOZAMBIQUE u ......n.u

ZIMBABWE in> *B11Jw-y. , jMADA@ASCAR MAURITIUS

NAMIBIA I BOTSWANA -- D.- * intDnWiadhook (F,) nuiuK Gab uney - 4

\ /Pretoa JMeputo#wX

*Lunrtz L/ Jhannesburg - SWAZLAND

SOUTH AFRICA

g The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information> sho,u on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, ;7

any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsementor occeptance of such boundaries Cn

Map 11

*Tonirer roran Constantne WORLD BANK INVESTMENTST5,p

Madeira asoblanaT itTUISIA IN COASTAL 7 ARN(Pont) MOROCCO j Ghotdo,o. ) soEnghozi~ O P N N S M RN

c 1. Trnpoi * Aleondn COMPONENTS OF PROJECTSp)nAL IA , WORLD BANK LOANS AND CREDITS

FORMER n 1- ALGERIA ! LIBYA R EP. O GEF PROJECTS:

SPANISH r rK # ! REGYPT OF * '. .... NATIONAL

SAH-IARA]J s \ -} A. Jo. An .... * - REGIONAL

N . \ Tamanrasset- h f ---- > £ ---- 5 SELECTED CITIES

MAURITANIA N Totnone sto - PosiSodon INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

*No..kohottf MALI L A dt

.-,. jem *Tortboontoo *Agae 9 J Foyo-Latgeao /

NIGER

Anno

SENEGAL T NCHAD ERIT

)And IC=~ I'/ BURKINA i ro-- s SUDANAGUINE;¼ -_

BISSAL

_.C') . . I _, NIGERIA J-j *AddrsAbo ' SOMALIA

SIERR '.,N A -' J N f t - CENTRAL * ETHIOPIA,,., .,;.tPE/ ':.-sr- . -fRICAN REPUBLIC

Llbehl~~~~~ .-,*g- 'EN3A N_ /1r11>_~^, Jb -_L'bFisr5 1i*~ ~ ~~~~~~k;oW *.oL..r. ..:' \

EQUATORLALAGUINE\ - MUGAND- Mgoisho

World Bank I&vestments in Coastal/Marine PRCP KEsKng-ni- ( Kampol/ KENYA j

Components of Projects SNT- G

Loans and Credits: A v RWANK Nirolb

Cote d'lvoire $101.9 BL RrorzovlUl BURUNDIm7

Nigeria 19.0 Peint/. /. -Kn~ss

Gitnea 6.5 Ccbind$ -_;; *K.n-g K1lerti- TANZANIA

The Gambia 15.0

Mozambique 32.0

Madagascar 4.2 ANGOLA - COMOROS

Seychelles 1.8 ZAMBt A LLW r

Mauritius 21.5 Noisa , oika ZAMBI ) Malawi 8.8 LukK H .\ Z IU

, IHo- - 'L

GEF Components/Projects: IMBAB MA:AGASCAR MAURITlUS* ~~~~~~~~~~~Saint Doer.

Cote d'lvoire 4.20' NAMIBIA I BOTSWANA R-onCote dIvoire 4.20 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Windhoek F (F,)

Ghana 8.40- /

Nigeria 1 .20- K 7Proto-ra

Benin 1.20 L/

Cameroon 1.20- M. rjenoLESTHO

Seychelles 1.80 SOUTH AFRICA

Malawi 4.00 SOUTH AFRICA

A.R. of Egypt 4.75 C'pe Elizabeth

Rep. of Yemen 2.80ElOIbhRep Eriremn 3280 The boundories, colors, denominations and any other information

shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group,

Includes Gulf afG.-eo Region-l GEF any judgment on the legal status of ny territory, or any endorsement n

' Proposed for 1994 hnding cyl or acceptance of such boundaries

Map 12

I

. pp-_ imio~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

a 1 I ... ...-._ _J- F