working with wood

➤ Harvesting and Drying Lumber

➤ Buying and Storing Wood

➤ Building for Wood Movement

➤ Machining and Bending Wood

➤ Smoothing and Finishing Wood

ANDY RAE

Working with

WoodTaunton’s COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED Guide to

AN D Y RA E

C

Taunton’s COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED Guide to

Working with Wood

About Your Safety: Working with wood is inherently dangerous. Using hand or power toolsimproperly or ignoring safety practices can lead to permanent injury or even death. Don’t try toperform operations you learn about here (or elsewhere) unless you’re certain they are safe foryou. If something about an operation doesn’t feel right, don’t do it. Look for another way. Wewant you to enjoy the craft, so please keep safety foremost in your mind whenever you’re in the shop.

Text © 2005 by Andy RaePhotographs © 2005 by The Taunton Press, Inc.Illustrations © 2005 by The Taunton Press, Inc.

All rights reserved.

The Taunton Press, Inc., 63 South Main Street, PO Box 5506, Newtown, CT 06470-5506e-mail: [email protected]

EDITOR: Paul AnthonyDESIGN: Lori WendinLAYOUT: Cathy Cassidy

ILLUSTRATOR: Mario Ferro, except where noted

PHOTOGRAPHER: Andy Rae, except photos on p. 189 (bottom right), p. 190, and p. 191 by Tom Begnal, courtesy Fine Woodworking, © The Taunton Press, Inc.; photos on p. 193 and p. 196 by Matthew Teague, courtesy Fine Woodworking, © The Taunton Press, Inc.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA:Rae, Andy.

Taunton's complete illustrated guide to working with wood / Andy Rae.p. cm.

ISBN 1-56158-683-81. Woodwork. 2. Wood. I. Taunton Press. II. Title.TT180.R34 2005684'.08--dc22

2004019362

Printed in Italy10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The following manufacturers/names appearing in Taunton’s Complete Illustrated Guide to Working with Wood are trademarks:Shade-Dri™, Biesemeyer®, Waterlox®

Pp

It takes many people to help one become familiar with the intricacies of

wood. In truth, my greatest knowledge of woodworking comes from our

woodworking forebears, who deserve thanks from all of us. However,

I also wish to thank all the woodworkers I’ve known in my career who

helped me understand the material a little better by letting me into their

shops to see how they work it. Their names are many, but they know who

they are. Their lessons and friendships are priceless.

Special mention goes to my editor, Paul Anthony, who helped as usual

to keep my feet firmly planted on the ground. Not only is Paul an ace

editor, but he is a woodworker and published writer in his own right.

What author could ask for a more qualified collaborator? Also, thanks to

my in-house editor, Jennifer Renjilian Morris, editorial assistant Jenny

Peters, and executive editor Helen Albert, who all pulled tight when the

rigging got slack.

Once again, I am in debt to my family for their support and love.

Thanks to them, the home fires burn warm and bright.

Acknowledgments

Contents

6 Softwoods and Hardwoods

4 Wood’sStructure

P A R T O N E Understanding Wood • 2

14 DistinctivewoodProperties

11 Identifying a Species

21 Tricks forIdentifyingWood

7 UnderstandingWoodMovement

23 UnderstandingGrainOrientation

10 Reaction Wood

SECTION 1 The Properties of Wood • 4➤

SECTION 2 Identifying Wood • 11➤

54 Drying Lumber

40 Rough-MillingLumber

35 HarvestingTrees

62 Buying Lumber

SECTION 4 Drying Lumber • 48

SECTION 5 Buying Lumber • 58

➤

➤

SECTION 3 Cutting Your Own Wood • 26➤

P A R T T W O Finding and Storing Wood • 24

88 Letting WoodMove

87 ReadingMoisture

SECTION 7 Dealing with Wood Movement • 78➤

106 Testing Your Joints

108 CommonJoints

104 Designing a Joint

SECTION 8 Choosing Joints • 104➤

P A R T T H R E E Designing with Wood • 76

73 Parts Storage71 Handling Sheet Goods

SECTION 6 Storing Lumber • 65➤

131 Drawing Full-Scale

132 Appearance and Strength

SECTION 9 Selecting Your Material • 123➤

171 Getting Clean Cuts

SECTION 11 Working Difficult Wood • 162➤

173 MakingRepairs

180 FlatteningVeneer

156 SizingPlywood

158 CuttingShapes

160 CuttingVeneer

147 Milling Solid Wood

SECTION 10 Dimensioning Wood • 142➤

P A R T F O U R Cutting Wood • 140

198 Kerf-Bending 202 Bent Lamination

206 Steam-Bending

197 GreenBending

SECTION 12 Bending Wood • 184➤

P A R T F I V E Bending Wood • 182

228 SandingWood

234 Making Repairs

235 Preparing for a Finish

225 Planing and Scraping

SECTION 13 Smoothing and Preparing Wood • 214➤

P A R T S I X Smoothing, Gluing, and Finishing • 212

Sources • 272

Appendix • 273

Index • 277

244 Clamping Up 248 Gluing Veneer

254 RemovingGlue

243 Gluing OilyWood

SECTION 14 Gluing and Clamping Wood • 236➤

264 SmoothingBetweenCoats

265 Applying aFinish

271 Smoothingthe Finish

262 ColoringWood

SECTION 15 Finishing Wood • 255➤

Identifying Wood, Page 11The Properties of Wood, Page 4

This book is about wood, the stuff woodworkers

work. To thoroughly understand the material, we need

to start at the source: trees. Understanding trees and

their nature can help us become much more intimate

with our material and can provide a broader understanding of how

to work it. This first part of the book aims to give you a basic grounding

in the properties of wood, from its botanical structure and classification

to its identifying characteristics as milled lumber. Becoming familiar

with these basic aspects of wood will provide you with essential building

blocks for creating a solid foundation for all your future woodworking.

UnderstandingWood

PART ONE

SECTION 1

4

The Propertiesof Wood

As an organism, wood is composed of avariety of cell types that perform a range oftasks, including transporting water, provid-ing mechanical strength, and helping thetree withstand natural stresses during its lifespan. Wood’s structure is determined by thetype, size, shape, and arrangement of thesecells. Of importance to us as woodworkersis that most of these cells are arranged lon-gitudinally in the tree (see the right draw-ing on facing page).

This longitudinal orientation gives riseto what woodworkers refer to as graindirection, or the direction in which thepredominant fibers of wood are arrayed.However, due to the variation in cell typeand orientation, a tree’s internal structure isanything but homogeneous. This lack ofuniformity explains why the characteristicsof wood vary between species—and quiteoften within the same species. For example,it’s common for two boards from the same section of a log to have drastically differentqualities, and for wood in general tobehave in unexpected ways. Learning more

The structure and living systemof a tree provide clues as to thenature of its wood and whether it is

a softwood or hardwood. They also help usunderstand why wood moves after it hasbeen dried, which is a perennial problem forwoodworkers embarking on the quest tomake fine furniture. Understanding thesekey properties of wood can minimize theguesswork encountered by beginning andexperienced woodworkers alike.

Wood’s Structure

Understanding the cellular structure ofwood provides a firm foundation for dealingwith its appearance, behavior, and oftenidiosyncratic working characteristics.

Trees gain their sustenance from theroots. Water and nutrients rise from theground to the branches and leaves, produc-ing sap for new cell growth. All this actionsurrounds the heartwood in the core of thetree, which is composed of cells that nolonger play a direct part in sap production(see the left drawing on facing page).

SECTION 1

The cross-sectional face of a board con-sists of the cut ends of longitudinal cells.This face is essentially end grain and is thehardest surface on a board. Thanks to itstoughness, it makes an excellent surface forchopping blocks or other high-wear areas(see the photo on p. 6).

A radial surface displays a series ofstraight growth rings, or lines.

about trees and the way we cut them willbetter prepare us for those unpredictablemoments.

When a piece of wood is cut from a tree, there are three “faces,” or planes, thatpresent themselves to us (see the drawingon p. 6). Knowing which way a board was oriented in the tree and the differencebetween each face allows us to describe the grain in a given board. This provides a big advantage when we’re choosingboards.

The Properties of Wood 5

Crown

Trunk

Root system

Outer bark

Inner (living) bark

Cambium

Sapwood

HeartwoodWater and nutrients move upward through sapwood from the roots.

Sap travels down through inner bark to build new cells.

ANATOMY OF A TREE

This section from an angiosperm (hardwood) shows a variety of cell types found in a tree.

The majority of cells are oriented longitudinally in the tree.

CELL FORMATION

IN WOOD

See “Growth Rings” on p. 15.➤

SECTION 1

This uniform pattern makes the radialface an excellent candidate for splitting into straight sections, such as when you’remaking splints or other straight-grainedparts, since the split fibers will follow thegrain lines. The straight lines can also beused as a visual element when you want auniform look in your work.

The tangential face typically has morewidely spaced rings arranged in an unevenpattern and usually reveals a wilder andmore asymmetrical grain pattern, comparedto the radial surface. Like the straight lineson a radial face, the irregular grain patternon a tangential surface can be used as a visual design feature but with a less organ-ized and more organic effect.

Softwoods and Hardwoods

The terms “softwood” and “hardwood” areused to denote the taxonomic division thatseparates species. Surprisingly, the two termshave little to do with the actual hardness ofthe wood. By definition, hardwood treeshave broad leaves and are deciduous, mean-ing they lose their leaves at the end of thegrowing season (see the left photo on facingpage). Hardwoods are angiosperms, produc-ing seeds from pollinated flowers. Oaks,maples, birches, and fruit trees are examplesof hardwood trees.

Softwood trees are conifers (evergreens)with scalelike foliage or needles that do notdrop after the growing season (see the rightphoto on facing page). Softwoods are gym-nosperms, meaning they reproduce by meansof cones rather than flowers. Examples ofsoftwoods include the pines, spruces, firs,and hemlocks.

The Properties of Wood6

Center of tree (pith)

Annual growth ring

Outside of tree

Cross-sectional surface(end grain)

Tangential surfaceRadial

surface

THE THREE PLANES

OF WOOD

The authorarranged the graindirection on hisminiature hickorychopping block sothe hard end grainfaces up to resistsharp knives.

SECTION 1

Understanding

Wood Movement

To make furniture successfully, it’s importantto understand two simple but essential facts.The first is that wood moves. This meansthat it takes in and releases moisture in itscells and swells or shrinks accordingly. Thisswelling and shrinking may be barely notice-able or it may be quite substantial, depend-ing on the type of wood and the amount ofhumidity in the air.

For furniture, hardwoods reign over thesoftwoods. The range of hardwood species isgreater, giving us a wider variety of woods tochoose from. Overall, their characteristicsare better suited to furniture making thanthose of softwoods. However, please don’toverlook the softwoods as viable furniturewoods. As an old friend and master crafts-man once remarked, “Pine is a great wood.Its softness challenges you to make tight,crisp joints.”


With its broad spread of thick, tapering branches sporting large leaves, thismature oak is typical of many hardwood trees. At the end of the growing sea-son, all the leaves drop to the ground.

This white pine exhibits thefamiliar shape of many soft-wood trees. It has numerousbristlelike needles and pro-duces pinecones on its long,straight branches. An ever-green, it won’t drop its foliage,but instead grows new needlescontinually.

SECTION 1

left drawing above). Typically, extreme warp-ing happens during the initial drying stagewhen the wood is shrinking rapidly. Butsmall degrees of warp continue long afterthe wood is dry and can be a constant sourceof grief to a woodworker.

Although you can’t stop wood movement,you can limit it to some degree. The wayyour wood is cut—plainsawn, riftsawn, orquartersawn—has a big impact on movement.

Due to its varying grain patterns, a plain-sawn board will undergo unpredictable

The second fact is that nothing can stopthis movement.

Wood swells and shrinks across its widthbut not appreciably along its length. That’sbecause the basic cell structure of wood con-sists of a series of fibers packed together inlongitudinal fashion, similar to a bundle ofstraws (see the right drawing above). Asthey absorb or release moisture, the tubeschange in diameter, resulting in expansion orcontraction across the total width of thebundle or, in our case, a board.

One of the worst aspects of movement iswarp, the result of boards expanding or con-tracting in uneven patterns, deforming fromtheir original sawn or milled shape (see the


BowCrook

Cup Twist

TYPES OF WARP

The main cell structure of wood consists of vessels—similar to a bundle of straws—that swell or shrink in diameter when exposed to varying degrees of humidity. The result is wood that expands or contracts across its width but not appreciably along its length.

At equilibrium High humidity Low humidity

WOOD’S RESPONSE TO MOISTURE

See “Understanding Grain Orientation”on p. 23 for information.

➤

SECTION 1

parts from expanding or shrinking excessive-ly, it’s important to work in a shop environ-ment where the relative humidity (RH) isn’ttoo high or too low.

movement. Quartersawn wood is your bestbet when you need the most dimensionallystable material, since any movement occursmore evenly across its annular rings withmuch less chance of warp.

Another way to control wood movementis to design and build your furniture to allowthis movement to take place. For example,you can fit a wide panel to float inside a narrow frame—a typical scenario in frame-and-panel construction. The wider, moremovement-prone panel can then expand orcontract freely without pushing or pulling onthe frame. Gluing or otherwise fixing thepanel to the frame will sooner or later resultin failure by either breaking the frame jointsor splitting the panel, as shown in the draw-ing at right.

To further control wood movement, workwith “dry” or “seasoned” wood. This refers to material that’s been properly dried fromits green, fresh-cut state to a suitable mois-ture content.

With material that’s been dried to thecorrect moisture content, you’ll minimize the amount of movement and make it more predictable.

Another important consideration is theambient moisture content of the air sur-rounding your wood and, ultimately, yourfurniture. To prevent the various furniture


Swelling breaks joints.

Panel is glued in groove in frame members.

Shrinking cracks panel.

PANEL GLUED TO FRAME

See “Dealing with Wood Movement”on p. 78 for information.

➤

See “What Is Dry Wood?” on p. 48.➤

See “Controlling Your Shop’s Climate”on p. 78 for information.

➤

SECTION 1

Reaction wood can be found in all speciesand results from abnormal stress in a treedue to its growing conditions. Storms, highwinds, growth on the side of a hill, or com-petition for sunlight can all contribute toreaction wood in a tree. The best examplesare trees growing on a severe slope wheregravity forces a curve in their trunks, oroceanside trees on which prevailing windshelp to form grotesquely shaped trunks andbranches. A noticeable bow in the trunkindicates reaction wood in the area of thecurve (see the photo below).

Your best bet is to learn to identify reac-tion wood and avoid using it. Telltale signsinclude abnormally curved or spiraling logsor boards, an off-center pith in the trunk,or a furry or woolly surface on a board. Thistype of wood is in compression or tensionand will always move in unpredictable ways, making it difficult to machine, sand,or finish.

Finally, a good finish with multiple coatscan limit a board’s movement. But no finishwill stop this movement entirely because thefinishes we use in woodworking are notimpermeable to moisture transfer. On amicroscopic level, the wood still “breathes”and will respond by expanding or contract-ing as moisture finds its way through thefinish and into the cells and pores of thewood. However, following a proven finishingregimen will help greatly in controlling theamount of wood movement in your furniture.

Reaction Wood

All wood retains a certain amount of inter-nal stress, but certain woods have it in abun-dance. You’ll sometimes encounter theseoverly stressed woods when ripping a plankon the table saw, as the separated woodstarts to either close in on the saw blade or curve away from it, pinching the blade inthe process.


Constant winds bearing against oceansidetrees result in gnarled and twisted trunksand branches—all wood that’s full of internal stress.

The author’s shop isa safe haven forwood, with insulatedfloors, walls, andceilings, plus win-dows and doorsthat seal out theweather. A dehu-midifier under thebench draws excesswater from the airto keep stock at astable moisturecontent.

See “Finishing Wood” on p. 255.➤

SECTION 2

Identifying Wood

11

sidered logging your own wood. There aremany good books on the subject that pro-vide detailed information on specific species.(See Sources, p. 272.) But fair warning: Thejob is part science and part art. Even sea-soned arborists and loggers are fooled nowand then by certain trees. However, thereare some basic techniques you can use tospot a species in the wild.

One approach is to study how trees lookwhen bare, typically in the dead of winter orin early spring when the buds are beginningto form (see the drawing on p. 12). Onceyou begin learning the shapes of trees, you’llfind that your eye quickly becomes trainedto detect signature characteristics of eachspecies.

Try taking a walk in the woods in winterwhen the leaves are down. Not only willindividual trees be easier to spot, but theentire forest opens up to the eye, offeringclues as to the variety of trees that live there.

Woodworkers should know asmuch as possible about wood.It’s very valuable to know how

to spot different species of living trees, howour wood is cut from the tree, the variousworking characteristics of different woods,and some of the techniques for identifyingspecific types of wood. All this informationaids in selecting the right wood for projects.

Precise wood identification relies in largepart on the characteristics of wood cellsrevealed under a microscope, making thiswork better left for qualified professionalswith the right tools and years of training.Thankfully, most woodworkers can learn toidentify species quite successfully by famil-iarizing themselves with some of the morecommon characteristics of wood.

Identifying Species

Learning to identify a particular species ofliving tree can be helpful if you’ve ever con-

SECTION 2

TREES IN WINTER

20 ft.

SUGAR MAPLEDrawn at 128 yrs. old

WHITE OAK Drawn at 180 yrs. old

BURR OAKDrawn at 145 yrs. old

BLACK WALNUTDrawn at 60 yrs. old

SYCAMOREDrawn at 40 yrs. old

JAPANESE WHITE PINEDrawn at 45 yrs. old

SHAGBARK HICKORYDrawn at 75 yrs. old

RIVER BIRCHDrawn at 46 yrs. old

40 ft.

60 ft.

20 ft.

40 ft.

60 ft.

20 ft.

40 ft.

60 ft.

YELLOW POPLARDrawn at 44 yrs. old

Tree drawings by Anthony Tyznick, courtesy of the Morton Aboretum

Identifying Wood12

SECTION 2

Important characteristics to look for includethe direction and shape of branches, the tex-ture and color of a tree’s bark, and the over-all shape of the tree (see photos above and at right).

During the growing season, leaves providea good way to identify various species (seethe top photo on p. 14). However, it takes atrained eye and years of study to becomefamiliar with a great variety of species.

A tree’s flower, bud, or fruit is also a goodindicator of its species. In the spring, youcan easily look up to see buds forming on

Identifying Wood 13

When trees are bare, you can spot severalspecies in the woods by observing distin-guishing characteristics normally not visible in the growing season.

The smooth, skinlike barkmarks this as a eucalyptus tree.

Deep fissures in the trunk ofthis cedar are distinctive to thespecies.

The multiplebranches thatsweep upward andoutward on thisancient oak tree areeasily seen whenthe tree is bare ofleaves.

SECTION 2

branches. Later in the year, look to theground under a tree for fallen nuts (see thephoto below).

Distinctive Wood Properties

Once you become familiar with trees, look-ing at the boards that come from them willreveal a seemingly endless variety of quali-ties. All woods have specific characteristicsthat can help us choose one particularspecies over another. The more familiar youbecome with these defining properties, thebetter your chances for selecting the bestwood for your projects. Many of these char-acteristics are visual, such as a board’s coloror figure. As you gain a deeper appreciationof these characteristics, you’ll be able to con-fidently add new woods to your inventory,seeking out those that appeal to you.

Sapwood versus HeartwoodGenerally, woodworkers prefer to use heart-wood over sapwood. Heartwood is found inthe heart, or center, of the tree and usuallyhas a darker and more interesting color thanthe surrounding sapwood, which is found onthe tree’s perimeter (see the top left photoon facing page). Sapwood is typically whiteor creamy-yellow in color. Using sapwood ina piece of furniture is often distracting whenuniformity is the goal, although many wood-workers intentionally leave the sapwoodband as a strong visual statement. For out-door work, it’s best to avoid sapwood sincethis area of the tree is more prone to fungi,insect attack, and rot.

Identifying Wood14

The classic shapeand pointed ends of these leavesidentify the tree as a red oak.

Acorns at the baseof this tree signifythat an oak standsabove.

See “Decay Resistance” on p. 20.➤

SECTION 2

Rings that are thick and spaced far apartare a sign that the tree grew quickly. Tighter,more closely spaced rings are found on slow-growth wood. Generally, slower-grown woodis more appealing to woodworkers becausethe tighter ring arrangement provides morestrength and stability than lumber from fast-grown trees. However, there are exceptions;the fast-grown wood of certain pines andother woods is denser than the slowergrowth from the same species, and thusharder and more suited to specific taskswhere strength is important.

Part of the growing cycle of a treeincludes the faster-grown earlywood, whichforms in the spring when most growth takes place. Later, the process slows downand the tree forms a band of latewood,

Growth RingsThe circular rings on the end of a log reflecta tree’s history (see the top right photo).Each ring is the result of one year’s growthand is termed a growth ring or annular ring. Pay attention to growth rings as youlook at the ends of individual boards. They’lltell you a lot about how and in what condi-tions the tree grew and what to expect from the boards as you transform them intofurniture parts.

Identifying Wood 15

Sapwood is quite distinctive in somespecies, such as in the striking creamy-white band at the rim of this downed redwood.

The lower stretcher on furniture makerRobbie Staples’s cherry crib sports a bright band of sapwood—a nice designdetail that complements the lighter ashspindles above.

Each year of thetree’s growth is dis-played as a singlering in this crosssection of ash.

SECTION 2

Another characteristic of these differingdensities is that each area absorbs stains andother finishes at a different rate. The softerearlywood soaks up much more finish thanthe latewood, which can result in blotching.This is why it’s usually a good idea to use awood conditioner on most softwoods beforeapplying a finish.

Pores and TexturePores are the result of cuts made through theends or transverse sections of cell vessels.Occurring only in hardwoods, pores may belarge and distinct, such as those in red oak(see the photo on facing page), or they maybe barely visible under magnification, suchas those in hard maple. Hardwoods are clas-sified as ring-porous, diffuse-porous, orsemi-ring-porous.

Ring-porous woods, like oak, ash, and elmhave large pores concentrated in the earlywoodarea of the growth ring. This arrangement cre-ates uneven grain and a tendency to split moreeasily along these weaker areas. These woodsare said to be coarse-textured, and you canusually discern the rough surface by eye orwith the palm of your hand. Ring-porouswood is often desirable when pieces need to besplit, or riven, along the grain to make strongchair spindles, for example. On the other hand,the large pores can create finish problems. Ifyou desire a smooth finish on a ring-porouswood, you’ll have to fill the pores before top-coating. There is also a tendency for bleed-back due to the larger open pores, becausepools of finish can gather in them, spreadingout onto the finished surface before drying.

which completes the growing cycle (see thedrawing below).

In many woods, especially the softwoods,the difference between earlywood and late-wood is quite distinct. Typically, you’ll noticea marked difference in density, with the late-wood being much harder than the earlywood.Southern yellow pine or redwood are goodexamples, where the more abundant early-wood is softer and wears away more quickly.You can sometimes feel this with your handon the surface of a board. You’ll certainlynotice it if you sand a board carelessly,because the abrasive cuts into the softer earlywood faster than the latewood, creatingan undulating surface instead of a smooth,flat area. The trick here is to learn how tosand correctly.

Identifying Wood16

Growth ring

Inner bark

Outer bark

Earlywood

Latewood

Latewood usually appears as a darker band within growth ring.

EARLYWOOD AND LATEWOOD

See “Smoothing and Preparing Wood”on p. 214.

➤

SECTION 2

Semi-ring-porous woods (also known assemi-diffuse-porous) fall in a class some-where between the previous two types.Overall, these woods contain large pores distributed evenly throughout the growthring, although they sometimes get smallertoward the latewood. They are semi-coarsein texture, with black walnut and its slightlycoarser cousin butternut being two goodexamples. Like ring-porous woods, thesewoods need pore-filling before finishing, andtheir overall uniformity makes them poorcandidates for riven parts.

Grain“Grain” is one of those woodworking termsused to describe just about anything that hasto do with the fibers in a piece of wood. Forour purposes, it’s important to know thatgrain refers to the arrangement of woodfibers in a board, which includes the direc-tion in which the predominant fibers runand their overall surface pattern.

ColorThe specific colors of different woods arehelpful in wood identification—and vital for choosing the right palette of colors foryour furniture.

Certain woods stand out more than oth-ers, such as Brazilian rosewood, prized for itsrich pinkish-purple hues, contrasted bysplashes of bright orange demarcated by fineblack lines. Pink ivory is a startling pink

Diffuse-porous woods tend to havesmaller pores that are more evenly distrib-uted throughout the early and late growthareas. These fine-textured woods, whichinclude maple, poplar, and cherry, have auniform appearance with a surface that’scompact and dense. This allows you to applystains and other finishes more evenly.However, some diffuse-porous woods suchas mahogany and birch have relatively largepores, although in the same uniformarrangement. These types of diffuse-porouswoods accept stains evenly, but you’ll need tofill the pores during finishing to achieve aglass-smooth surface.

Identifying Wood 17

Ring-porous woods display distinctivegrain patterns, such as the elongated poreson the tangential surface of this piece ofred oak.

See “Understanding Grain Orientation”on p. 23 for information.

➤

See “Wood Species” on p. 273.➤

SECTION 2

ture of certain species, while others resultfrom abnormal growth and extractives in thewood. For example, the dark streaks and thinlines in spalted wood are the result of theinitial stages of decay—a process that is thenhalted through kiln drying or heat.

Most figured wood can be exploited byjudicious sawing of the log. Generally, thebest figuring results from quartersawing,in which the growth rings are oriented at 90 degrees to the board’s face.

However, some figure displays best on theplainsawn face, and other types of figureappear no matter which way the wood is cut,such as in burled wood. Although figuregenerally occurs in specific woods, almostany wood can display some of these unusualgrain patterns on occasion. The terms usedto describe specific types of figure and thewoods most commonly associated with them are listed in the chart shown on thefacing page.

ResinResin canals, also called pitch pockets, arefound only in softwoods, most typically inthe pines. These are tubular passages thatexude “pitch,” a sticky resin. Resin canalsmost often occur in or near the latewoodzone of the growth rings and show up onmilled surfaces as long gashes that seep agooey mess. Knots are another area whereresin sometimes accumulates. While resin is used commercially for such products asturpentine and rosin, it’s a pain for wood-workers because it can ooze out of a board

color, while purpleheart (amaranth) is a rich,royal purple. Gabon ebony is jet black. Thecolors are endless.

Although specific woods can be charac-terized by color, this is by no means a uni-form rule. For example, the heartwood ofpoplar is generally a medium-green colorwith a band of creamy-white sapwood, butsometimes you’ll come across boards withswaths of deep purples, browns, and blacks.Keep in mind that oxidation and exposure tolight will alter the color of any wood, typi-cally changing it from a light shade to adarker hue. However, some woods hold theircolor longer than others. For example, pauamarillo is a vibrant canary yellow that canretain its color for years. In contrast, padauk—an almost blood-red wood—usually turns adull red or brown within days of milling.

Figured WoodThe vast world of figure in wood providesone of the great joys of working our material.Instead of perfunctorily turning off-the-rackboards into furniture parts, you have theoption of composing parts from premiumboards that display fantastic figure. Studyingfigure in woods and then using it selectivelyin your work can really pump up the lookand feel of your furniture.

In general terms, figure refers to the char-acteristic grain markings on the surface ofwood. But the term figured wood has a moredefinitive meaning. It describes wood withvery distinctive patterns, usually resultingfrom the arrangement of its grain. There arenumerous types of figured wood and veneersthat are beautiful to behold and offer a wayto add great distinction to our furniture.Some come from the normal growth struc-

Identifying Wood18

See “Understanding Grain Orientation”on p. 23.

➤

SECTION 2

Identifying Wood 19

Figured Woods

TERM COMMONLY SEEN IN OCCASIONALLY SEEN IN

Walnut, mahogany, Swirl cherry, maple Rosewood, olive

Cherry, mahogany,Curly Maple, makore, anigre sycamore, walnut, oak, teak

Fiddleback Maple, makore, anigre Sycamore, cherry, mahogany

Bird’s-eye Maple Cherry, white pine

Quilted Maple, mahogany, sapele Myrtle, maobi

Crotch Mahogany, walnut Cherry, maple, oak

Peanut Shell Tamo ash Bubinga

Ribbon stripe Mahogany, bubinga

Amboyna, mahoganyBee’s wing Satinwood eucalyptus

Ray fleck Oak, lacewood Sycamore, beech

Redwood, elm, amboyna,Burl camphor, walnut, madrone Oak, imbuya, ash

Pommele Sapele, bubinga, makore

Spalted Maple, sycamore, beech Cherry, poplar

SECTION 2

to turn up their noses at these woods. Onthe other hand, sassafras has a sweet, tangyscent that invites hand-planing of the woodjust to catch a whiff of its perfume.

Density and HardnessDensity is the measure of a wood’s relativeweight, while hardness describes the com-pressive strength of its surface. These twoqualities are interrelated, and we typicallyrefer to both physical properties whendescribing the strength of a particular wood.In general terms, the heavier a piece ofwood, the stronger its compressive strength,or its ability to withstand force on its sur-face. This makes very hard woods great for flooring and other high-impact areas,whereas softer, less-dense woods are a betterchoice when lighter weight is paramountand strength is less important, such as for ceiling trim or other parts that won’t suffer abuse.

Decay ResistanceWhen wood is left outdoors exposed to theelements, it eventually rots. The leadingcause of decay in wood is fungi, whichmakes its home in material that is exposedto moisture. However, some woods are lesssusceptible to decay. This makes choosingdurable woods for outdoor projects a neces-sity. While most woods will rot quickly—some in less than a year—there are severalhardy species that can last generations, evenwithout a protective finish. The chart on the facing page lists a selection of highly rot-resistant woods suitable for outdoorwork, along with their relative strengths andweaknesses.

long after a finish is applied. It also has anasty habit of showing up under paint orother film finishes. Kiln-drying wood usually“fixes” the resin so it doesn’t leak onto thesurface, and a few coats of shellac will sufficeto seal any existing pitch areas in your work(see the photo above). Usually the most real-istic approach is to cut around this defectwhen possible.

OdorMost woods have a unique odor, and a feware distinctive enough that you can spotthem easily with a sniff. All woods smellstrongest when green or freshly cut. Butmany have a strong bouquet even after thewood has been dried. The aroma of drywood is emitted particularly during sawing.The spicy scent of Spanish cedar, a tradi-tional wood for lining humidors, is unmis-takable, as is the odor of yellow cedar. Oakand walnut both have their own characteris-tic and quite pungent aromas, which arestrong enough to cause some woodworkers

Identifying Wood20

Applying one or two coats of shellac is anexcellent way to seal in resin and prevent itfrom bleeding out of knots.

SECTION 2

Tricks for Identifying Wood

Once lumber has been cut and dried, identi-fying its specific species can be a challenge.Scientific investigations with a microscope areusually out of the realm of the average wood-worker, but there are several seat-of-the-pantsmethods for identifying particular woods.

Many of the woods we come across haveaged in dusty old barns or have been sittingon shelves, oxidizing for years. Consequently,they’re dark and often dirty. To find out if thewood in question is a treasure, give it a goodwiping with a stiff brush to remove debrisand then scrape or slice the surface with apocketknife until you expose fresh wood.The color below is almost always lighter andbrighter and often indicative of the species.

Identifying Wood 21

Outdoor Woods

Black locust Very rot-resistant; wide boards rare; typically used for posts in fences and buildings; predrill for fasteners

Osage orange Very rot-resistant; wide boards rare; extremely dense and hard; predrill for fasteners

Teak Expensive, heavy; turns silver over time; extremely durable, stable, and strong; holds fasteners well; retains smooth surface

Mahogany (genuine) Expensive; moderately heavy; silvers over time; retains smooth surface (Avoid “Philippine mahogany,” a type of lauan)

Jarah Relatively expensive; very hard, but surprisingly easy to work; glues well; deep reddish color with striking black lines; fades to gray if left unfinished

White oak Relatively expensive; moderately hard; stained by iron hardware outdoors; weathers coarsely and ray flecks on quartersawn lumber can separate over time

Bald cypress Limited availability; lightweight, but strong; glues well; blackens with striking tanhighlights over time; prebore for fasteners to prevent splitting

Redwood Soft and lightweight; works well but requires beefed-up joinery for strong connections; turns silver over time

Yellow cedar Extremely durable; soft, but somewhat stronger than redwood; sweet, spicy scent, traditionally used by native Americans for totem poles and other outdoor carvings

Cutting just below the surface of this dirty old board reveals thelovely pink hue of cherry.

SECTION 2

One trick is to test the wood for hardnesswith your fingernail. You can easily tell thedifference between hard and soft maple withthis test. Or you can check whether you’redealing with walnut or its much softer look-alike, butternut—two woods that fool evenseasoned woodworkers (see the top photo at left).

The odor of certain woods is quite dis-tinctive, so it pays to familiarize yourself withthe various scents, which are particularlydetectable if the suspect wood is green ormoistened. To enhance the scent of drywood, I usually wet it with a dash of waterbefore sniffing.

Another method for identifying certainspecies is to check for tyloses, a naturalmaterial unique to some hardwoods. Thisstuff blocks the pores of certain woods, suchas chestnut and ash, and is most prominentin white oak and black locust. Determiningthe presence of tyloses is one way to discernwhite oak from red oak. Try blowing intothe end grain of a split, or riven, sample heldin a bowl of water. If you can blow bubbles,the sample is likely to be red oak. If youcan’t, the pores are blocked, and you’re prob-ably holding white oak (see the bottomphoto at left).

If you’re really stumped, try sending asample to a lab. That’s right; you can mail asample of the wood in question to one ofseveral identification services, usually for asmall fee. In the case of the USDA ForestService, the testing is free. (See Sources,p. 272.) Most services require only a smallsample that you can pop in an envelope. Besure to include as much information as pos-sible about the wood, such as its area of ori-gin and any common names connected to it.

Identifying Wood22

Wetting a piece ofwood will boost itsaroma so your nosecan detect its signa-ture smell.

The relative soft-ness of two similarwoods can be testedby indenting themwith a fingernail.Butternut (below)accepts an impres-sion while the harder walnut(above) resistsmarking.

To differentiatebetween the oaks,have some funblowing through asplit sample of thewood. Bubbles indi-cate red oak, whichlacks the pore-blocking tylosesfound in white oak.

SECTION 2

expansion and contraction occur in a rela-tively even manner over the width of thematerial. Riftsawn wood runs a close secondin terms of stability, while plainsawn boardswill often cup or twist wildly due to changesin the direction of the grain.

So why not use quartered wood all thetime? Well, first of all, it’s more expensivebecause quartersawing a log produces lessyield, so mills charge more per board foot.Secondly, the tangential face of a quarteredor rift-cut board will display straight grainlines as opposed to the cathedral grain pat-tern found on plainsawn boards, as shown in the photo above. The choice of straightversus cathedral grain is solely a matter ofpersonal style. Most woodworkers combineall three types in their work.

Understanding

Grain Orientation

The way a board is sawn from a log deter-mines its grain orientation. There are threetypes of grain orientation you’ll encounter ina sawn board: plainsawn (also called flat-sawn), riftsawn (also called riftcut), andquartersawn. Each term denotes how theannular growth rings are oriented in a board.Knowing the grain orientation of a specificboard is important because it will help youpredict how the wood will behave duringcutting, how it will react to moisture andfinishes, and how it will look in a piece offurniture. The easiest way to determine thegrain orientation is to look at a board’s endgrain, as shown in the drawing above.

In terms of wood movement, a quarter-sawn board is the most stable because

Identifying Wood 23

PlainsawnGrowth rings curve up or down tangential to board’s face.

RiftsawnGrowth rings angle roughly 45 degrees to board’s face.

QuartersawnGrowth rings lie at 90 degrees to board’s face.

GRAIN ORIENTATION IN BOARDS

From left to right:plainsawn, riftsawn,and quartersawnoak boards, eachdisplaying its distinctive grainpattern on the tangential face ofthe board.

Buying Lumber, Page 58

Drying Lumber, Page 48Cutting Your Own Wood,

Page 26

Storing Lumber, Page 65

The quest for wood can be fun, exciting, and at

times frustrating. As woodworkers, we want—and should

expect—the very best for our money. It’s worth taking

the time to find good sources for wood, and you may

even want to fell and mill your own timber. When you’re buying wood,

it’s a good idea to become familiar with lumberyard parlance to avoid

some of the pitfalls common in purchasing milled stock. Once you’ve

acquired lumber, you’ll want to keep it in good condition by monitoring

its moisture content and storing it in a manner that ensures its quality

for years to come. In this part of the book, we’ll look at all these aspects

of acquiring and storing material so you’ll never run short of the

best stuff.

Finding and Storing Wood

PART TWO

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

26

Cutting YourOwn Wood

➤ Felling a Tree (p. 35)

➤ Cutting Trunks intoLogs (p. 37)

➤ Planting a Tree (p. 39)

➤ Shaping a Log byHand (p. 40)

➤ Milling with aChainsaw Mill (p. 42)

➤ Milling with aCircular Sawmill (p. 44)

➤ Milling with a Band Mill (p. 46)

Harvesting TreesRough-Milling

Lumber

ture. You only get this satisfaction if youmill your own wood.

It’s easy to get a bit cavalier about theenvironment when you’re harvesting yourown wood, especially after you’ve gained someexperience. Part of responsible harvestingincludes replacing what you take by replen-ishing the forest or your own small lot withsaplings for future generations.

Also, don’t forget that felling trees andmilling your own logs are inherently dan-gerous. Please keep safety uppermost inyour mind when tackling this kind of work.

Sizing Up a Tree

How tall is that tree? If you’re thinkingabout milling your own wood, this can bevaluable information for estimating howmany boards a particular tree might hold.Or you might simply want to get betteracquainted with trees and their variousheights. Thankfully, there’s a low-tech wayto gauge the rough height of a tree. Theonly tools you’ll need are your thumb—anda partner to serve as a gauge.

If possible, stand in a clearing 100 yardsto 200 yards from the tree in question, andhave your pal stand at the very base of the

NOTHING BEATS the pleasure of har-vesting and milling your ownwood. The money you save is a big

benefit, and if you have a woodlot on yourproperty you have the opportunity to man-age it in a responsible manner—somethingthe big timber companies often overlook.You’re also in direct control of your wood,from choosing the best cuts and matchingsequential boards to becoming intimatelyacquainted with your material through thesweat of your own labor. But the biggestthrill is to turn a log into a piece of furni-

See “Show Your Support of Trees” on p. 28.➤

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

tree. Here, my friend Lindsay Carroll wearsa light-colored shirt to increase her visibility(see the bottom left photo). Raise yourthumb up to eye level, as woodworker HansDoellgast does here, and move your hand inor away from your body until your thumbjust blocks the view of your cohort fromhead to toe. At this point, the width of yourthumb equals the height of the personstanding at the tree.

Without moving the relative position ofyour hand to your body, “walk” your thumbup the tree. Move it in successive steps tothe top of the tree without overlapping, andcount the number of moves it takes to reachthe top. To calculate the height of the tree,simply multiply the height of your partnerby the number of thumb moves you made.

Cutting Your Own Wood 27

Stand a couple of hundredyards from the tree, with yourhelper standing at the base ofthe trunk.

Raise your thumb toeye level, and moveit in or away fromyou until its widthblocks the view ofyour helper.

“Walk” your thumbup the tree until you reach the top,counting the number of movesyou make.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

Harvesting Wood

Taking a tree from the forest is a big job andan even bigger responsibility. The act offelling a tree poses serious, life-threateningdangers due to the immense weightinvolved. Furthermore, moving and handlingone of these behemoths after it hits theground involves some special techniques andequipment. Equally significant is the factthat you’re taking a tree’s life. I feel it’simportant to give the deed due respect. Areverent attitude makes you careful and cau-tious and ensures that you don’t approachthe task lightly. In the end, the boards youreap will have much more impact on yourfurniture making than store-bought boards.

To fell a tree, you’ll need either a chain-saw or a hefty ax and a good felling saw.While chainsaws are fast and efficient, thehand-tool approach is safer and quieter. Andwith practice, it can be just as quick. Eitherway, it’s essential that your tools are sharpfor good cuts.

Cutting Your Own Wood28

Sawyer Mike Peters inspects a pile of logsthat are ready for sawing into planks.

As a woodworker, you can help the

environment by putting back what you

take out. Consider planting a tree (see

“Planting a Tree,” p. 39) or getting

involved with any number of govern-

mental and grass-roots organizations

around the world that support the

growth and survival of our forests.

Consult your local library to find a

group in your neck of the woods,

check with area colleges and univer-

sities, or see Sources, p. 272.

SHOW YOURSUPPORT OF TREES

➤

See “Keep It Sharp” on p. 30.➤

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

please don’t become another statistic. Takeyour time, and consider gaining some expe-rience by helping an expert before tacklingyour own felling project.

Before you jump into the job of felling atree, take a few moments to understand thesequence of cuts (see the drawing above).Countless people have lost their lives due toa lack of knowledge or a careless approach;


Fall side

Direction of cut

1 ft. to 2 ft. above ground

1. Begin on the fall side of the tree, using an axe or chainsaw to make a downward-sloping cut, starting at least 1 ft. above the ground.

4. Make a cut straight across the back side, using a crosscut saw or chainsaw. Start the cut level with or just above the notch’s center line. Keep sawing until the tree starts to fall.

Direction of cut

2. Next, make an upward-sloping cut, splitting out the waste and forming a V-notch.

Fall face of tree

Equilateral triangle, with notch 1/2 to 2/3 through trunk.

3. Continue upward and downward cuts until the notch is 1/2 to 2/3 through the trunk.

TREE CUTS

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

For boards with a minimum of defects,sawyers like to grade saw, which involvesturning the log during the sawing sequenceso the best face is always the next cut, mini-mizing defects such as knots, checks, discol-orations, and other natural flaws. This is thestandard approach in the timber businessbecause it yields the highest-grade boards,and big wood manufacturers want clear,

Cutting Logs

Whether you buy your logs or harvest them yourself, sawing them into boards is acrucial step on the road to making furniture.There are three methods for cutting, andeach approach has a big impact on the typeof board you’ll get (see the drawing on fac-ing page).


Saw blades, axes, and other edge tools should be

kept sharp for tree work. The coarse material of a

tree, especially its dirt-laden bark, will dull tools

quickly. The best sharpening regimen is to stop and

sharpen when you sense the tool is cutting with diffi-

culty, or if you have to use more force. Use a file on

saw blades, stroking all the teeth with the same num-

ber of passes, and following the profile of the teeth.

To touch up an ax edge, you can use the same file.

Hold the tool firmly against your body and stroke

one side by moving the file away from the cutting

edge. Then flip the tool over and stroke in the oppo-

site direction until the edge is sharp.

KEEP IT SHARP➤

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

board” in the center of the log, which con-tains the pith and must be cut away. Buttaking the time to work with and aroundthese so-called defects can make your furni-ture more distinctive than the run-of-the-mill stuff cranked out in the factories.

The last approach, quartersawing, is themost wasteful of the three sawing methodsin terms of yield, since it results in a lot ofscrap and several narrow boards too small foruse in furniture. It’s difficult to find anyonein the industry sawing in this manner today.However, it’s worth finding a small milloperator in your area who’s willing to takethe time to cut wood this way, since you getall the benefits of quartersawn wood.

defect-free stock. However, it produces rela-tively narrow stock and doesn’t necessarilygive furniture makers the best wood.

Live sawing, also called “through andthrough” sawing, is something that the bigmills tend to avoid. This approach yieldswide boards (not particularly desirable to bigfurniture companies) that are full of naturaldefects. But for small-shop woodworkers,live-sawn boards can be real gems. You getmatched boards (if you keep them insequence as they come off the log), and theplanks are as wide as the tree is round. Withsequenced wood, you can match color andincorporate interesting grain patterns in yourwork. Another boon is the huge size of theboards. Working with wide planks lets youbuild solid-panel tables and cabinets, whichmany furniture-makers consider more beau-tiful and appealing than glued-up panelsfrom narrower boards. Yes, there are imper-fections to be dealt with, such as the “dog


Grade SawingRotate log before each cut to orient toward face that yields highest-grade board.

Live SawingMake a series of parallel cuts, sawing to center of log and then rotating log 180 degrees to saw second half. Dog board contains pith and is usually waste.

QuartersawingSaw log into four quarters, andthen saw each quarter radially.

Dog board

CUTTING CHOICES

See “Working Difficult Wood” on p. 162.➤

See “Understanding Grain Orientation”on p. 23.

➤

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

mill—only the chainsaw mill is trulyportable. The other two types are mobile,meaning you can move them to the site, butit will involve trailering the unit with a vehi-cle. It may also require a helper or two.

The least expensive setup is a chainsawmill, and it’s a good option for the beginner.A chainsaw mill employs one or two chain-saws and a simple metal carriage that guidesthe saw along the log. A key feature is achain that’s designed for rip-cutting ratherthan crosscutting. Some models can be usedquite effectively by one person. Cuts are pre-dictable but slow, and the saw kerf made bya chainsaw is the widest made by any of thesmall lumber mills, creating the most waste.However, a big advantage is the ability to cutbig logs, since you can equip the mill with along bar for ripping really wide boards. Thisis a nice system that works well, sets up easily,and gives you a good feel for cutting yourown wood without a heavy investment.

A second choice is the circular sawmill,which costs more and requires trailering tothe site. The particular mill shown in the topphoto on the facing page is lightweight andcan be set up and operated by one person.Cuts are relatively fast and produce slightlyless waste than a chainsaw. The downside isthat these mills tend to be limited in termsof cutting width, making them best suitedfor milling dimensioned lumber (2x4s, etc.)and not furniture-grade wood.

The third option is to go with a bandsawmill. This is the most expensive system ofthe three for small-scale milling and, like thecircular mill, must be towed behind a vehiclefor on-site work. Its sheer size and weightalso means you’ll need a helper. However,

What Type of Mill

Should You Buy?

Sawing your own logs into lumber is a greatway to get wood at a fraction of the costyou’d pay a sawyer or lumber dealer. The jobcan be done with axes and adzes, but a smalllumber mill is a more expedient choice.Today’s mills can go right to where the treehas been downed, saving you the complexityof transporting whole logs, as opposed tolumber. Of the three basic mills available tothe small-shop woodworker—the chainsawmill, the circular sawmill, and the bandsaw


A chainsaw mill is easy to set upand use and letsyou tackle really big logs.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW


A bandsaw mill like the one shown above can be trans-ported to the job site. Set up under cover (right), thisband mill can saw wood all day at great speed.

A circular sawmillcuts a lot of rela-tively narrow woodin a hurry and canbe operated by one person.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

the band mill cuts very fast, leaves littlewaste, and can be equipped with a hydraulicdog system that lets you reposition and holda log automatically during cutting. Fancierversions have on-board computers that youcan use to dial in the cuts instead of using atape measure or ruler.

One sneaky item to watch for when you’remilling wood is metal buried in a log.Foreign objects like spikes and steel pins arequite common in some trees, such as shadetrees growing around a house or marker treesin a farmer’s field. Both might have seenduty as fence posts or other convenient nail-ing spots. Steel or iron will destroy a chainor blade, and the iron itself will stain wood.To find iron deep within a log, it pays toinvest in a metal detector so you can locateand pry out foreign objects before milling.


Iron left in greenwood will causedeep staining, suchas the dark streakson this walnut plank.

A handheld metal detector is a good investment if you’re thinkingabout milling your own wood.

The bane ofsawyers, big steelnails will knock off teeth anddestroy blades.

HARVESTING TREES

Felling a Tree

Before felling a tree, it’s important to assess theweight of its upper branches and the lean of thetree to judge where it is likely to fall (A). Thengather your tools to begin cutting. Here, wood-wright Roy Underhill uses an ax and handsaw forfelling, but the same basic sequence can beapplied when you’re using a faster-cutting (butlouder and dirtier) chainsaw.

Start by making a downward cut on the fall sideof the tree, about 1 ft. to 2 ft. above the ground(B). Then make an upward cut that meets thefirst to form a V-notch (C). Alternate betweenupward and downward cuts to deepen and widenthe notch. Good ax work involves splitting wood,which is much easier on the arms and faster thansevering the fibers. With the right technique, youshould see large chunks fly from the cut (D). Aimto make a notch an equilateral triangle that’sabout as wide as it is deep. When the notchreaches one-half to two-thirds back into the tree,you’re ready for the back cut (E).

(Continued on p. 36.)


A

C

E

D

BWARNING Before making any

cuts, clear an escape path 45 degrees

away from the fall of the tree in case

of an emergency.

▲!

HARVESTING TREES

Begin the back cut with a crosscut saw or chain-saw, sawing straight across the face directlyopposite the notch cut, and level with or slightlyabove the middle of the notch (F). As you sawdeeper into the trunk, keep your ears tuned toany creaking sounds from the tree, and remem-ber to eyeball the treetop every few strokes tonote any sway. These are signs that the tree isready to fall. Once the tree starts to go, pull thesaw from the cut (G). Then run from the tree atroughly a 45-degree angle from its fall line. Aboveall, never run directly behind the tree, as the buttend may kick back swiftly and without warning(H). If you’ve made the right sequence of cuts,the stump should show a narrow “hinge” ofwood between the notch and back cuts, withvery few fibers pulled from the stump (I).


F

H I

G

HARVESTING TREES

Cutting Trunks into Logs

Handling logs is a challenge because of theimmense weight involved, especially when thewood is green and full of sap. However, with afew specialized logging tools, a little woodsmansavvy, and perhaps a helper, it can be accom-plished without too much sweat.

When trees fall, they typically hang up on groundcover or other trees, such as the poplar shownhere (A). The first order of business, then, is toreduce the trunk to manageable lengths that canbe moved to a safe spot for subsequent sawinginto logs. Pick an area where the trunk clears theground, and use a two-man crosscut saw tomake a saw cut from below, about one-quarter ofthe way through (B). Then cut from the top untilthe saw passes through (C). The undercut pre-vents the saw from binding and allows a cleancut without tearing the fibers (D).

[VARIATION] For a one-person approach,

try using an old-fashioned “Folding

Sawing Machine,” as it was called in the

1800s. A hook at one end of the device

grabs the trunk, and downward pressure

from a spring keeps the saw in the wood

while you push and pull the blade via a

long lever.



A B

C D

VARIATION

HARVESTING TREES

Once you’ve cut the tree into sections, you’llwant to move them to level ground for sawinginto smaller logs that can be taken from the for-est. Plan on cutting your wood into 10-ft. sectionsor less, which gives you decent lengths withouttaxing your back or the vehicle you use to trans-port the logs. To move the logs into position, usea cant hook, which uses a hooked spike and along handle for leverage (E).

Position the log so the bulk of it lies as much aspossible on the ground. By slipping a scrap ofwood or bark under the cutline, you can give thetrunk more firm support and protect the bladefrom dirt as you saw through. As before, use atwo-man crosscut saw to cut through the log. Thelead man steers the blade and makes the cut onthe pull stroke. The helper follows the lead, andthen pulls the blade back for the return stroke (F).If the blade starts to bind, tap a wedge into thetop of the kerf to keep the sawcut open so youcan cut all the way through (G).


E

F

G

HARVESTING TREES


Planting a Tree

Planting a young sapling can be done swiftly withthe right tool. Using a specialized digging spadecalled a dibble or dibble bar (A, B), an experi-enced forester can plant as many as 1,000 treesin a single day. Start by digging up a shoot, suchas this white ash taken from a garden (C). Becareful not to damage the plant’s roots while digging and planting, especially the centraltaproot (D).

Begin a hole for the sapling by piercing the fulllength of the dibble straight into the ground, andthen wiggling it back and forth (E). When the holeis about 6 in. wide, take hold of the sapling andpush its roots into the hole until the uppermostroots are slightly below the ground (F). Now plantthe spade full depth a few inches in front of thesapling and lever the tool forward to push the dirttoward the shoot (G, H). Finish up by tamping theloose dirt with a foot (I). There’s no need to waterunless the area is experiencing drought. Totalplanting time: about 30 seconds.

A

D

G

H

I

E F

B C

ROUGH-MILLING LUMBER

Shaping a Log by Hand

Before machines, woodworkers used hand toolsexclusively to mill and shape wood. Hewing logsinto beams was one of these tasks, and it is stilla viable method for producing big timbers today.The method is simpler than you might think.

Begin by positioning a fresh log on a pair of short log sections to raise it off the ground. Cut V-notches into the sections to help stabilize the log.Then clamp the log to each section by using anax head to pound in a pair of pinch dogs, alsocalled log staples (A).

Using a plumb bob and chalk, strike two parallellines on one end of the log to mark the desiredwidth of the beam (B). Transfer the marks ontothe face of the log with a chalkline by snappingthe line onto the bark (C), then remove the barkat each line with a drawknife (D). With the barkgone, use the chalkline again to snap hewinglines onto the more-visible white wood (E).


A B

C D

E


To remove the bulk of wood on one face, employa two-step process. Standing atop the trunk, usea felling ax to make a series of V-shaped notchesalong the log, just shy of your layout lines (F).Then swing the ax along the trunk and betweenthe notches to split off large chunks (G).

Next, use the same ax to make a series of kerfsin the face of the log to the depth of your line(H). Stand astride the work and use a broadax torefine the surface, making slicing cuts by liftingthe ax and letting it fall so that its weight does allthe work for you (I). Finish one side by rotatingthe log so the flat surface faces up, and againworking on top, use an adze to smooth the face.Swing the tool toward you and between yourlegs, taking a thin shaving with each pass (J).Repeat the hewing process on the opposite face,then square off those faces to produce a four-sided beam.


WARNING To avoid injury, wear

sturdy work boots and always keep the

cutting path of the adze between your

legs, never to the side.

▲!

F

H

J

I

G


Milling with a Chainsaw Mill

A chainsaw mill provides one of the simplestways to get acquainted with milling your ownwood. The system is very easy to transport andcan often be used alone. Keep in mind that thekerf left by the chain is about 1⁄2-in. wide, whichwastes a fair amount of wood. But with a chainmill, you have the option to saw really wideboards by equipping the mill with a long bar—a big plus.

Since this log is too wide for his mill, chairmakerDon Weber starts by lopping off excess areaswith a chainsaw (A). Then he uses a cant hook toposition the log so the desired cutting surfacefaces up. Wedge the log underneath if necessaryto keep it stable (B).

Square up the ends of the log as best you canwith the chainsaw (C). Then attach an end boardat one or both ends with lag screws, using a pairof levels to align the top of each board across thelog, and level with the highest point along thelog’s length (D). Next, use a level to strike a levelline across the center of the log through the pith(E). This becomes your reference line for layingout the first cut. Also, if you cut directly into thisline later, you’ll minimize unstable pith in theboards adjacent to the center.

Lay a homemade beam over the log and ontoyour end boards (F). The beam must be sturdyand straight, so it’s best to make it from 2x mate-rial attached to a length of angle iron along eachedge. Referencing the line you drew earlier on theend of the log, adjust the mill for the first cut bylowering or raising the mill bars (G). This first cutis a waste, or slabbing, cut to remove sapwoodand define a flat surface for the first board, somake sure to adjust the mill with this in mind. Becareful not to make this cut too shallow or you’llcut into the end boards that hold up the beam.


A

C

E F

G

D

B


Once you’ve adjusted the mill, start the saw andpush it through the wood to make the initial slab-bing cut (H). As you push, concentrate on keep-ing the mill flat on the surface of the beam. Onceyou’ve established the cut, drive a couple ofwedges into the kerf to prevent the sawn piecefrom collapsing onto the bar (I). When the cut isalmost complete, drive a few more wedges intothe kerf near the end of the log, and then pushthe mill through to finish the cut (J).

After removing the slab piece, adjust the depth of cut to the desired thickness of the plank youwish to mill (K). Now make your second cut similar to the first, but this time you’ll be cutting aplank of even thickness (L). Remove the firstplank from the log (M), and continue adjustingthe depth of cut and cutting through the log fromthe top surface down, milling individual planksuntil you reach the bottom slab section.


WARNING Mechanized mills

generate a lot of noise and dust. Always

protect your eyes and ears with safety

eyewear and hearing protectors.

▲!

H

J

L M

K

I


Milling with a Circular Sawmill

A circular sawmill can be set up and operated byone person. Here, woodworking instructor LisaPieropan sets up a mill by wheeling the saw car-riage inside the beams of the saw’s frame, aneasy task for one person (A). Working with a logthat’s already been sawn on one face by a bandmill, she squats down and sights the beams par-allel to the top of the log (B). The same tech-nique works with an unsawn whole log; you sim-ply sight along its top edge. A crank at each endof the frame lets you adjust the beams up ordown as necessary (C).

Before sawing, dial in the desired thickness andwidth by setting the stops at the front of the sawcarriage (D). Make the first cut with the bladeparallel with and to one side of the log, pushingthe carriage into the work (E). With the carriage


A

B

C

D

E


at the far end of the log, release the carriage lock,rotate the blade 90 degrees (F), and pull the sawback through the work to complete the first cut(G). This first slabbing cut removes waste fromthe edge of the log and creates a straight edgefor the first board (H).

Rotate the saw back to parallel, and push the car-riage into the log to slab, or thickness, the firstboard (I). Again, rotate the blade to 90 degreesand pull the saw back to complete the cut (J).The finished board has two straight and parallelsides, and the log is ready for the next board-cutting sequence (K).


F

H I

J K

G


Milling with a Band Mill

This bandsaw mill is set up under cover to keepthe wood and sawyers Michael Talbot and ForrestEdens in the shade and out of inclement weath-er (A). The mill uses a flexible metal blade, orband, that travels around two wheels on the sawcarriage. The thin blade has aggressive, hook-shaped teeth that cut through logs very quicklywith minimal waste (B).

Here, cherry logs are the milling order of the day.Cutting begins when the sawyers slice a logdown its center. With this particular mill, the logis dogged to the platform and remains stationarywhile the saw carriage moves along the cut (C).After the first cut, the saw operator sets a row of metal dogs to hold the face parallel, or at 90 degrees, to the blade, depending on thedesired cut. The sawyer then measures the widthof the log in order to raise or lower the blade formaximum yield (D). Once this is set, the operatorsaws the half-log into two quarter-logs (E).


A

C

E

D

B


With a quarter-log in place, board milling begins.The operator adjusts the blade for the thicknessof the cut, measuring from the bottom of the log.The saw carriage begins its movement throughthe log from the near, or operator’s, side of themill (F). At the end of the cut, the blade exits andthe log drops down onto the sawn board (G).

A helper shifts the log and pulls the sawn boardfrom the platform (H). Immediately after sawing,it’s important to stack the boards onto a stickeredpile (I).

With a band mill, the sawn surface displays aseries of straight sawmarks perpendicular to theedge of the plank (J).


G

I

H

J

F

See “Stickering a Pile” on p. 54.➤

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

48

Drying Lumber

➤ Stickering a Pile(p. 54)

➤ Wrapping a Stack (p. 56)

➤ Monitoring a Kiln (p. 57)

Drying Lumber

What Is Dry Wood?

Drying, or seasoning, wood correctly is thekey to using it for furniture construction.The drying process takes place eitherthrough air-drying or through a combina-tion of air- and kiln-drying, as I’ll explainshortly. The basic approach involves the ini-tial removal of all the free water in the greenwood, which is liquid and moisture trappedinside the cells. Following that, the wood isfurther dried by removing a portion of thebound water—the moisture that saturatesthe walls of the cells.

It’s important to understand that as thebound water evaporates, the wood starts toshrink. This is why your drying scheduleshould give the wood enough time to shrinkslowly. Otherwise, unequal stresses in thewood will lead to warping and cracking.However, drying too slowly will invite fun-gal attack on the surface of the wood.Therefore, it’s necessary to carefully monitorthe moisture content of the wood as it dries.

The moisture content (MC) of wood isdefined as the ratio of the weight of waterin a given piece of wood to the weight ofthat piece of wood when it’s completely dry(known as oven-dry weight). This ratio isexpressed as a percentage.

Knowing the MC of your wood is criticalbecause not all wood is dried to the sameextent. For furniture making, wood should

A ll living trees contain sap,which is mostly water, or moisture.When we mill a tree into lumber,

we have to reduce this moisture content inthe wood before turning our boards intofurniture. The technique for drying wood isquite an art. It requires drying our materialfast enough so it won’t mold or rot, yet notso fast that it stresses the wood, whichresults in checking, splitting, and all sorts ofother nasty traits.

In this section, we’ll learn about the cor-rect moisture content for our material—andsome of the pitfalls of wood that’s too wetor too dry. We’ll also look at how wood isdried, and how to choose an appropriatemethod for drying your own boards toensure that you’re always working with premium wood.

See “Reading Moisture in Wood” on p. 81.➤

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

your beautiful log will become scrap. Youcan use ordinary house paint or a productmade specifically for the purpose: a wax sus-pended in a water-based emulsion. Using apaintbrush, make sure to apply a thick coatto both ends of the log.

be in a range between 6 percent and 8 per-cent MC. In contrast, construction-gradelumber used for building houses is usuallykiln-dried to 12 percent to 14 percentMC—too wet for our purposes.

It’s important to realize that wood ishygroscopic—that is, it always expands andcontracts in relation to the amount of mois-ture in its environment. Fortunately, thismovement isn’t arbitrary; wood does eventu-ally reach a state of equilibrium with itsenvironment. This simply means that, at agiven level of relative humidity, the wood nolonger takes on or releases water. At thispoint, the amount of water in the wood isreferred to as its equilibrium moisture con-tent (EMC). The EMC of wood will begreater when the weather is humid and lessin the dry season.

Sealing Fresh Wood

As we’ve seen, part of the process of dryingwood involves slowing down the rate atwhich water escapes the cells, but not slow-ing it down so much as to promote fungalattack. And the place to begin is with wholelogs right after they’re felled. Start by check-ing the bark. If it’s sound, it’s okay to leave iton the log. However, be sure to remove anyloose bark because it will invite fungi to takeup residence and start the decay process.

The next—and probably most important—step is to seal the end grain of the log.Again, do this immediately after felling.Sealing this area is important because thesevered ends of the cell cavities release mois-ture much more quickly than the long-grainfibers, and fast water removal results inchecking as the wood dries out too quickly.If you wait or ignore this step altogether,

Drying Lumber 49

As soon as you’ve cut your logs, thoroughly cover them withpaint or wax on their ends to retard checking.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

Drying Techniques

The hobbyist and small-shop woodworkerwho is drying his or her own wood shouldfirst let it air-dry, even if it will ultimately bekiln-dried as the final step. Initial air-dryingis more economical and gives the wood timeto relax while losing much of its free water.Although large commercial kiln operatorswill stack freshly cut material in their kilns,chances are you’d have some serious prob-lems if you tried this approach yourself. It’slikely that checking and interior splits wouldturn your prized stock into a firewood pile.So even if you’re thinking of using a kiln fordrying, you should become familiar with theair-drying process.

First stack all your wood in piles so aircan get around it (see the drawing on facingpage). Once the wood has dried to around20 percent MC, you have two options: Put itinto a kiln or leave it to dry further. Most ofthe commercial wood we use is kiln-dried. If

Drying Lumber50

Stacks of wood dryin the air undercover at theNakashima work-shops in New Hope,Pennsylvania.

Sawyer Mike Petersuses a shippingcontainer for a kiln,operating it 24 hoursa day.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

the interior, or core. You can spot a case-hardened board at the mill by looking forsmall, isolated checks on the face of a board.In the shop, you’ve got case-hardened woodif you rip a board in half and see cuppingacross the inside face. Sometimes a boardwill cup to the outside, a reverse situation ofcase-hardening. Serious case-hardening canresult in honeycombing, where the stressesin the core create small tears, or checks, inthe center of the wood, typically in dense,thick woods. You’ll want to avoid materialwith any of these traits.

Another potential benefit of air-dryinglumber is the preservation of its color.Woods like walnut have richer, more vibranthues when left to dry outdoors. However,

done correctly, the operation yields wonder-fully stable, uniform stock in a relativelyshort time. While kiln-drying has theadvantage of speeding up the drying process,air-drying has its own benefits.

Air-DryingThe biggest advantage of air-drying wood isthe utter simplicity of the process. Withsome careful preparation, all you need is aflat area in which to store your stock and alittle time. Another plus is that wood driedby air alone is free of some of the stressesthat kiln-drying often imparts. One suchunpleasant characteristic is case-hardening,in which the outside, or shell, of a board has been dried too quickly, creating stress in

Drying Lumber 51

B ild t k f l th f l b

Weight holds roofing in place

Protect stack from direct sun and rain with corrugated roofing or exterior-grade plywood.

Cover supports with plastic sheeting to protect stack from ground moisture.

Space 4x4s 16 in. apart on level, well-drained ground.

Position stickers directly over foundation supports to provide air passage between layers.

Wrap stack with landscaping cloth or similar material to protect from sunlight, rain, and harsh wind.

MAKING A DRYING STACK

Not uncommon with kiln-dried wood, cup-ping on the inside face of these resawnboards indicates case-hardening, a condi-tion caused by improper drying.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

quite, ready for working, without clutteringup your shop. Eventually, though, you’ll haveto bring your stickered stash inside an envi-ronmentally controlled (heated) building likeyour home or shop to get it down to 6 per-cent to 8 percent MC.

Once your wood has dried to within thisrange, you’ll want to continue monitoring itwith a moisture meter to see that it remainswithin the range or has reached equilibriumwith its new environment (EMC).

In general, it takes about a month forwood to reach this desired state and accli-mate to indoor conditions.

Kiln DryingOverall, drying wood in a kiln is much fasterthan air-drying and allows you to work thewood much sooner. In general, you shouldair-dry your stock for six months to a yearbefore putting it into a kiln. When loadingthe kiln, stack the lumber in much the same

the reverse is sometimes the case, as withpear, which takes on a deeper tone whendried inside a kiln with moisture and heat.It’s worth experimenting with drying differ-ent woods both ways to see which approachworks best for you.

A general rule of thumb for air-dryingwood is to wait one year for every inch ofthickness. However, this depends on climateand species. Softer, lower-density woodssuch as pine or poplar generally dry morequickly than denser species such as oak orrosewood. Still, many woodworkers use thisrule as a guideline for drying. Therefore, ifyou have a stack of 8/4 (2-in.-thick) wood,you might have to wait as long as two yearsbefore it’s dry enough to bring indoors.

Outdoors, wood will typically only dry to about 20 percent MC, depending on theclimate and species. Bringing it into anenclosed but unheated building like a barnor shed can lower the moisture to around 12 percent MC. This intermediate step isoften a matter of convenience and allowsyou to store wood that’s almost, but not

Drying Lumber52

Isolated splits deepwithin wood resultfrom severe case-hardening. Called“honeycombing,”the defect is difficultto see withoutopening up a board.


SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

(see the drawing above). Commercial kilnsuse an electronic controller that records themoisture content in the kiln, but a handheldmoisture meter will suffice and allows you tokeep tabs on the condition of sample boards.

Kiln-drying schedules vary, depending onthe species and thickness, but one to twomonths is not uncommon for bringing wooddown to around 7 percent MC. Afterremoving lumber from the kiln, remember tostore it in the shop for a few weeks beforeworking it so it can attain equilibrium withyour shop’s ambient humidity.

manner that you stacked it outdoors, keep-ing it stickered so air can flow freely aroundthe boards.

The working components of a kiln arevery simple, and many woodworkers maketheir own from salvaged and otherwise for-aged parts. The kiln will need to be insulatedon the inside and impervious to the weather.Shipping containers make excellent kilnboxes, or you can construct a container fromsheets of plywood insulated with rigid foam.Inside, a fan circulates the moist air while alarge dehumidifier—often coupled with aheating unit—pulls moisture from the pile

Drying Lumber 53

Install vents to release moist air.

Make end or side panel removable for loading and unloading lumber.

Insulate walls and ceiling.

Dehumidifier or heat source lowers relative humidity.

Fan circulates air to promote drying.

Make baffle from plywood sheet to force circulating air to return through stickered stack.

Provide drain from dehumidifier to outside.

INSIDE A KILN

DRYING LUMBER

Stickering a Pile

Proper stacking of freshly cut boards is vital forkeeping your wood flat and ensuring that it driesin the correct manner. It’s best to pick levelground that’s shielded from prevailing winds anddirect sunlight. A dry spot under some trees usu-ally does the trick.

Here, sawyer Mike Peters begins laying out astack by placing a pair of 10-ft.-long 4x4s on theground. He uses a level and short 4x4s on top ofthe beams to level them with each other, usingshims under the beams where necessary (A).Next, Peters positions a series of short 4x4sacross the ground beams, spacing them every 16 in. on center and making a center mark onboth ends of each crossbeam (B, C).

When stickering like this, begin stacking the firstlayer by placing your wood across the cross-beams, with the outermost board flush with theends of the beams (D). As you stack, butt eachboard up to its neighbor. Subsequent drying andshrinking ensures that there will be an adequategap between boards for a good flow of air (E).When you get to the opposite side, measure thewidth of the stack at each end to ensure that it’seven. This is critical to a making a stable stack,especially with the first layer (F).

For the second layer and all subsequent layers,place stickers across the previous layer anddirectly over the center marks you made earlier(G). Use only fully dried wood for your stickers(kiln-dried is best), making them 3⁄4 in. to 1 in.square, and be sure to choose a mild speciessuch as poplar or maple that won’t leach extrac-tives and other stains into your pile and discolor it.

Drying Lumber54

A

C

G

E F

D

B

DRYING LUMBER

[VARIATION] Instead of using wood

stickers, you can buy a commercial plastic

variety. The plastic tubes have concave

surfaces that reduce contact area with the

wood, and the material itself helps elimi-

nate sticker stain.

Build the second layer as you did the first, keep-ing the boards together with their ends flush (H).It’s best to work with the same lengths of boardswhen possible, but if you have shorts, make sure to place them so they’re supported by thestickers and are as even as possible with at leastone outside edge. As before, make sure the last board in the layer is even with the edge ofthe stack (I).

[VARIATION] To speed up making

a stack, Peters designed and built an

L-shaped metal enclosure that lets him

sticker his wood right off the mill. He

butts boards into the corner, which

ensures that the stack stays even, and

then he moves the pile with a forklift to

a suitable drying spot.

Continue building layers until you reach an appro-priate height. Generally, it’s best to keep yourstacks under 8 ft. tall so they’re stable and easyto access. To protect the pile from rain and sun,you’ll need a roof of some sort. Sheet-metal roof-ing works well as long as it extends past the pilea few inches and is weighed down with concreteblocks or stumps of wood. Peters uses his trac-tor to lift a prefabricated roof made from sheetmetal screwed to an old pallet to cap off a fin-ished stack (J).

Drying Lumber 55

VARIATION H

I

J

VARIATION

DRYING LUMBER

Wrapping a Stack

A properly stacked and stickered pile will standfor years. And with a roof on top it will dry with-out taking on or releasing excessive moisture.But in really humid or dry climates, adding fabricaround the pile will minimize the effect of thesun, rain, and wind, ensuring that your wooddries more evenly.

One option is to use regular landscaping cloth,which lasts a couple of seasons before breakingdown. Starting at one corner of the stack, screwone end of the cloth to the top of the pile underthe roof, either into one of your boards or into theroof structure (A). Then walk the cloth around thesides of the pile, securing it at every corner withmore screws. To avoid damaging the fabric, make sure the cloth doesn’t rub against theboards (B). When you’re done, the materialshould be well secured at the corners and hangloosely at each side (C).

[VARIATION] For the best protection of

your stacks, you can use a material called

Shade-Dri™, one of several products

made expressly for this purpose. This

special material shields the sides of your

pile from sunlight, rain, and strong winds,

while its open-weave construction allows

air to pass through for good ventilation.

Although more expensive than landscap-

ing cloth, the material is designed to with-

stand years of weather.

Drying Lumber56

A

C

B

VARIATION

DRYING LUMBER

Monitoring a Kiln

A variety of structures and containers can be outfitted to serve as kilns. But whatever the type of kiln, it must be faithfully monitored dur-ing the drying process. Here, instructor ChrisFeddersohn opens up Palomar College’s kiln,which is made from a converted shipping con-tainer (A). Inside is a stickered pile of wood,along with plywood baffles that direct airflowaround and through the stack (B). An overheadfan circulates the air (C), while a dehumidifierdraws moisture from the stack and moves it outside (D).

An electronic box mounted inside the kiln butaccessible through a door on the outside lets you monitor the time, temperature, and moisturelevels (E). It’s important to check on the dryingconditions frequently until the moisture contentreaches the desired level.

Drying Lumber 57

A

C

E

D

B

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

58

Buying Lumber

➤ Picking LumberyardWood (p. 62)

Buying Lumber

various lumber terms used in the trade andthe grading systems for classifying the qual-ity of the wood you buy. Once you’re armedwith this information and know a few tricksfor selecting good wood and avoiding thebad, you’ll be able to buy wood from theyard with confidence.

Understanding Lumber Terms

Lumber terminology can appear complexand mysterious to the beginner, but it’s notdifficult to grasp if you familiarize yourselfwith a few basic terms and some generallumber-making rules.

When wood is sold at the mill or lum-beryard, it’s measured in board feet. Thisinvolves using a simple formula that allowslumberyards and merchants to calculateamounts of wood in spite of the fact thatlumber isn’t uniform in size. The formula isbased on one board foot equaling a piece ofroughsawn wood 1 in. thick by 12 in. wideby 12 in. long, or its cubic equivalent.

To find the total board feet of a givenboard, you multiply (in inches) thickness bywidth by length, then divide by 144. Forexample, to calculate the number of boardfeet in a roughsawn board measuring 11⁄2 in.thick by 63⁄4 in. wide by 8 ft. long, the for-mula is as follows:

1.5 x 6.75 x 96 ÷ 144 = 6.75 bd. ft.Get to know this formula well, since

you’ll use it to calculate the total board feetyou need when purchasing lumber.

Buying wood is a never-endingprocess. I consider it part of thechallenge and fun of woodworking.

There are many sources for your material,and it pays to investigate them all. Oneavenue to consider is acquiring green woodand drying it yourself or taking it to a quali-fied drying facility.

However, most of us will opt for payinghard cash at the lumberyard for our stock.To ensure that you get what you pay for, it’sa good idea to become familiar with stan-dard lumber nomenclature, including the

See “Drying Lumber” on p. 48.➤

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

each quarter representing 1⁄4 in. of thickness(see the chart below). For example, 4/4 (pro-nounced “four-quarter”) is roughsawn lum-ber approximately 1 in. thick. If you buyyour wood in the rough, you’ll get a piecethat’s about 1 in. thick. No problem.However, if you buy that same board sur-faced on two sides (typically the two widefaces), it’s still described as being 4/4, yetyou get a board that’s 3⁄4 in. thick—1⁄4 in. lessthan the quarter terminology led you tobelieve it would be. The simple answer isthat when sawn boards are surfaced by themill, they typically lose 1⁄4 in. of actual thick-ness in the process.

Lumber grading also has its own termi-nology. When you purchase hardwood at thelumberyard, it has been graded based on thenumber of defects in each board. The fewerthe defects, the more expensive the board.Grading is based on rules set by the NationalHardwood Lumber Association. Whilethese rules are stringent and followed by alllumber manufacturers and suppliers, thereare exceptions, depending on species. Thechart above shows the basic guidelines

Once you get to the lumberyard, you’llencounter two general types of lumber.Rough lumber consists of boards that havebeen sawn to size but not surfaced. Surfacedlumber has gone through the next step byhaving one or more of its four facessmoothed, typically by being sent through athickness planer. You can buy either varietyat most mills, although I recommend buyingrough lumber, then surfacing it yourself.That way, you have more control over theprocess, which ultimately results in flatter,straighter wood.

Knowing that mills routinely surface lum-ber is important for understanding anotherpiece of potentially confusing lumber termi-nology. When a mill sells you a surfacedboard, it describes it as seemingly thickerthan what you actually get. Don’t worry—noone is trying to pull a fast one.

Here’s what happens: Lumber at the yardor mill is roughsawn to a given thicknessthat is described in terms of “quarters,” with

Buying Lumber 59

Thickness Terminology

DESCRIPTION ROUGH THICKNESS SURFACED THICKNESS

4/4 (“four-quarter”) 1 3⁄4

5/4 11⁄4 1

6/4 11⁄2 11⁄4

8/4 2 13⁄4

10/4 21⁄2 21⁄4

12/4 3 23⁄4

16/4 4 33⁄4

See “Dimensioning Wood” on p. 42.➤

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

might be surprised at the number of small,family-run yards in your area. Some evenoffer free delivery, usually with a nominalminimum order. The best suppliers let youpick through stacks yourself so you canchoose individual boards. And don’t forgetto scope out your local sawmills. Many selldirectly to the public, often at fantasticprices. If you still can’t find a source in yourarea, ask at your local cabinet shop to seewhere they’re buying their stuff.

Buying Wood by Mail

Why order wood through the mail whenyou’re buying it sight unseen and have to payfor shipping? Convenience is a big factor,plus the fact that many mail-order compa-nies offer competitive prices and stock high-quality timbers. Suppliers typically ship via

graders follow to classify boards. Furnituremakers typically rely on FAS 1-Face andbetter, but you can save money by buyinglesser-quality grades and cutting arounddefects, especially if you’re milling smallparts or making narrow moldings.

Buying from Lumberyards

Looking for hardwoods at your local lumber-yard or home center can sometimes be a dis-appointing experience. Home centers usuallystock dimensioned softwoods for the build-ing trades and precious little hardwood—perhaps some bland planks of poplar. Yourtypical lumberyard has the same stuff, withmaybe a few surfaced red oak boards thrownin for good measure. For a full variety of furniture-quality wood, check your YellowPages for hardwood suppliers near you. You

Buying Lumber60

Grading Terms

GRADE DESCRIPTION

Firsts Premium boards at least 6 in. wide, 8 ft. long, and 912⁄3 percent clear of defects

Seconds Premium boards at least 6 in. wide, 8 ft. long, and 812⁄3 percent clear of defects

FAS “First and Seconds” combined into one grade, at least 812⁄3 percent clear of defects

Firsts 1-Face One face must meet the minimum requirements of FAS; second face cannot be below No. 1 Common

No. 1 Common Boards at least 3 in. wide, 4 ft. long, and 662⁄3 percent clear of defects

No. 2 Common Boards at least 3 in. wide, 4 ft. long, and 50 percent clear of defects

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

Thankfully, dealers who are in the businessof mailing wood are for the most part rep-utable people providing a quality product,and you can rest assured that you’ll receivewood that’s good enough for fine furniture.This is often a great way to get spectacularboards for that special project.

UPS for small boards, or common carrier forlarger stock, and orders are often filled thesame day. Many companies do not require aparticular minimum order, and some willeven walk you through the selection processover the phone, offering advice on cut andfigure and hand-picking boards for you.

Buying Lumber 61

A good hardwoodsupplier stocks avariety of speciesand often will sur-face your wood foran extra fee.

BUYING LUMBER

Picking Lumberyard Wood

Going in person to the lumberyard has some realadvantages over ordering by phone. Most yardslet you hand-pick through their stacks (as long asyou restack the pile the way you found it), whichgives you the opportunity to get some reallygreat wood—and steer clear of the bad stuff.Like woodworker Gabe Aucott here, you’d bewise to wear heavy work gloves when shoppingfor wood, since roughsawn stock is notorious forits splinters (A).

Getting to know the quality of wood at a particu-lar supplier is important. It usually takes severalvisits to become familiar with what it stocks. Andto avoid the pitfalls that lead to buying “bad”lumber on your next lumberyard visit, it’s a goodidea to bring a few supplies that will help you inyour board selection.

Bring a moisture meter for reading the wood’smoisture content to ensure that it has been driedproperly (B).

Carry a tape rule as well as your project’s cuttinglist, if possible. Use the rule to check widths andlengths, and then mark the parts off your list (C).Whether you’re buying lumber for particular proj-ects or just stocking up the shop, carry a calcu-lator so you can tally the amount of wood inboard feet (D).

Buying Lumber62

A

C D

B


BUYING LUMBER

Before pulling anything from the racks, check theends of boards to note their end-grain orientation.This will tell you whether you’ve got plainsawn,riftsawn, or quartersawn wood. Have a smallplane handy so you can take a few swipes toremove paint or rough saw marks, allowing you abetter view of the grain pattern (E). You mightget lucky and find two or more sequential boardsthat were sawn adjacent to each other in thetree, which would allow you to bookmatch grainpatterns and colors. Look for complementarygrain lines or similar saw marks on the end grainas clues, and then inspect the faces of theboards to see if they are indeed a match.

As you start pulling boards from the rack, inspecteach one systematically. First, sight down aboard’s length to check for warp, such as twist,bow, or cup (F). Then look for obvious defectssuch as sticker stain, knots, and end checks (G).If you haven’t rejected the board at this point,inspect it closely for signs of improper drying.


Buying Lumber 63

E

F

G

BUYING LUMBER

Avoid any boards with a series of tiny surfacecracks, which can indicate an overly accelerateddrying schedule (H). Also look for small, individualsplits surrounded by good wood, a sign of case-hardening (I).

If a board checks out so far, try smoothing asmall area on the face with a block plane (alwaysask first!) to inspect the color and figure (J).Over time, as you gain experience shopping forlumberyard wood, you start to see all these tell-tale signs of good wood with your eyes alone,and it won’t be necessary to bring along all theaccessories.

Once you’ve selected your boards, it’s time toload up. Remember that most yards stock boardsup to 16 ft. long. As a precaution, carry a smallcrosscut saw with you, just in case the yard can’t(or won’t) crosscut wood and the board you’vegot is too long for your vehicle to carry safely (K).When you load your stash, abide by the rule ofthirds: Make sure two-thirds of the wood is sup-ported by your vehicle (tailgates up, please), anddon’t forget to tie the cargo as a unit securely tothe vehicle (L). Otherwise, you’ll risk losing theload down the road. Finally, make sure any over-hanging lumber is properly flagged to warn fol-lowing motorists. If you ask, most lumberyardswill provide a square of red plastic to make yourload more visible (M).

Buying Lumber64

J K

L M

H I

SECTION 6 OVERVIEW

Storing Lumber

➤ Lifting and CarryingPlywood (p. 71)

➤ Stickering Parts (p. 73)

➤ Weighting a Stack (p. 74)

➤ Protecting withShrink Wrap (p. 75)

Handling Sheet Goods

Parts Storage

65

parts of a project lying around at the end ofa day invites disaster in the form of warp. I’lldiscuss how best to store your parts in processwhile you take a break, so you can come backto the same great stuff you started with.

Storing in Sheds and Barns

Many woodworkers like to store a large partof their wood supply in an enclosed butunheated area, such as a barn, keeping themore valuable real estate of the shop freefrom unnecessary clutter. Keep in mind thatwood stored in an unheated space will havea high moisture content and must beallowed to acclimate to indoor conditionsfor a few weeks or so before being worked.

Stocking up on wood is one thing,but it’s important to store it in a man-ner that keeps it in good condition.

Luckily, there are several proven methodsshown in this section for storing your stock,from stashing it in outdoor sheds and barnsto storing it in a variety of indoor areas thatwill keep it in prime condition. Handlingand storing plywood is also an issue forthose of us who work this bulky and heavysheet material. I’ll show you how to move itwithout breaking your back, and how tostore it properly so it—and you—stay ingood shape for years to come.

As woodworkers, we typically work ourwood in stints from day to day. But leaving

SECTION 6 OVERVIEW

There are a few precautions to take whenstoring wood in an unheated space. Materialmust be kept from the rain and sun, so agood roof and walls are in order. Stack yourwood in an orderly fashion, and make sureto keep it off the bare earth to preventground moisture from finding its way intothe pile and ruining your treasure. Mostsheds and barns provide a desirable flow ofair while offering important protection fromdirect wind. Avoid areas that get too hot ordry, such as an unvented attic. Your woodwill become too dry and possibly cup, twist,and split.

Open sheds make great storage areas, aslong as the stock doesn’t sit on dirt. Onesimple solution is to build a storage boxfrom exterior-grade plywood. Incorporatevents in the side to promote good airflow,and a tarp for a roof.

Many woodworkers build a dedicatedwood-storage building for housing theirmaterial. A concrete pad keeps out moisture,and large doors provide easy access. Inside, itpays to have good lighting from either stan-dard light fixtures or, better yet, from largewindows and skylights that provide naturaldaylight. If you lay your wood flat, makesure to raise stacks off the floor by using dry4x4s or other suitable spacers. Considerstanding long boards on end to conservespace, which also allows you to leaf throughthe boards like the pages of a book.

Storing Lumber66

Rafter storage and a cementfloor allow you to keep yourstock outdoors, but out of the weather.

See “Drying Lumber” on p. 48.➤

A large woodshed with a cement floor and wide-opening doors isa stockpiler’s dream come true for storing lots of wood.

Woodworker Sam Maloof’svented storage box, made fromplywood and covered with aplastic tarp, keeps hundreds of board feet of lumber drywithout the investment in adedicated building.

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Stocking Material in the Shop

The benefits of storing wood in the shop arecompelling. Your material is always at hand,and after it’s been in the shop for a few weeks,it will be in equilibrium with your shop’s envi-ronment, meaning it is stable and ready to workwhen you are. But, it is important to keep anywood in the shop organized and accessible.

You basically have two options for storingraw material in the shop: You can store ithorizontally or vertically. The first approachusually requires less space, while the secondmethod makes picking and sorting throughyour stash a little easier.

Where possible, I like to store my woodvertically against a wall so I can more easilyinspect its condition, figure, and color. Keepin mind that this approach eats up valuablewall space and requires high ceilings for longlumber, as well as some means of keepingplanks from tipping over. The simplestapproach is to strap a board to the wall.For bigger collections, you can bolt standard

Storing Lumber 67

High ceilings and good light in the form of skylightshelp you stock and select the boards you need.

Keep your stacks offthe floor by restingthem up on largewood supports.

Woodworker Mira Nakashima inspects aplank stored vertically without having tohoist its heavy weight.

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Storing wood horizontally lets you stacka lot of material in a relatively small area.One approach is to build a freestandingrack, which can be accessible from bothsides and includes a center section for stor-ing sheet goods. For walls, you can buy acommercial rack made from tubular steel

plumbing pipe to a wall to keep boards betterorganized (see the drawing above). Anotherscheme is to construct a wooden rack fromscrap wood and plywood and separate yourstock with wooden sticks every foot or so. Forthe ultimate in organization, consider build-ing dedicated racks for individual species.

Storing Lumber68

Furniture maker Lon Schleining’sshop-made rackhouses short orlong stock andkeeps it organizedin sectioned bays.

Woodworker SamMaloof stands by a prized board. Astout strap hookedto the wall ensuresthat the panelremains upright.

To keep vertical boards sorted and prevent them from tipping over, install sections of plumbing pipe along a wall.

Space pipes every 16 in.

Mount pipes on wall at about two-thirds of board height.

Black pipe, 3/4 in. x 16 in., threaded on one end

3/4-in. pipe flange

Attach flange to wall stud using lag screws.

PIPE SUPPORTS

SECTION 6 OVERVIEW

with adjustable supports, making it versatileand plenty strong.

Don’t overlook plywood storage. Theselarge 4-ft.-by-8-ft. sheets can consume a lotof shop space if you don’t figure out a viablemeans of keeping them organized and acces-sible. Storing your sheets flat will keep themthat way, but most of us can’t give up thefloor space this entails. A vertical rack is abetter option and can be made from sheetsof plywood and other leftover stock lyingaround in the shop. If you separate sheetswith plywood dividers and keep the rack

Storing Lumber 69

If you have the space, consider buildingindividual racks for specific species ortypes of wood, such as the stands shownhere that store figured maple boards.

Woodworker PaulAnthony’s free-standing rack is a wonder of organi-zation in a relativelysmall space.Depending on therack placement,stock can beaccessed from all sides.

This commercialmetal rack featuresstout steel armsthat can be adjustedto the shelf heightyou need.

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full, you’ll avoid sagging or bowing of indi-vidual sheets.

As you work your wood, you’ll need tostash it between sessions. When you do, it’svital to store all solid wood in the correctmanner, because fluctuating moisture levelscan wreak havoc on milled parts. At thispoint, you’ve invested a lot of time and effortto get your parts dimensioned straight, flat,and square. Left carelessly on a bench,they’ll invariably warp.

There are a few shop strategies you canadopt for keeping your wood in good condi-tion as you’re working it into furniture.Whenever possible, stack milled parts hori-zontally on a known flat surface such as yourbench. Use stickers between them and placeweight on top to keep the stack flat.

If you don’t have the space for stackingparts horizontally or if your work is irregularin shape, try wrapping it in plastic to wardoff fluctuating humidity levels. This simpleapproach keeps your stock stable until youcan work it again.

Storing Lumber70

The plywood rack in cabinetmaker Frank Klausz’s shop storesnumerous panels in a vertical position, taking up a minimum ofprecious floor space.

Stickering wood on a flat bench and placing a few heavy I-beamson top will keep stock straight and flat and ready to go when youreturn to work on it.

Wrapping parts in plastic prevents themfrom falling prey to wild swings in ambientmoisture levels, keeping them flat and stable.

HANDLING SHEET GOODS

Lifting and Carrying Plywood

Moving large sheets of plywood alone can chal-lenge the best of us, and storing them in a well-supported and accessible manner is a must. Toplace a sheet in a vertical plywood rack, cabinet-maker Klaus Hilgers tilts it on one corner (A) andthen eases the leading corner between twoother sheets in the rack (B). Then he simplypushes the sheet home (C).

One of the hardest parts of pulling a sheet fromthe rack is getting it started. To help, you canmake a simple wooden lever (D) and place itunder the bottom corner of a sheet (E). By step-ping repeatedly on the stick (F), you’ll ease the


Storing Lumber 71

A

C

E F

D

B

HANDLING SHEET GOODS

first few inches of the panel out of the rack soyour hands can get a grip (G). Then it’s a simplematter of pulling the rest of the sheet from the rack (H).

Never use your back to lift a sheet; instead, useyour legs. With the sheet standing upright, gripthe edges with your legs bent (I). Then straightenyour legs to lift the sheet (J). Now, withoutchanging your hand position, pivot it horizontallyand let the side of your body and shoulder carrythe weight as you take it to the saw or out the door (K).

Storing Lumber72

G

I

K

J

H

PARTS STORAGE

Stickering Parts

Stacking parts in process is very similar to stick-ering wood outdoors, except you’re usuallyworking with precisely machined pieces thatyou’ve spent a lot of time flattening. To keepthem that way when they’re not being worked,start by laying out a series of identically thick-nessed stickers every foot or so on a dead-flatsurface, such as a bench (A).

Start stacking by placing your longest, heaviestboard on top of the stickers. It’s okay if yourboards are longer than your stacking surface, butmake sure your bottom board is thick enough toresist sagging on its unsupported ends (B). Next,place another series of stickers on top of theboard, aligning them over the stickers below (C).

Continue building the stack in layers, placingboards over each new series of stickers untilyou’ve stacked all of the pieces. Put your small-est boards on top. If you have multiple boards inone layer, make sure they’re the same thicknessand butt their ends together over the same stickerfor good support (D).

Storing Lumber 73

A

B

C

D

PARTS STORAGE

Weighting a Stack

Weighting a stacked pile of parts helps keep itflat. Start by placing pairs of sticks on top of thework and in line with the stickers below (A).Then grab whatever is handy and heavy andplace each weight over each pair of sticks. I keepa collection of iron parts and bricks on hand forthis very task (B).

[VARIATION] Many of us have weights

lying around the shop in the form of

heavy cast-iron planes. These work well

for weighting down your work, especially

big jointer planes.

Don’t forget to weight down any lone areas thataren’t supported by boards above (C). The fin-ished stack should have weight evenly distributedover the length of the pile so your wood staysflat until you’re ready to work it again (D).

Storing Lumber74

A

B

C

D

VARIATION

PARTS STORAGE

Protecting with Shrink Wrap

One way to ensure stability of parts in process orto safely store veneer is to wrap it in plastic.Shrink wrap—a thin sheet plastic that sticks toitself—is perfect for protecting parts from drasticchanges in ambient humidity (A). To cover abatch of parts, unroll a section of the plastic onthe bench and lay the parts on top (B). Pull theleading edge over the work and “stick” it to thetrailing sheet, pulling tight to keep parts snug (C).Now start wrapping around the work, orientingthe roll so it unrolls to the outside of the work(D). Wrap several times to tighten the bundle,flipping the work over until four of the six facesare well sealed (E).

Twist the roll a couple of times to create an “X”(F) and then wrap the remaining two faces (G).Cross the plastic again to use it much like ropeso it pulls the pile tight (H). Finish up by punchingthrough the thin film to tear it from the roll whilepressing it flat to stick it to the bundle (I).

Storing Lumber 75

A

C D

E F

G

I

H

B

Choosing Joints, Page 104Dealing with Wood Movement,

Page 78 Selecting Your Material,

Page 123

Designingwith Wood

As a woodworking teacher, I’ve been blessed to

come across every caliber of work imaginable. Although

much of it is first-rate, too often I see furniture made

from a random selection of wood put together without

regard to the material being used. Furniture made this way typically

suffers from poor construction that results in drawers or doors that stick,

panels that rattle, cracked case sides, and failed joints. Another common

trait is a visual discordance of mismatched tones, colors, and grain all

haphazardly jumbled together.

It doesn’t take consummate skill and a master’s degree to build great

furniture. What it does require is an understanding of your material and

how it responds to moisture in the environment. You also need to know

how to design joints that last and how to choose your material for

strength and good looks. This part of the book deals with these basic

design issues.

PART THREE

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78

Dealing withWood Movement

➤ Using a MoistureMeter (p. 87)

➤ Cutting a Leg-to-Case Joint (p. 88)

➤ Constructing aBreadboard End (p. 90)

➤ Building a Frame-and-Panel Door (p. 92)

➤ Fitting a Door (p. 95)

➤ Installing a DrawerBottom (p. 97)

➤ Fitting a Drawer (p. 99)

➤ Attaching a Tabletop(p. 101)

➤ Applying CaseMolding (p. 103)

Reading Moisture Letting Wood Move

To have an understanding of howseasoned wood moves is one thing;applying this knowledge in the

woodshop is another. As we’ve discussed,bringing your wood into the shop is the firststep in controlling wood movement andkeeping your stock stable. But this onlyworks if you keep your shop’s environmentin the correct humidity zone. In this section,you’ll see how to monitor the ideal relativehumidity in your work space and how tofind ways of correcting and maintaining it.

Just as important as working with stablestock is constructing your joints with woodmovement in mind so they don’t self-destruct. In this section, we’ll look at commonwoodworking joints and other solid-woodconstructions, and how to design and makethem so they’ll last for generations.

Controlling

Your Shop’s Climate

Bringing your wood into the shop is a goodstart toward keeping it at an optimum mois-ture content, but ongoing measures in theshop itself are necessary to ensure that yourmaterial remains in this ideal range. It’simportant to realize that the indoor temper-ature, combined with your shop’s relativehumidity level (RH), has a strong impact onthe moisture content of your stock, as thechart on p. 79 shows. Keep in mind that

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the MC values shown in the chart representlumber that’s been kept at the stated tem-perature/humidity for an extended period of time.

Knowing—and controlling—the climatein your shop is the best way to keep yourstock in good condition. Your shop’s relativehumidity (RH) level should be in a range of 30 percent to 50 percent at 75˚ F (24˚ C).A relative humidity of 40 percent would beideal. Wood properly stored under thoseconditions should be in the 7 percent MCrange—ideal for turning into furniture.

This optimal range allows you to workyour material without the fear of it being toodry or too wet. The best way to gauge yourshop’s moisture level is to invest in ahygrometer—an instrument that records relative humidity. You can buy mechanical orelectronic hygrometers, although I favor theelectronic variety for its greater versatilityand ease of use. Electronics stores sell digitalhygrometers that can read not only yourshop’s relative humidity but the temperature

Dealing with Wood Movement 79

Moisture Content (% MC) at Various Temperatures

and Relative Humidity (% RH) Values

RELATIVE HUMIDITY˚F

(˚C) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 9530

(1.1) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.4 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21.0 24.340

(4.4) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.4 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21.0 24.350

(10) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 11.2 12.3 13.4 14.8 16.4 18.4 21.9 24.360

(15.6) 1.3 2.5 3.6 4.6 5.4 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.6 9.4 10.2 11.1 12.1 13.3 14.6 16.2 18.2 20.7 24.170

(21.1) 1.3 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.2 10.1 11.0 12.0 13.1 14.1 16.0 17.9 20.5 23.980

(26.7) 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.1 6.8 7.6 8.3 9.1 9.9 10.8 11.7 12.9 14.2 15.7 17.7 20.2 23.690

(32.2) 1.2 2.3 3.4 4.3 5.1 5.9 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.7 10.5 11.5 12.6 13.9 15.4 17.3 19.8 23.3100

(37.8) 1.2 2.3 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 11.2. 12.3 13.6 15.1 17.0 19.5 22.9

An analog hygrome-ter (left) is a low-cost way to monitoryour shop’s environ-ment. The easier-to-read digital versionbelow displays rela-tive humidity as wellas indoor and out-door temperature.

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inside the shop as well as outside. Regardlessof the type you buy, position your hygrometerwhere air can circulate freely around it foraccurate readings.

Once you have an idea of your shop’satmospheric conditions, you’ll need to findways to maintain the proper temperatureand humidity over the course of the seasons.

During cold months, heat is one of thebest ways of regulating the moisture balancein the shop. Keep in mind that as the tem-perature rises, the moisture content in the airdrops. The opposite rule also applies: Astemperatures fall, moisture content rises. Ifyou can keep the temperature in the 70s(Fahrenheit), you’ll stabilize the atmosphereand prevent excessively wet or dry air fromadversely affecting your wood.

The best heat source to use is the systemthat’s already warming your house. This usually involves directing central heat intothe shop through appropriate ductwork.Another source of heat can come from awoodstove, which makes good use of yourshop scrap pile as fuel. For those of youwithout the luxury of a heated space (thinkcold garages), try storing your wood in thehouse and then carrying it into the shop towork it. When you’re done for the day, bringyour parts back inside, where they can accli-mate once again.

The downside to heat is that it can drythe air excessively and thus rob neededmoisture from your wood. But there areways to correct and balance the moisturecontent of the air in your shop. If you oper-ate a wood stove, put a metal pan or bucketof water on top of the stove to add moistureback into the air in the form of steam.Another approach is to close any air vents

Dealing with Wood Movement80

Running ventedducts from yourhouse’s heat sourceis an economicalway to heat a basement shop.

Firing up a wood-stove is a great wayto recycle shopscrap. Be sure toinstall a heat shieldto protect potential-ly flammable wallsor floors.

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of your wood. A modern handheld moisturemeter will serve most small shops well.There are two principal types of meters: pinand pinless.

Pin-type meters use metal pins that youdrive or press into the wood to measure theelectrical resistance of the water in the wood,which is then expressed in a percentage ofmoisture content. For accuracy, the pinsshould be driven in to at least one-fifth ofthe board’s thickness to avoid reading the

from your home’s heating system to cool theshop down a bit until it reaches the desiredrelative humidity. Last, try running a humid-ifier. These devices are relatively inexpensiveand offer a quick way to add more moistureto the air.

During summer months, it’s common forthe shop’s air to become overly moist. This isespecially true with basement or otherbelow-grade shops. If your shop becomesexcessively wet during a humid spell, youcan use a dehumidifier to pull moisture fromthe air. And don’t overlook air-conditioning.If you have it in the house, it may be possibleto direct it into the shop. Air-conditioning iseven more effective for drying out the air,but keep a watchful eye on your hygrometerto avoid creating an overly dry atmosphere.

Reading Moisture in Wood

Knowing the precise moisture content ofyour wood will help you keep your stock atoptimum moisture levels. First, you’ll needto know whether the wood you’re about towork has stabilized to shop conditions. Youcan check this by monitoring its moisturecontent over the course of a few weeks.When your weekly readings stop changing,the wood has acclimated to the shop’s envi-ronment and is ready to work. In addition,you’ll want to keep track of the moisturecontent in specific pieces of wood during thecourse of regular woodworking. You’ll alsowant to check moisture content whenacquiring wood from an unfamiliar supplier.

The easiest way to check your stock is touse a moisture meter. While a moisturemeter can mean an investment of $200 or more, it pays off as a proven tool for accurately monitoring the moisture content


During high humidity, a centrally placed dehumidifier can help dry the air. This unit—located under the bench for easy access—collects water in a removable container.

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Regardless of the style of meter you buy,shop for one that reads at least as low as 6 percent MC, in order to accurately readstock that has been seasoned enough to usefor furniture.

Predicting Wood’s Movement

Once you’re working with stable stock of aknown moisture content, you still have tocontend with wood movement. Part of thisinvolves being able to predict how much agiven board will move over its width andhow evenly. To find out what our stock islikely to do, we must first recognize twoimportant forms of wood movement thatconcern us as woodworkers: tangentialmovement and radial movement.

drier wood at the surface. Some pin-stylemeters include a remote probe that can behammered deep into thick boards for anaccurate reading of the core. The shorterpins on some pin-style meters are meant to bepressed into the surface by hand. However,dense woods such as oak or hard maple mayresist full insertion of the pins, impeding anaccurate reading.

Pinless meters are generally more expen-sive, but will not leave holes in your wood—a distinct advantage, especially if you’re taking readings on finished work. A pinlessmeter relies on radio frequencies to readmoisture below the surface and requires onlycontact with the face of a board. It will take areading well below the board’s surface to arriveat an accurate average moisture content.


The pin-style moisture meter at left includes a remote probe with long pins for reachingthe center of thick stock. The short pins on the center meter are simply pushed into thestock. The pinless meter at right won’t mar your boards.

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Shrinkage Percentage from Green to Oven-Dry

WOOD TYPE RADIAL TANGENTIAL R/T RATIO

Alder, red 4.4 7.3 1.7

Ash, black 5.0 7.8 1.6

Ash, white 4.9 7.8 1.6

Aspen, white 3.5 6.7 1.9

Balsa 3.0 7.6 2.5

Basswood 6.6 9.3 1.4

Beech American 5.5 11.9 2.2

Birch, yellow 7.3 9.5 1.3

Bubinga 5.8 8.4 1.4

Butternut 3.4 6.4 1.9

Catalupa 2.5 4.9 2.0

Cedar, Spanish 4.1 6.3 1.5

Cedar, western red 2.4 5.0 2.1

Cedar, yellow 2.8 6.0 2.1

Cherry, black 3.7 7.1 1.9

Chestnut 3.4 6.7 2.0

Cocobolo 2.7 4.3 1.6

Cottonwood,eastern 3.9 9.2 2.4

Cypress, bald 3.8 6.2 1.6

Ebony, Gabon 9.2 10.8 1.2

Ebony, Maccassar 5.4 8.8 1.6

Elm, American 4.2 9.5 2.3

Fir, douglas 4.1 7.6 9.1

Hickory, shagbark 7.0 10.5 1.4

Holly, American 4.8 9.9 2.1

Hornbeam, American 5.7 11.4 2.0

Imbuya 2.7 6.0 2.2

Ipe 6.6 8.0 1.2

Jarrah 7.7 11.0 1.4

WOOD TYPE RADIAL TANGENTIAL R/T RATIO

Lauan, red 4.6 7.2 1.6

Locust 4.6 7.2 1.6

Madrone, Pacific 5.6 12.4 2.2

Mahogany, African 2.5 4.5 1.8

Mahogany, American 3.0 4.1 1.3

Maple, bigleaf 3.7 7.1 1.9

Maple, red 4.0 8.6 2.1

Maple, sugar 4.8 9.9 2.1

Oak, northern red 4.0 8.6 2.1

Oak, white 5.6 10.5 1.9

Pine, eastern white 2.1 6.1 2.9

Pine, sugar 2.9 5.6 1.9

Pine, western white 4.1 7.4 1.8

Poplar, yellow 4.6 8.2 1.8

Purpleheart 3.2 6.1 1.9

Redwood (old growth) 2.6 4.4 1.7

Redwood (young growth) 2.2 4.9 2.2

Rosewood, Brazilian 2.9 4.6 1.6

Rosewood, Indian 2.7 5.8 2.1

Sapele 4.6 7.4 1.6

Sassafras 4.0 6.2 1.6

Spruce, Sitka 4.3 7.5 1.7

Sweetgum 5.3 10.2 1.9

Sycamore 5.0 8.4 1.7

Teak 2.2 4.0 1.8

Walnut, black 5.5 7.8 1.4

Willow, black 3.3 8.7 2.6

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From these facts we can deduce the gen-eral principle that suitably dried flatsawnwood will shrink and expand across its widthabout twice as much as quartersawn stock.We could save ourselves a ton of trouble bysimply working with quartersawn stock allthe time, but this isn’t really practical. Thereality is that the cut of most boards is a mixof plainsawn and riftsawn wood. Fewerboards include true quartersawn wood.

Now let’s add to this the fact that differ-ent species of wood move at different rates.For any species, the difference between itstangential shrinkage and its radial shrinkagecan be expressed as a ratio (see the chart onp. 83). In general, the lower the ratio, theless prone the wood is to wild dimensionalchanges and warp. The most stable woodsare those with a relatively low shrinkage percentage and a low tangential-to-radialshrinkage ratio, such as mahogany or teak.Conversely, woods with a higher shrinkagepercentage and tangential/radial ratio, suchas beech and some of the oaks, are prone towilder swings in movement.

While few of us work with green stock,and no one uses oven-dry wood, these per-centages provide a good idea of the range of wood movement you can expect from various species.

Designing for Movement

Good furniture design must accommodatewood movement to ensure that our joints andother constructions will survive us. Remem-ber that the moisture content of wood constantly changes in response to its envi-ronment. Ideally, you would construct andassemble your wood parts at the mid-range

As wood initially dries from its greencondition to a suitable moisture content, theamount of shrinkage it experiences differs,depending on its grain orientation. This isbest exemplified by comparing two differentcuts of wood dried from their green to oven-dry state, where no moisture is left in thepores (see the drawing above). As the draw-ing shows, tangential shrinkage, which takesplace parallel to the growth rings, is abouttwice as great as the radial shrinkage thatoccurs perpendicular to the growth rings.(Keep in mind that movement along thegrain is negligible.)


Flatsawn Board

Width when green

Width when oven-dry, or 8% of green dimension

Quartersawn Board

Width when green

Width when oven-dry, or 4% of green dimension

The tangential shrinkage of a flatsawn board is, on average, twice as much as the radial shrinkage of a quartersawn board.

TANGENTIAL VERSUS

RADIAL SHRINKAGE

SECTION 7 OVERVIEW


Leg-to-Case Joint

Glue top tenon only

Haunch

Divide case side into individual tenons.

Pin tenons.

Leg

Wood movement

Case side

Leave progressively more space in mortises toward bottom so case side moves at bottom while top of joint remains flush. Reverse mortise spacing if using brace or knee block.

Breadboard Construction

TabletopPin outer tenons through elongated holes.

Breadboard end

Leave space in outer mortises.

Glue center tenon only.

Stub tenon fills groove.

Extend breadboard past top to conceal wood movement.

Installing a Drawer Bottom

Bottom moves at back of drawer.

Bottom floats in grooves in front and sides without glue.

Front Orient grain from side to side.

Frame and PanelNarrow stiles and rails undergo very little movement.

Leave space in stile grooves.

Solid woodpanel floats in grooves without glue.

Fit panel snug to bottom of rail grooves.

Fitting a Door

Cabinet face

Leave gap all around door of 1/16 in. or less.

Plane back-bevel on free edge of door.

Fitting a Drawer

Cabinet face

Leave gap at top of front.

Leave gap at top of side.

Attaching a Top

Tabletop

Apron

Screw button to tabletop.

Leave space between button and apron.

Applying Molding

Case top

Case side

At back of cabinet, screw through slot in case side and into molding.

Glue molding only at front area of side.

Glue miter.

Glue molding along entire front of cabinet.

Brace

Hinge

Plane back-bevel on free edge of door. Top View

Front View

ACCOMMODATING WOOD MOVEMENT

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other. As the air dries, the joints between the boards will open a little. Conversely, inwinter you need to fit parts a little loosely so they have room to swell when the humidsummer returns.

How much room do you allow for move-ment? Start by assuming most kiln- and air-dried woods will change dimensions by asmuch as 1⁄4 in. for every 12 in. of width, ifyou’re working with flatsawn stock. Due tothe many types of woods and their individualidiosyncrasies, this is only an approximation,but it’s close enough to encompass most situations. The best teacher is the experiencegained from tracking the dimensionalchanges of a specific wood as you work with it.

Once you understand wood’s seasonalexpansion and contraction, building furni-ture to accommodate wood movement isn’tdifficult. The trick is to understand the dif-ferent types of constructions and joinery that allow wood movement to take place.The drawing on p. 85 shows some of themore common approaches to dealing withwood movement.

of expected MC. This way, dimensionalchanges would occur on either side of thismedian. However, this goal isn’t very practi-cal unless you have total control over thehumidity in your shop.

To avoid trouble, it’s best to use woodwith a moisture content between 6 percentand 8 percent. But there’s a wrinkle: Ourcompleted projects will be subjected togreater swings in MC, anywhere from 4 percent MC to 14 percent MC. Thisdepends, of course, on where your furnitureresides and the specific atmospheric condi-tions surrounding it.

Dry Climates

Now let’s add another twist: You might bebuilding in a relatively dry part of the coun-try, but your furniture may someday live in amuch wetter climate. Therefore, rather than building to our specific geographic conditions, it’s safer and ultimately moresuccessful to build our furniture to accom-modate the greatest possible extremes ofdimensional change.

But where to start? How can we accuratelycalculate swelling and shrinking of our fur-niture parts?

The best approach is to become familiarwith seasonal relative humidity levels in yourshop. If you’re building during the middle ofsummer, your stock is likely to be at itshighest moisture content, and you shouldallow for parts to shrink when the dry winter weather rolls around. For example,when fitting tongue-and-groove backboardsinto a cabinet during the humid season, youshould butt the boards tightly against each


READING MOISTURE

Using a Moisture Meter

Using a pinless-style meter is very simple.Because the device reads below the surface,you can place the meter right on the wood to getan accurate reading at its core. Keep in mind thatsome less expensive meters only measure to adepth of 5⁄8 in. or so and may not provide an exactreading of the MC at the core of thick boards. Aswith all meters, be sure to read 6 in. or so infrom the end of a board to avoid this drier area,and stay away from knots (A).

Using a pin-style meter can be more complicated.For a rough estimate of moisture, work on theface and in from the end of the board, makingsure that the pins have good contact with thewood (B).

For a more accurate reading, first crosscut 6 in.to 12 in. off the end of a board (C). Then pressthe pins as deeply as possible into the center ofthe stock and take your reading (D).


A

C D

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Cutting a Leg-to-Case Joint

In a leg-to-case joint, where a wide rail connectsto a leg with a mortise-and-tenon joint, thetenons on the rail should be divided to allowroom for the side to move. The first step is to layout the joint on both the rail and leg, leavingroom at the bottom of the joint for the rail toswell or shrink while the top of the joint remainsflush. (Or you can reverse the order, allowing theupper part of the joint to move. This works bestfor pieces with fixed knee blocks below the rail,such as a lowboy. An overhanging top concealsthe movement at the top.) Divide the rail intomultiple tenons, each less than 4 in. wide, per-haps with a haunch at the top to prevent twist.Then lay out the mortises, leaving progressivelymore space on either side of the tenons as youmove down the leg (A).

Cut the mortises first. You can cut them usingeither a plunge router and a jig or a benchtop hollow mortiser, as shown here. Make your firstcuts at each end of the mortise, and then finishup by wasting the middle section (B). Reset thechisel depth and cut the groove for the haunch atthe top of each leg (C).

After cutting the mortises, make the tenons to fitthem. Saw the cheeks first, using a dado bladeand a crosscut sled. Place the stock flat on thesled and cut the first side using a stop blockclamped to the sled’s fence to define the shoulder(D). Then flip the stock over and cut the opposingcheek (E).

Next, cut the haunched tenon by standing the railon its edge and raising the blade height. Keep thesame stop-block setting you used for the shoul-ders. Make the first pass by holding the stockfirmly against the fence and away from the block(F). Now add a spacer stick equal to the desiredhaunch length against the stop block and hold thestock against the stick to cut the haunch to thecorrect length (G).


A

C

E

G

F

D

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

After cutting the haunch, reset the blade heightand cut the opposite short shoulder by using thesame stop-block setting, but without the spacer(H). This shoulder doesn’t include a haunch.

Lay out the tenons once again, this time on thecheeks. Then reset the blade height, stand therail vertically, and plow out the waste to createthe separate tenons (I). Test the fit of yourtenons in their mortises by dry-assembling thejoint by hand, using no clamps. If the tenons aretoo tight, trim the cheeks with fine cuts from ashoulder plane (J).

The upper tenon gets fixed in place, while thetwo lower tenons are permitted to move withseasonal changes. Pegging the tenons willstrengthen the joint, but correct peg-hole layoutis the key to accommodating this movement.First, dry-assemble the joint and use a drill bit ora hollow-chisel mortiser to cut through both theleg and the rail at once, making sure the holesare centered on the width of the tenons. Thendisassemble the joint and elongate the two lowertenon peg holes, using a piercing saw to firstlengthen the peg-hole shoulders (K). Follow upby squaring the ends of the holes with a mortisechisel (L).

To assemble the joint, apply glue to the uppertenon only and its mortise (M). Clamp squareacross the joint, drop a dab of glue into the pegholes, and drive the pegs into the leg and throughthe tenons (N). The finished joint has nice, tightshoulders with functional and decorative pegsstanding slightly proud of the surface (O).


H

J K

L M

N

O

I

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Constructing a Breadboard End

Adding a breadboard end to a wide solid-woodslab such as a tabletop helps prevent the slabfrom warping or cupping, without restrictingwood movement. The joint is made in the sameway as a leg-to-case joint, except that you fix acentral tenon so the slab will expand and con-tract evenly outward from the center, and youinclude a stub tenon between each tenon to fur-ther stiffen the joint.

Here, furniture maker Jan Derr demonstrates theprocess. Start by laying out and cutting the mor-tises in the breadboard ends, then rout or saw ashallow groove along the length of each board.Cut the tenons on the ends of the tabletop to fitthe mortises, leaving stub tenons to fill thegrooves. As with a leg-to-case joint, make thetwo outer mortises wider than their matingtenons. For strength, make the central tenonslightly wider than its neighbors (A).

Dry-assemble the joint and use a square to markthe centerline of each tenon on the breadboardend to help with laying out for pegs (B). Thenmark the distance of the peg holes from the inner edge of the board (C). Now use a drill or a hollow-chisel mortiser to cut the peg holesthrough the breadboard end while the joint isassembled (D).

Before going any further, disassemble the jointand lightly chamfer the edges of the breadboardend and the shoulders of the tabletop using asmall plane (E). This results in a nice shadow linewhen the joint is assembled (F).

Next, use a file or a piercing saw to elongate thepeg holes in the outer tenons (G), and thensquare the ends of the holes with a chisel (H).


A B

C

E F

G H

D

LETTING WOOD MOVE

To add visual detail, use a fine, tapered file tolightly chamfer the edges of the peg holes (I).Cut pegs to fit the holes and chamfer their endsby rubbing them over a piece of sandpaper (J).The chamfer on one end of a peg makes it standout visually when the table is assembled, whilethe chamfer on the opposite end eases insertion.

To attach the breadboard end, apply glue to thecenter mortise only and its mating tenon (K). Tapthe joint together, then place a spot of glue ineach peg hole and drive in all the pegs. Noclamps are necessary, since the pegs hold thejoint while the glue dries (L). By carefully tappingthe pegs flush with the surface of the breadboardend, you’ll create beautiful shadow lines aroundeach peg (M).

[VARIATION] Instead of leaving exposed

grooves at the ends of your breadboard

ends, you can add a contrasting spline

for a more finished look. Rout a groove in

the tabletop to match the groove in the

breadboard end, and glue the spline in

only the breadboard end so the tabletop

is free to expand and contract with sea-

sonal changes.


I

K L

M

J

VARIATION

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Building a Frame-and-Panel Door

Frame-and-panel construction accommodateswood movement by allowing a large slab (thepanel) to move within a frame whose piecesdon’t move much because of their relatively narrow width. To make a frame-and-panel door,woodworker Gabe Aucott starts by milling hisframe stock straight, flat, and square. He thenglues up a wide cherry panel, squares it, andcuts it to rough size (A).

When you’re making doors like this, the first join-ery work is to groove all the stiles (the verticalmembers) and the rails (the horizontal members).Set up a dado blade on the table saw, adjust theheight to the desired depth of the groove (typicallyabout 1⁄2 in.), and plow through-grooves in all fourframe parts (B).

Next, mill the mortises in the stiles. Oneapproach is to use a hollow-chisel mortiser, cut-ting 11⁄4-in.-deep mortises that are the same widthas the groove. A stop screwed to the work sur-face registers the ends of the stock (C).

After mortising, cut the tenons on the rails usinga dado blade on the table saw. Use a crosscutsled, and raise the blade to the correct height byreferencing the sled’s work surface. Clamp a stopblock to the sled’s fence to register the end ofthe rails at the desired tenon length, and mill thecheeks by making successive passes. Start withthe stock butted against the block to define theshoulder and then move the rail away from theblock to complete the tenon (D). To cut thehaunched shoulder, clamp the stop block closerto the blade, raise the blade, and hold the stockon edge to make the cut (E).


A

C

E

D

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

With the joinery complete, dry-clamp the frameand measure its opening in both directions. Atthis point, cut the panel to the size of the frameopening plus the combined depth of twogrooves. You’ll trim the panel for a proper fit later.

Use the router table and a panel-raising bit toraise the panel, beveling its edges and milling a tongue to fit into the frame grooves. Use afeatherboard clamped to the fence to keep thestock firmly on the table, and take successivelydeeper cuts by raising the bit about 1⁄8 in. aftereach pass. Make the first cut across the endgrain, orienting the panel facedown on the tableand pushing the stock at an even speed to avoidburning (F). Make the second cut by rotating thepanel 90 degrees and routing the long-grain edge.This cutting sequence removes any tearout fromthe previous cut (G). Continue in this manneruntil all four edges are raised and the tongueslides easily by hand into the grooves in theframe pieces.

To allow for seasonal expansion of the panelwithin the frame grooves, remove the appropriateamount from the long-grain edges on the jointer(H). In the case of the relatively wide panelshown here, removing about 3⁄16 in. from eachedge allows enough room for the panel to swellin the frame without bottoming out in the sidegrooves. Don’t joint the end-grain edges as the



WARNING Use a router that’s

qualified to spin large, panel-raising

bits, and take a succession of relatively

light cuts, raising the bit after each

pass. Make the last pass a very light

cut for the smoothest finish.

▲!

F

G

H

LETTING WOOD MOVE

panel won’t swell appreciably along the grain.Jointing off material in this manner after sizingthe panel to the depth of the grooves ensuresthat the mitered bevels meet precisely in the cor-ners of the frame.To glue up the door, use asmall brush to spread glue in the mortises and onthe tenons only. Be careful not to get any glue inthe grooves or on the panel so it can float freelyafter assembly (I). To keep the panel centered inits grooves and to prevent rattling, place a coupleof rubber spacers in the grooves in the stiles (J).These commercially available spacers will com-press when the panel expands, and then swellagain when the panel shrinks, holding it in placewithout damaging the joints.

Place the work on a flat surface, and clampacross the joints, making sure to align the clampssquare to the work and centered over the tenons(K). Before leaving the panel to dry, check diago-nal corner measurements to ensure that theframe is square.


I

J

K

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Fitting a Door

To fit a frame-and-panel door to its opening,begin by sizing the door to completely fill itsopening in the cabinet. After assembly, squarethe door, just in case things got a little out ofwhack during glue-up. To do this, place theassembled door on a crosscut sled and trimabout 1⁄32 in. off one end (A). Then place thesawn end against the rip fence and trim another1⁄32 in. from the opposite end, producing a panelthat’s square to its sides (B).

Once you’ve squared the door, check its fit to thecase. Position a couple of shims on the bottom ofthe cabinet opening, equal in thickness to thedesired door gap (about 1⁄16 in.), and place the dooratop the shims. Temporarily tape the door to holdit in place (C). Now check the gap along one stile.Chances are you’ll notice a taper, which tells youthe door opening did not come together perfectlysquare (D).

Note the amount of taper, and take the door tothe bench for planing. Clamp the panel securelyin a vise, and use a bench plane to remove thesame amount of taper, but from the appropriateedge of one end of the door—not its side (E). Asyou plane, keep test-fitting the door in the open-ing as before. When the side gap is straight,crosscut about 1⁄32 in. off the opposite end of thedoor using the rip fence on the table saw (F). Ofcourse, this approach assumes the top and bot-tom case rails are perfectly parallel. If they’re not,you’ll need to plane, rather than crosscut, theopposite end to suit the amount of taper.



A

C D

E

F

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Test-fit the door again. This time, hold the hingestile tight against the opening and inspect thegap at the top of the door, checking that it’sstraight, consistent along its length, and equal tothe gap at the bottom (G). If it isn’t, make anycorrections now on the top edge with the plane.

Now it’s time to install the hinges. At this point,the door should be too wide to fit the opening, soyou’ll need to first remove some material fromone edge to allow clearance for the hinges. Youcan do this on the table saw by ripping about 1⁄16 in. from the hinge stile. Alternatively, you canhandplane the stile, taking relatively aggressivecuts (H).

Once you’ve installed the hinges, check the fitagain, this time sighting the gap along the free-swinging stile. The gap will probably be too smallfor clearance at this point and may still taperalong its length (I). To provide clearance, removethe door from the case and plane a slight back-bevel on the edge of the stile (J, K).

Once again, hang the door on its hinges andcheck your gaps (L). The finished door shouldhave a consistent gap of 1⁄16 in. or less all the wayaround the cabinet opening (M).


G H

I J

K

M

L

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Installing a Drawer Bottom

When you’re installing a solid-wood drawer bot-tom, it should never be glued in place, and thegrain should be oriented side-to-side. That way,the bottom is free to expand towards the rear ofthe drawer where it passes under the drawerback. If the grain runs front-to-back, the bottomwill expand against the sides of the drawer,causing an ill fit and possibly breaking the drawerjoints apart. A plywood bottom can be fitted inany direction and glued into the grooves, since itwon’t swell or shrink as a solid panel will.

Crosscut the bottom to length using a crosscutsled on the table saw (A). The length shouldequal the side-to-side drawer-box opening plusthe combined depth of the opposing groovesmilled in the drawer sides.

Next, mark lines on the stock as an aid to bevel-ing its edges so it will fit the grooves in the drawer box. First, use a marking gauge to scribelines around the edges of the bottom equal to the width of the drawer grooves (B). Then markpencil lines on the underside of the stock on thesides and front, roughly equal to the width of thedesired bevel. Use a finger as a fence to guidethe pencil (C).

Use a small plane to begin planing a bevel on thethree edges, or stand the work vertically againstthe rip fence and use the table saw to make this cut. Start with the end-grain edges first (D)

and stop when you reach the gauge line (E).



A B

C D

E

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Finish with the long-grain edge to remove anytearout on the corners from the previous end-grain cuts. On the last few passes, set the ironfor a very light cut to leave a smooth surface withvery little tearout (F).

Go back to the table saw and, standing the stockvertically in the crosscut sled, notch the back ofthe panel for a screw (G). Then slide the panelinto the grooves in the drawer box and drive ascrew through the notch and into the undersideof the drawer back (H). You can leave the drawerbottom proud of the back, which allows the panelto shrink if necessary, without showing a gap inthe drawer (I).

The finished drawer bottom will swell or shrinktowards the back of the drawer, where it won’taffect the joinery of the drawer box (J).


F

H

J

I

G

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Fitting a Drawer

There are two significant areas of wood move-ment in a drawer: the drawer front and the drawer sides. These areas require clearance toallow the stock to swell across its width withoutjamming in the cabinet opening. Building a drawer so it operates smoothly involves a fewcareful steps.

To determine the correct width of the drawerstock, offer it up to the drawer opening and markit to the exact height of the opening (A). Rip thesides and front to this width. Now cut one end ofthe drawer-front stock square, and use the sameapproach to gauge the length of the drawer frontby marking the precise length of the opening onthe stock (B). Once the parts are cut to widthand length, you can assemble the drawer box.Don’t install a knob or pull at this point.

If you build your drawer in the manner describedabove, it shouldn’t quite fit its opening. To get theright fit, start by planing the sides of the drawerwith a plane set for a very fine cut. Clamp a stoutboard across your bench, and, with the drawerbottom removed, support the drawer on theboard as you plane the sides. To avoid tearout atthe corners, first plane inward from one end ofthe drawer (C), and then from the opposite end(D). Keep shaving the sides in this manner untilthe box just fits into the opening from side toside. But be careful; taking two or three extrashavings can result in a loose-fitting drawer thatracks as it slides in and out of the opening, caus-ing it to stick.

To help with checking the fit, install a screw in the drawer front as a dummy handle for pulling the drawer out of the opening (E).



A

C

E

D

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Next, reduce the height of the drawer by clamp-ing it to the bench and using the same plane tolevel the top and bottom edges (F). To keep theedges square, rotate the plane around the cor-ners so its sole is supported throughout the cut(G). Make sure to plane both the top and bottomof the drawer, and use a flat surface such as yourbench to check that the box is flat. Keep workingthe height of the drawer down until you have anappropriate gap. For example, a 3-in.-high drawershould have a clearance of around 1⁄16 in., while a12-in.-high drawer might require as much as 1⁄4 in.,depending on the wood species and whetheryou’re fitting in dry or wet weather.

The correct side-to-side fit leaves almost no gapbetween the drawer sides and the opening. Thethickness of a dollar bill is about right (H). Withthe drawer fully installed, you should have asmall, consistent gap above the drawer front (I).For symmetry, you can plane a small bevel on the bottom edge to create a matching gap at thebottom of the drawer. The last step is to checkthat the front is flush with the frame. If the drawerneeds a stop, install it now. If the front isn’t flushwhen the drawer is pushed all the way in,remove the screw and plane the face until every-thing looks good. Then install the drawer bottom,mount a knob or handle, and you’re done.


F

H I

G

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Attaching a Tabletop

L-shaped wood “buttons” are a great way toattach a tabletop to its base while allowing thetop to expand and contract during seasonalchanges. Make buttons by starting with a longstrip of wood. Use a crosscut sled and a 1⁄2-in.-wide dado blade to mill a series of evenlyspaced, 1⁄2-in.-wide notches along the strip. Astick of wood nailed to the sled’s base registerseach previous notch, making cutting multiplenotches a snap (A).

Next, use the drill press and a drill/countersink bitto drill two countersunk clearance holes in eachbutton for a pair of screws. Register the work-piece against a low fence (B). Crosscut individualbuttons from the strip with a miter saw, aligningthe blade with the shoulder of each notch. Thistechnique leaves a tongue about 3⁄8 in. long (C).Use a stationary belt sander or the bandsaw tomiter the ends of the tongues to accommodatethe curvature of the slots you’ll cut.

Next, cut the slots in the table apron to acceptthe tongues of the buttons. This can be doneusing a slotting cutter in a router, but I prefer touse a biscuit joiner. I set the cutter on the biscuitjoiner to cut just below the thickness of what willbe the upper face of the tongue. An easy way todo this is to hold a button up to the machine,project the blade, and adjust the fence height byeye (D). This technique ensures that the buttonsplace sufficient pressure against the top whenthey’re installed.

Set the joiner’s cutting depth to “20,” and plungea series of slots in the table apron. Make the first series of cuts at the first fence setting (E)

to produce a notch at the correct depth from thetop of the apron (F).



A

C D

E F

B

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Then reset the fence, using a button tongue asbefore, but this time measuring from its lowerface (G). Now repeat all the slotting cuts aroundthe frame to widen the slots for the buttons (H).

To attach the top, place all the buttons that areoriented parallel to the tabletop grain tight againstthe aprons (typically the end aprons on a table)(I). The buttons that get oriented perpendicular to the grain (usually along the long aprons) arespaced to leave a gap that allows the top to swellwithout bowing the apron outward (J). Ten but-tons will suffice to hold a reasonably large top toa base. Placing pairs of buttons close to the legsin each corner not only holds the top tight buthelps to strengthen these corner joints (K).


G

I

K

J

H

LETTING WOOD MOVE

Applying Case Molding

To attach moldings across the side of a widecase, you must allow for the swelling and shrink-ing of the case. The first step is to cut and miterthe front molding, and then glue it full length to thefront of the cabinet. Next, install a dovetail bit inthe router table and plow a dovetail socket into theback of each side molding (A). Then miter and fitthe side moldings to the front molding and flushwith the back, but don’t install them yet.

Rout a set of dovetail blocks to fit the sockets inthe side moldings, using the same bit. The easi-est approach is to mill a piece of wood that’sslightly thicker than the width of the dovetail bitand oversize in length and width. Without chang-ing the bit height, make the first pass to shapehalf the dovetail, routing both edges so you maketwo tail blanks from one piece of stock. If you setup the fence correctly, the bit should remove justa hair of wood along the side of the stock at thewidest part of the tail (B). Turn the stock aroundand rout the second pass on each edge to createthe full dovetail (C). Then rip the tail sectionsfrom the blank and crosscut them into individualdovetail blocks about 3 in. long.

If you’re attaching molding over case joinery suchas for through dovetails, where end grain isexposed, be sure to drill the screw holes intoface-grain sections (D). Then attach the dovetailblocks to each case side with screws, spacingthem equally across the sides of the case (E).

Test the fit of the tails in the socket by sliding themolding over the blocks and onto the case fromthe back. If the molding isn’t tight to the sides ofthe case, you can easily tweak the fit. Simplyunscrew the blocks and plane a little wood offthe back of each (F). Once the molding fits snugly, apply glue to the miters and the front 3 in. or so of each case side, and slide each sidemolding onto the case from the back (G).


A B

C D

E

G

F

SECTION 8 OVERVIEW

104

Choosing Joints At the heart of your furniture isthe joinery holding it all together.While this book doesn’t go into the

specifics of constructing joints (see TheComplete Illustrated Guide to Joinery by GaryRogowski, The Taunton Press), it’s impor-tant to understand when to use the appro-priate joints for your work and how todesign them so they’re strong and durable.You need to size your components correctly,considering the thickness of a mortise cheekwall, the length of a tenon, or the slope of adovetail. Not to be forgotten is the all-important fit of a joint. Too loose, and ajoint can fall apart; too tight, and you’ll haveproblems during assembly. And of course,wood movement must be taken into accountfor your joints to last. This section takes alook at these joinery issues so you can beconfident that your constructions will getyears of enjoyable use.

Designing a Joint

The success of a particular joint depends onyour choosing the right material, sizing thejoint correctly, milling and cutting it accu-rately, and assembling it in the proper order.It’s vital to remember that wood has itsphysical limits, beyond which you risk jointfailure. Also, it’s important to understandthat glued end-grain surfaces offer littlestrength. This is why effective joints aredesigned to provide long-grain-to-long-grain contact, such as on the mating surfacebetween tenon cheeks and mortise walls in amortise-and-tenon joint. Bear in mind thatmany long-grain joints actually consist oftwo or more long-grain parts running cross-grain to each other. With this type of joint,such as for a mortise and tenon, you’ll need

A long tenon with smooth cheeks makes a good connection. Cleanup rough surfaces with a plane or shoulder plane, and chamfer theend of the tenon with a chisel to ease assembly.

SECTION 8 OVERVIEW

to keep parts relatively narrow to minimizethe amount of movement each part under-goes as it expands or contracts across itsmating part.

For mechanical strength as well as gluingstrength, joints must be carefully dimen-sioned so the parts work in unison. In amortise-and-tenon joint, for example, thetenon should be long and stout. Shorttenons don’t have sufficient penetration tohold in a mortise, and thin tenons riskbreaking under stress. Mortises must be deepenough to house a tenon, and the cheekwalls should be thick enough so they won’tcrack or give way under stress, as shown inthe photo above. Intersecting parts—thetenon cheeks and the walls of the mortise—should have smooth faces so they make closecontact with each other.

When it comes to sizing tenons, my ruleof thumb is to make them as long as thereceiving mortise will allow—which is some-

Choosing Joints 105

TenonsLonger is better for maximum penetration into mortise.

Make thick enough to withstand sideways stress.

Cheek should be smooth, not rough.

Mortises

Cheek walls should be thick enough to support tenon and to resist flexingunder hand pressure.

Deeper is better.

Dovetails

Tail has wide baseline for strength.

Pin can be relatively narrow without breaking.

Where possible, end joint with pins to avoid problems with weak short grain on tails.

DIMENSIONING JOINTS

Mortises should be deep with relativelyclean cheeks. (A rough bottom is okay.) To test the strength of the outside walls,squeeze them with your fingers.

See “Understanding Wood Movement”on p. 7.

➤

SECTION 8 OVERVIEW

avoid extremely acute angles when laying outdovetails because the tips of the tails andpins become fragile and can break off.Conversely, a shallow angle won’t providethe mechanical lock that this joint is knownfor. Generally, angles of between 7 degreesand 14 degrees are adequate for strength,with more acute angles for softer woods.Widely spaced pins are the norm becausethey ensure wide tail baselines for strength.And ending on the edge of the work with apin—not a tail—keeps this area strong thanksto the long-grain orientation of the pin.

If you use tenons, mortises, and dovetailsas examples of general design rules, then it’sa simple matter of applying the same prin-ciples to all your other joinery.

Testing Your Joints

The best way to find out if your joints are upto par is to put them to the test. I routinelyassemble sample joints, then pound on ’emor cut ’em apart to check their strength. Oneunfailing criteria is that if the wood sur-rounding the joint breaks or fails, then thejoint itself is sufficiently strong for your pur-poses. The simplest way to test this is to glueup an edge joint, and then break it inten-tionally. If the fibers on either side of theglueline give way, then you can rest assuredthat the joint is stronger than the woodyou’re using.

The fit of a joint is always the key to itsstrength. The goal is to have intimate wood-to-wood contact inside the joint. Glue alonewill not hold joints over the long haul. Tocheck the contact, you can saw apart a gluedjoint to inspect the inside.

In the real world, we typically don’t havethe time or resources to test all our joints.

times limited by my tooling. A typical tenondestined to fit into 3⁄4-in.-thick stock shouldbe at least 1 in. long, but longer is even better. In the same 3⁄4-in.-thick stock, themortise should be 1⁄4 in. or 5⁄16 in. wide,which makes for a sufficiently thick tenonwhile providing mortise walls sturdy enoughto withstand the strain of daily use. Anotherway of looking at this is to use the rule ofthirds: When sizing a mortise, make itswidth equal to one-third of the thickness ofthe stock. This rule won’t necessarily applyin all situations, since you can make a thicktenon with relatively narrow shoulders aslong as the cheeks in the adjoining mortiseare sufficiently thick, such as when whenyou join a thin rail to a thicker post. Andyou can size a mortise wider than one-thirdwhen the stock is particularly thick. Still, therule of thirds is a good place to start.

Dovetails provide another good exampleof how to design and dimension a joint. Theslope of the tails and pins, plus their spacing,can make or break the joint. You’ll want to

Choosing Joints106

A well-formed set of tails includes the proper angle ofslope and a wide baseline to prevent snapping. Forstrength, the joint should terminate with pins at eachend, not tails.

SECTION 8 OVERVIEW

But there’s a simple hands-on test that youshould do with all your joints. It’s the trialfit, which means assembling the joint withoutglue. For example, when cutting a mortise-and-tenon joint, you should hand-fit thetenon into its mortise. If you can insert thetenon with hand pressure alone, you have afine-fitting joint. If you have to pound on itwith a hammer, you’re looking at troublebecause the addition of glue will cause

Choosing Joints 107

With the joint line slightly overhanging the bench, whack the panel (left) to test the joint. A well-made joint showstorn fibers around the glueline but not along the joint itself (right).

This sawn-apart joint reveals a tight-fittingbiscuit that’s securely bonded in its slot.

Standard procedure when checking the fit of tenons is to pushthem into their mortises without glue. A good fit requires handforce alone.

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swelling and probable breakage during finalassembly. On the other hand, if a tenondrops easily into its mortise with no per-suasion, it’s too loose, and no amount of gluecan compensate for the necessary wood-to-wood contact.

The same approach holds for dovetailjoints. A light tap is all that’s needed for aperfect fit. Once a joint is assembled, trywiggling it. If you can rack the joint, it’sprobably too loose, and you’ll need to fix thejoint or remake your parts for a tighter fit.

Common Joints

The best way to design long-lasting furni-ture is to understand the joints at your disposal. Once you’re familiar with them,you’ll need to pay attention to the orientationof the components so joint strength isn’tcompromised, especially when it comes towood movement. For a long-lasting connec-tion, some joinery requires the addition ofmechanical fasteners such as nails, staples, orscrews. The following joints have all proventheir worth over time.

Butt JointsButt joints are the simplest of all the jointsto construct. Edge-to-edge joints are typi-cally used to make wide panels from narrowstock, while end-to-face joints are often usedin box construction. When both mating sur-faces are long-grain oriented in the samedirection, as in an edge joint, no fastenersare necessary as long as the mating surfacesare flat and smooth. To create a smooth sur-face suitable for gluing, it’s best to joint thearea, either on the jointer or with a handplane. Cuts from the table saw are typically

Choosing Joints108

Light taps from a hammer are all that’s needed to drive home awell-cut dovetail (left). Look for obvious gaps, and test the fit bywiggling the rail from side to side (right).

Edge-to-edge joints connect long-grain parts. Mating surfaces needto be smooth and straight, and no nails, screws, or biscuits arenecessary for a strong bond.

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holding glue. Still, it’s wise to ensure as gooda glue bond as possible by initially sizing theend grain with a preliminary coat of gluelightly thinned with water or simply spreadvery thinly on the surface. Let this size coattack up for a few minutes before applying asecond coat of fresh glue prior to assembly.This approach lets the thirsty end-grain

too rough and scored with saw marks tomake a reliable joint that will hold up in use.

When connecting end grain, as in an end-to-face joint, you must reinforce the jointwith nails, screws, or other mechanical fas-teners because end grain does a poor job of

Choosing Joints 109

Edge to Edge

Long-grain edges must be straight and smooth for good bond. No fasteners are needed, just glue.

End to Face

Poor glue surface of end grain requires strengthening joint with nails or screws.

End grain

BUTT JOINT

Face frames glued to solid wood or ply-wood cabinets are long-grain joints andneed only sufficient clamping pressure fora lasting joint.

End-grain surfaces,such as in this cor-ner butt joint, mustbe reinforced withnails or screws.

See “Dimensioning Wood” on p. 142.➤

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pores fill up with the first coat so the secondglue application remains near the surface fora good bond.

RabbetsA rabbet is an L-shaped notch cut into theedge or end of a piece of wood. In a typicalrabbet joint, only one of the members is rab-beted to accept the mating member. A rabbet joint is commonly used in the rearedge of a cabinet side for letting in a cabinetback. A rabbet is also often cut into the ends of drawer parts or cabinet partitions tocreate a tongue that then fits into a dado orgroove. As with butt joints, long-grain-to-long-grain connections can simply be glued,while rabbets with end grain must be rein-forced with fasteners.

A standard application for a long-grainrabbet joint is in attaching a case back to acabinet. The rear edges of the case are rab-beted to accept the case back, hiding theedges of the back while providing a mechan-ical connection to the case. It’s common to

Choosing Joints110

Pocket screws driven into therear face of a centered butt jointhelp draw the joint tight duringassembly and strengthen theend-grain connection.

Corner joints must be reinforced with fas-teners, such as these pocket screws driveninto the back face of the joint.

Rabbet for Back

Cabinet back

Cabinet side

Because of thelong-grain connection, fasteners aren’t necessary. However, nails or screws are often used as a means of clamping a joint.

Corner Rabbet

Reinforce joint with fasteners.

RABBETS

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ing 3⁄4-in.-thick stock, I routinely mill themonly 1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in. deep so there’s plenty ofmaterial below the dado to support the jointor accept fasteners. Even when they are cutto be relatively shallow, the square edges, orwalls, of the dado are end grain and havesufficient strength to support the weight of a shelf or another heavy load.

When dadoes are used with solid wood,the grain direction of mating parts shouldrun parallel so they expand and contract inunison. Because the connection of a dado

install the case back into its rabbets withoutglue, for temporary disassembly when you’refinishing case parts. You can use screws orother removable fasteners driven through theback and into the case rabbets to make apermanent connection.

End-grain rabbets can be beefed up bymachining a double rabbet, so there’sincreased mechanical advantage that alsooffers more surface for glue. However, as for all end-grain connections, you must stillbolster the joint with nails or screws.

DadoesA dado is technically a square-edged slot cutcross-grain into a piece of wood. A groove isof the same shape but runs parallel to thegrain. In a dado joint, a dado cut into one ofthe pieces accepts the end or edge of themating piece, usually for connecting shelvesor partitions. The depth of the dado shouldbe kept relatively shallow to avoid compro-mising the strength of the dadoed member.For example, when cutting dadoes for join-

Choosing Joints 111

A rabbet milled along the edge of a cabinetside conceals the case back and provides ashoulder to help it withstand racking.

This corner rabbetis a good choice fordrawers and othersmall boxes, but besure to reinforce theconnection withnails or screws.

A double rabbet ata corner providesadditional gluingarea for increasedstrength, althoughfasteners must stillbe used.

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joint is end grain to face grain, the joint isoften strengthened with nails, staples, orscrews. Because of the end-grain-to-face-grain connection, it’s also important that thejoint be tight, especially in solid wood.When you’re joining plywood parts togetherat right angles, the glued joint is actuallystronger than in solid wood because abouthalf a plywood edge typically consists oflong grain, and, as we’ve discussed, long-grain-to-long-grain contact makes the bestglued connection.

It’s not unusual to use a dado joint toconnect plywood to solid wood. For example,you may want to install thick, solid-woodshelves for better weight-bearing strength ina plywood case. In that circumstance, youmust leave room for the shelves to expandand contract while the case remains dimen-sionally stable. You can do this by makingthe shelves slightly shallower than the depthof the case, and then gluing only the front 4 in. or so of the shelf to the case. Drive a fewthin nails through the case and into the endsof the shelf to hold the rest of the joint. Thenails will flex slightly while keeping the jointintact as the shelf moves toward the back.

Choosing Joints112

Orient grain in same direction so parts move in unison. Secure with nails, staples, or screws.

Keep dado shallow to maintain strength of piece for fastening.

DADOES

A well-cut dado joint has a flat bottom and is relatively shallow,leaving enough thickness to support screws or other fasteners.

A dado is a good joint for connecting smallframe parts, but be sure to add nails tostrengthen the connection.

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SplinesA spline joint consists of a stick of wood, orspline, that connects two parts that havemating slots milled into their edges, faces, orends. It’s commonly used in box and caseconstruction, or as an effective method forstrengthening miters in frame work. Splinescan be made from solid wood or thin ply-wood and glued into place or left dry. Whenyou’re using plywood splines, grain directiondoesn’t matter. Grain orientation in solid-wood splines, however, should be carefullyconsidered. The spline can be either longgrain or short grain (running across thewidth of the spline), depending on the appli-cation. In glued frame joints, for example, it’sbest to orient the grain perpendicular to thejoint line for strength. Installing a long-grainspline in a frame joint is inviting disaster,since the spline might split along its lengthwhen the joint is stressed.

Choosing Joints 113

Width of spline equals depth of two grooves. For strongest connection, orient grain perpendicular to joint line.

SPLINES

A splined miter helps strengthen this joint and aligns the parts tomake assembly easier.

A long-grain-to-long-grain spline joint can be assembled withoutglue, allowing adjacent boards room for seasonal movement. If youdon’t glue a spline into its grooves, orient its grain with the jointline to avoid the risk of snapping the spline during installation.

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tenon joint is far superior in most applica-tions, although doubling up pairs of biscuitscan effectively increase the strength of ajoint. Biscuits are particularly useful as align-ment aids, such as when edge-joining twoboards or gluing lippings to work surfaces.

Made of compressed wood, biscuits aredesigned to swell when water-based glue isapplied, creating a tight joint. However, therelatively large amount of swelling can create

Dry splines are great for aligning parts,such as when you’re fitting a series ofgrooved boards together to form a widerpanel. The best example is when you’re con-structing a solid-wood case back. Here,you’ll want to use long-grain splines so thespline itself is strong enough to resist flexingbetween boards without cracking. Also,when you’re making long lengths of splines,it’s much more efficient to make long-grainsplines, which can be ripped from stock as asingle solid length. Cross-grain splines for a long joint would have to be made up from anumber of shorter lengths crosscut fromwide boards.

BiscuitsThanks to the simplicity and speed withwhich it can be cut using a biscuit joiner, thebiscuit joint has found its way into manycabinetmakers’ shops as a viable substitutefor grooves and dadoes. In addition to theiruse in casework joints, biscuits are great forjoining frames. However, the biscuit’s rela-tively shallow penetration does not makethis joint a good choice when a lot ofstrength is required. A deep mortise-and-

Choosing Joints114

Splines are a good choice foraligning joints,especially whenparts are joined at odd angles.

Biscuit of compressed beech fits in slot with slight amount of play. Moisture in glue swells biscuit for tight joint.

When possible, cut pairs of slots and double up on biscuits to increase strength of joint.

BISCUITS

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DowelsA dowel joint will connect and align partsduring assembly and is commonly seen incasework, including drawer boxes and cabi-nets. You can also use dowels to join framesor chair spindles. To make the joint, you canuse a commercial drilling jig to align parts andguide the drill into the stock. However, manywoodworkers use their own shopmade align-ment jigs for drilling the holes accurately.You can use standard dowel stock for dowels,but spiral-grooved or fluted dowels have supe-rior holding power and are more effective inspreading glue into the joint during assembly.

One inherent problem with a dowel jointstems from its round shape. Dowels anddowel holes must be perfectly round to matetogether soundly. This usually isn’t a prob-lem during construction and assembly. Butover time, the smallest amount of woodmovement can deform a dowel or dowelhole into a slight ovoid shape, with the resultthat only a few areas of the dowel make con-

problems during and after assembly. Withcomplex assemblies requiring lots of biscuits,I’ve found that instead of applying glue toeach biscuit, it’s better to coat the biscuitslots. Installing dry biscuits in the wet slotsgives you more time to assemble the jointbefore the biscuits swell and grab.

After assembling a biscuit joint, be sure toallow enough time for the moisture in thejoint to fully evaporate and the wood to sta-bilize before planing or sanding. On softerwoods particularly, the glue moisture canoften raise biscuit-sized bumps on the sur-face of the work. If you level or smooththese areas too soon, you’ll be left with football-shaped hollows once the wood dries back to its normal MC. Therefore, letan assembled joint dry at least overnightbefore working it further.

Choosing Joints 115

Biscuit joints work well forframe joinery as well as caseconstruction, such as in the cor-ner case joint shown here.When you add water-basedglue, the compressed biscuitsswell tight in their slots.

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tact with the hole. This partial failure at theglueline often precipitates total joint failure.The best way to beat the odds here is tominimize wood movement by using dowels1⁄2 in. or less in diameter.

With today’s advances in joinery methods,techniques, and tooling, the common doweljoint has largely been replaced by more effi-cient joinery methods. But the simplicity ofthe joint makes it a good candidate for thesmall shop, especially for the beginner orthose of us with limited power tools.

Lap JointsThe lap joint comes in many flavors and istypically used in frame construction to joincorners or other intersecting members. Thesheer number of variations of this joint andits relative simplicity often make it a goodchoice for a variety of applications and forwoodworkers with limited tooling. Because

Choosing Joints116

Drill deeper holes in end grain.

Dowels can be spiral-grooved or fluted.

Drill shallow stopped holes in facegrain piece.

DOWELS

Using a series ofdowels is an effec-tive method forjoining frame piecesor case parts. Dowelholes must line upperfectly, which ispossible with theaid of a doweldrilling jig.

Depth of notch equals half of stock thickness.

Keep width of stock 4 in. or less to avoid problems with wood movement.

LAP JOINT

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it relies on cross-grain connections, the jointshould only be used to connect relativelynarrow parts. Otherwise, wood movementwill eventually break the glue bond. Piecesthat are 4 in. wide or less will typically makea strong connection.

To achieve a good glue bond, mating sur-faces should be as smooth and flat as possi-ble. Lap joints are easy to make on the tablesaw using a dado blade and then cleaning upthe joint faces afterward with a shoulderplane if necessary. You can cut end laps bycarrying the workpiece on end across theblade with a tenoning jig.

When possible, it’s a good idea to reinforcethe joint with pegs, nails, or other fasteners tohelp overcome cross-grain wood movement,especially when the joint is subject to greatstress, such as in a door frame. Alternatively,you can construct a dovetailed lap to providemechanical resistance.

Choosing Joints 117

The cross-lap joint is useful for connecting parts thatintersect at a midpoint, such as in a divided face frame.

An edge lap is simi-lar to a cross lapand is used whenjoining narrowframes. Here, thestock is turned 90degrees, and half-notches are cut inthe edges instead of the faces.

The corner lap isone of the morecommon types oflap joints and isoften used to joinsimple frames.

A dovetail lap is similar to a basic half lap, with theaddition of mechanical resistance in one direction dueto the wedging action of the tail.

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Box JointsAlso known as a finger joint, the box jointconsists of identically sized, long-grain “fingers” on the end of one piece that fit intomatching sockets cut into the end of themating piece. As the name implies, the jointis typically used in box making, although itis sometimes found in larger casework.

Wood movement won’t be a significantissue as long as you orient the grain aroundthe box. It’s a very strong joint because itprovides about three times the gluing surfaceof a butt joint and the mating faces of thefingers are all long grain, not end grain.However, parts intersect across the grain, sofingers should be kept relatively short—say,1 in. or less—to limit cross-grain woodmovement. Luckily, in box making thethickness of the box sides determines thelength of each finger, and it’s rare that sidesare thicker than 1 in., so a well-constructedjoint will hold reliably with glue alone.

Mortise-and-Tenon JointsThe mortise and tenon is one of thestrongest joints for connecting frames and isfound in doors, face frames, table bases,chairs, or wherever you need to join relativelynarrow parts cross-grain to each other. I con-sider it an indispensable joint for furnituremaking because, when made correctly, itsolves the problem of connecting slenderparts at right angles to each other in a long-lasting, reliable manner. The key to a success-ful joint is to proportion the parts correctly,including making the tenon long enough toprovide mechanical resistance.

Choosing Joints118

Make fingers of equal thickness.

Cut notches equal to thickness of fingers.

BOX JOINT

The box joint’s multiple fingersmake it very strongand a good choicefor joining the corners on smallboxes. Be sure toorient the grain inthe same directionaround the box toensure strength andconsistent woodmovement.

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Since this is a cross-grain joint, tenonwidth shouldn’t exceed about 4 in., or yourisk breaking the glue bond due to seasonalmovement. Tenon thickness should be suffi-ciently stout to resist flexing and breaking.As a rule, I generally machine my tenons to 5⁄16 in. thick when joining two pieces of3⁄4-in. stock. When I’m mortising into athicker mating piece, I’ll make the tenonthicker. While laying out the mortise, makesure its outer walls are thick enough to with-stand flexing, or they can break under stress.For laying out a mortise in 3⁄4-in.-thickstock, a 5⁄16-in.-wide mortise centered in thepiece will yield outer walls 7⁄32 in. thick—just

Choosing Joints 119

Small shoulder

Shoulders provide resistance to racking and hide any blemishes along mortise.

Tenon

Mortise

Large shoulder

Cheek

MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT

A wedged through-tenon remains locked inits mortise and adds a touch of decoration.

The through-tenon joint reveals the end ofthe tenon and the outside of the mortise. Thejoint must be cut cleanly for a good look.

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shy of 1⁄4 in. and plenty strong in all but themost delicate of woods.

The fit of the tenon in its mortise is ofprime importance in this joint, and achiev-ing it can be challenging to novices. Themechanical strength of the joint depends ona “slip fit” of the tenon in its mortise, ensur-ing that the mating surfaces are in intimatecontact with each other before you add glue.Test the fit by dry-assembling the joint. Ifthe parts slide together without pushing, thejoint is too loose. On the other hand, if youhave to smack it with a hammer, the joint istoo tight. The correct fit should require onlyhand pressure or light hammer taps to bringthe joint home.

A plunge router and straight bit guidedby a jig is the most economical way for thesmall-shop woodworker to cut the mortises.The tenons can be cut admirably with atenoning jig or with a dado blade on thetable saw. Regardless of your preferred tool-

Choosing Joints120

Sawn apart, thiswedged through-tenon joint exposesheavily taperedwedges that spread the tenon to meet the slopedwalls of the mortise, creating a mechanical lock.

Another option for through-tenon joints isto allow the tenon to protrude past theadjoining part for visual effect.

This protrudingthrough-tenon ispinned twicethrough its cheek toprevent racking,allowing the joint to be assembledwithout glue.

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ing method, it’s best to cut your mortisesfirst, and then fit your tenons to them. Thatway, if your tenons end up a bit too tight,you can easily reduce their thickness with afew passes from a shoulder plane or somesandpaper wrapped around a flat block ofwood. It’s much more difficult to adjust thewidth of a mortise.

Another area to proportion carefully is the length of your tenon respective to thedepth of your mortise. It’s wise to leave a little space at the bottom of the mortise bycutting your tenons 1⁄32 in. or so shorter thanyour mortise is deep. Since this is an end-grain area with a poor gluing surface anyway,a tight fit here is not critical. More impor-tant, this approach ensures that the tenonshoulders tightly abut the mortised piece toprovide resistance to racking and a neateroverall appearance for the finished joint.

Dovetails When it comes to connecting slabs andother wide-panel work, the dovetail jointcan’t be beaten in terms of strength. I con-sider this joint a staple in my joinery reper-toire, like the mortise and tenon, and wellworth the effort it takes to make. The jointhas a unique visual appeal, and many wood-workers go to great lengths to display it intheir work, although traditionally the jointwas concealed under moldings or hidden byadjoining parts. Thanks to its wedge-shapedpins and tails, the dovetail joint creates amechanical connection while still allowingthe parts to move uniformly with the seasons. In fact, many dovetail joints don’trequire any glue for a successful connection.Through and half-blind versions are used forjoining drawer boxes and case parts, while

Choosing Joints 121

Through Dovetails

Half pin

Tail

Full pin

Sliding Dovetail

Tail

Socket

Orient grain in same direction.

DOVETAILS

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of steeper angles to denser, stronger woodsor to exceptionally long tails.

A router equipped with the appropriatedovetail bit and guided by a commercial orshopmade jig is an excellent choice for cuttingthis joint. However, hand-cutting this jointcan bring tremendous satisfaction. If you’venever hand-cut dovetails before, start withsome straight-grained pine or other softwood.You won’t have to be as fussy with the fit asyou would be with hardwood, since the fibersof softer woods will crush together withoutbreaking or splitting. With luck, your pins andtails will fit tight and look great the first timearound. With hand-cut through dovetails,there has been a long-standing debate overwhether to cut the tails or pins first, since onecompleted part must be used as a template tomark the adjoining piece. While I am a tails-first kind of guy, it really doesn’t matter whichmethodology you use as long as you’re com-fortable with the one you choose.

sliding dovetails connect shelves, partitions,drawer boxes, or pedestal-style tables.

As with box joints, be sure to orient thegrain of adjoining parts in the same direc-tion to prevent cross-grain wood-movementproblems. Pin and tail angles between 7 degrees and 14 degrees have sufficientslope to mechanically hold the joint in onedirection. To avoid problems with jointdeformation and stress failure, limit the use

Choosing Joints122

Sliding dovetailsmake sturdy con-nections for shelvesand dividers. Theycan also be assem-bled without gluefor telescopingparts, such as table-extension hardware.

Through dovetailsare exposed onboth faces and form a strong, inter-locking joint.

Half-blind dovetails have the same strengthas through dovetails but are concealed onone face, making them a good choice forconnecting drawer fronts to sides.

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Selecting YourMaterial

➤ SketchingDimensions on the Blackboard (p. 131)

Drawing Full-Scale

➤ Working AroundDefects (p. 132)

➤ Maximizing Partsfrom a Plank (p. 134)

➤ Sawing Out StraightGrain (p. 136)

➤ Arranging GrainBetween Boards (p. 137)

➤ Stiffening a Shelfwith Lippings(p. 138)

➤ Making a Torsion-Box Shelf (p. 139)

Appearance

and Strength

123

A sketch is often in order to ensure that allthe parts work as a whole and that the pro-portions are pleasing.

If you want to incorporate curves andbends in your work, it’s worth getting toknow the attributes of working with green,unseasoned stock. Equally important are the visual characteristics of your material,such as its color, tone, and grain markings.Understanding all these elements and incor-porating them in your work will help youselect the best material for the best work.

Using Green Wood

“Green woodworking”—the craft of workingwith unseasoned stock—is a long-standingtradition. While most of us want to avoidgreen material, it has some distinct qualitiesthat we can incorporate in our work. Forone, when the wood is fresh and full of natural moisture, the fibers are in a morerelaxed state that allows us to bend thewood easily. Another benefit is the relativesoftness of green material, which can workto your advantage when you’re carving orturning. Keep in mind that green wood will typically warp or crack if not dried in acontrolled manner. Carved or turned bowlsmust be stored carefully, often by wrappingthem in plastic or covering them in wetshavings, so they’ll dry slowly.

Green-wood chairmakers often takeadvantage of green wood’s drastic movementduring drying to make naturally lockingjoints. For example, chair legs made of greenwood can be drilled out to accept an over-

T o build strong furniture with alook that says “fine woodworking,”you’ll want to select your material

carefully for the proper strength and visualattributes. You’ll need to ensure that youdon’t underbuild a piece, and that parts likeshelves and dividers are stiff and rigidenough to hold the loads expected of them.

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sized tenon on the end of a dry, seasonedchair rung. The oversized tenon is forcedinto the mortise in the wet, flexible leg with-out risk of damage. Then, as the leg shrinks,its mortise squeezes onto the dry tenon,deforming into an ovoid shape and lockingthe parts tightly together.

Using Rived Wood

Rived wood is material that’s been cleft,instead of sawn, from a billet of wood.Riving wood produces a workpiece withgrain that runs the entire length instead ofrunning out at an edge, which is often theresult of sawing wood. Rived material is typically used by chairmakers to produceparts where extra strength is required, suchas in spindles and chair rungs.

To rive wood, you begin with a straightlog free of knots, branches, or spiralinggrain. Use a species that splits well, such ascedar, butternut, or oak. The riving proce-dure involves laying out a grid on the end ofa log and then splitting the log into sectionswith an ax. You then split each section intoindividual squares using a froe and a wooden

Selecting Your Material124

Cherry, a notoriouslyhard wood to bendwhen dry, is easilypushed into a curve by hand when the wood isfresh and green.

Turning wood in itsgreen state allowsdeep, fast cuts thatproduce less fric-tion, heat, and wearon cutting edges.Long, slurpy shav-ings are a telltalesign that the woodis wet.

Lay out a grid of squares on the end of alog, and then split the log into sectionswith an ax by tapping the blade along thelines of each section with a mallet.

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account, you owe it to yourself to also con-sider its figure, grain, color, and texture.Careful composition of these characteristicscan make your furniture stand out above thecrowd. It’s important to train your eye toview the aesthetic possibilities that woodprovides and to take the time to carefullyarrange the grain before cutting your pieces.

As we’ve seen, wood comes in practicallyevery hue imaginable. The trick is learninghow to incorporate these colors in your workwithout getting carried away and over-whelming a piece. Bold colors such as the

mallet. This creates pieces of strong stockwith true, straight grain. An added benefit ofworking with such straight-grained materialis that it can be easily worked with handtools due to the negligible grain runout.

Composing Figure, Grain,

Color, and Texture

Many of us often overlook the aestheticattributes of our wood, treating it simply asbuilding material. While it’s vital thatwood’s relative strength, seasonal movement,warp, and natural defects are taken into

Selecting Your Material 125

Turned, green leg with MC typically 20% or greater

Dry rung, 6% to 8% MC

Oversized tenon

Mortise

Dry leg, 6% to 8% MC

During assembly, green mortise deforms to accommodate oversize tenon. As leg dries, mortise shrinks and locks tenon.

SHRINKING WOOD LOCKS JOINT

Tap the froe bladeinto the section tostart the split, thenlever the tool byhand to separateindividual squares.

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Combining two or more woods in thesame piece provides an opportunity for dra-matic effect. However, it’s wise to exerciserestraint. Seek a quiet, harmonious blendwhen choosing your palette. But by all means,experiment and try all sorts of different woodstogether or alone. For starters, through, tryworking with more subdued woods to get afeel for the design process. When combiningwoods, keep the hues similar, using creamymaple, for example, with one of the mild-colored fruitwoods like pear or cherry.

In addition to how you use color, the sur-face quality of your material also has a bigimpact on how a piece looks. Oak, ash, andother ring-porous woods with large, openpores reflect light differently than denserdiffuse-porous species, such as maple orsycamore, which look more polished. Bothtypes are fine for furniture and can often becombined successfully in one piece. Try toimagine how your chosen wood is going tolook in the finished product before you cutany pieces.

Don’t forget that certain woods can reflectlight in curious ways. Viewed from opposingangles, the same plank can appear darker orlighter, richer or duller, or with the grainpatterns more subtle or more prominent. Forexample, a plank of riftsawn mahogany maydisplay a strong ribbon-stripe pattern whenviewed from one direction, while the patternappears muted when seen from the oppositedirection (see the photos on facing page).Whenever possible, arrange boards in a similar direction to minimize any alternatinglight-and-dark effect. For example, whengluing up a series of boards to create a tabletop, arrange them so that the light plays evenly on all their surfaces.

violet shade of purpleheart or the canary-yellow of pau amarillo are typically overpow-ering if used extensively on a case piece ortable. Think small. Brightly colored woodsare better left for accents and details likepulls and decorative trim.


Light, dark, sub-dued, or vibrant—the color range ofwoods is practicallyendless. From leftto right: yellowpoplar, Maccassarebony, padauk, andcrotch walnut.

The colors of thiswalnut and spalted-maple bench blendharmoniouslytogether, providingvisual interest to anotherwise conven-tional design.

The highly visible,coarse-lookingpores of red oak(left) create a differ-ent texture and feelcompared to thesmoother appear-ance of bigleafmaple (right).

See “Wood Species” on p. 273.➤

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Calculating Wood’s Strength

One of the greatest mysteries a beginningwoodworker faces is understanding the rela-tive strengths of different woods in order toselect the best species for a specific applica-tion. While the best education derives fromworking with as many species as possible, afew guidelines can help when you’re dealingwith unfamiliar woods.

“Strength” can be defined as resistance toany number of stresses placed upon wood,including compression, tension, and shear.But by far the most important factors thatcontribute to wood’s strength are its densityand stiffness. Both characteristics give woodthe ability to resist bending.

Density is measured as weight per unitvolume and is often considered the primeindicator of a wood’s strength. For example,a wood that’s heavier is generally strongerthan a lighter wood. However, in an effort tostandardize comparisons of wood species,specific gravity is typically used as a gauge


These photos show the same face of a board under the same light-ing conditions, but viewed from opposite ends. At left, the grain ismore prominent, but when the board is rotated 180 degrees (right),the lines became more subdued.

Before cutting your joints, it pays to make a few marks on your stock

to keep things in order and keep track of parts. This is especially true with

leg-to-rail joints, where you’re typically working with four identical-looking

legs. Bundle the four legs together in the order they’ll appear in the table,

chair, or cabinet, making sure the best-looking faces point to the front,

and draw a circle on the top of the bundle, marking the inside faces where

the joinery will go. Then number the legs sequentially, which helps keep

matching faces in order and aids laying out and cutting the mortises.

Later, when you’re dealing with a single leg, you’ll know right away

which face receives joinery and which face is a show side.

MARKING YOUR WORK➤

SECTION 9 OVERVIEW

edge. And the natural grain configuration ofa particular species can also add strength,such as in the interlocked grain found in woods like beech and some of themahoganies. Conversely, knots and otherdefects can significantly weaken a board,causing splits in localized areas.

Of course, hardwoods are generally thebest choice for applications where stiffness isneeded. Oak, elm, ash, and hickory are allrelatively strong woods that withstand bend-ing stresses. Many hardwoods, however, are

instead of density. In the case of wood, spe-cific gravity refers to the ratio of the densityof a particular wood compared to the densityof water. Stiffness is measured by wood’smodulus of elasticity (MOE). The higherthe MOE, the stiffer the wood. Knowingthe specific gravity and MOE of a particularwood gives you a good idea of its strength.

In addition to density and stiffness, otherattributes help determine a wood’s strength.Clear, straight-grained wood is stronger thanwood with curving grain that runs out at the


Density and Stiffness of Wood

AVERAGE SPECIFIC GRAVITY MODULUS OF ELASTICITYSPECIES (OVEN DRY) RATIO TO WATER (MOE) 106 PSIAlder 0.41 1.38Ash 0.49 1.77Bald cypress 0.46 1.44Basswood 0.37 1.46Beech 0.64 1.72Birch, yellow 0.62 2.01Butternut 0.38 1.18Cedar, western 0.32 1.12Cherry, black 0.50 1.95Elm 0.50 1.34Fir, douglas 0.50 1.95Hemlock, western 0.45 1.49Hickory, pecan 0.66 1.73Lignum vitae 1.22 NALocust, black 0.69 2.05Maple, red 0.54 1.64Maple, sugar 0.63 1.83Oak, northern red 0.59 1.82Oak, white 0.68 1.78Padauk 0.77 NAPine, eastern white 0.35 1.24Pine, sugar 0.3 1.20Pine, yellow (longleaf) 0.59 1.93Poplar, yellow 0.42 1.58Redwood (old growth) 0.40 1.34Rosewood, indian 1.0 NASatinwood, Ceylon 0.9 NASpruce, Sitka 0.40 1.57Sweetgum 0.52 1.64Sycamore 0.49 1.42Walnut, black 0.55 1.68

SECTION 9 OVERVIEW

brittle and likely to crack or split understress. Brittle woods like cherry, holly, someof the rosewoods, and some of the ebonieswill chip, split, or crack more readily whensubjected to shock or severe stress, such as afall onto a hard floor.

One of the most common decisions weface when selecting wood for strength iswhether a particular shelf will hold up in usewithout sagging. A fully loaded bookshelf issubject to about 20 lbs. to 25 lbs. per run-ning foot of books, meaning that a 3-ft.-longshelf loaded with books will weigh 60 lbs.to 75 lbs. That’s some heavy reading, andyour shelves need to be designed to take the weight.

While solid hardwood is the preferredmaterial for strong shelves, plywood andparticleboard are also commonly used.When designing shelves, you’ll need to con-sider the type of material used, its thickness,and the distance it has to span. As the chartabove shows, solid wood is less susceptible tosagging than particleboard or plywood, andthicker material is stiffer.

Preventing Shelf SagWe’ve seen that choosing the appropriatematerial and dimensions for your shelveswill keep them straight and true, but thereare a few techniques you can adopt to giveyou a little more design freedom withoutsacrificing stiffness.

Sometimes it’s possible to keep yourshelves relatively thin while minimizing sagby attaching the rear of the shelf to a caseback. However, this isn’t a viable option foradjustable shelves that need to be reposi-tioned at different heights.


No-Sag Shelving (10-in.-deep shelf, 20 lbs. per linear foot)

MATERIAL THICKNESS (IN.) MAXIMUM SPAN (IN.)Particleboard 3⁄4 26Hardwood plywood 3⁄4 30Yellow pine 3⁄4 36Yellow pine 1 . 48Yellow pine 11⁄2 66Red oak 3⁄4 44Red oak 1 . 52Red oak 11⁄2 78

Shelf attached to case back won’t sag.

Case back Screw through

back into shelf.

Cleat at rear and lipping at front keep shelf rigid.

Cleat

Lipping

Torsion-box construction is extremely rigid.

Wood framework

Glue plywood skins to both sides of framework.

STIFFENING SHELVES

SECTION 9 OVERVIEW

you can increase the width of the lipping toincrease the overall rigidity.

For extreme rigidity, you can build a shelfwith torsion-box construction, which incor-porates a framework of thin wood memberssandwiched between two plywood skins.Like the wing of an aircraft, a torsion boxcan span very long distances and supportheavy loads without flexing or sagging.

To stiffen a fixed or adjustable shelf, thesimplest approach is to add a lipping at the front, and possibly a cleat at the rear.Lipping can be glued to the front edge tohelp conceal a plywood edge, and cleats canbe screwed or nailed to the bottom of ashelf. The wider the lipping, the stiffer theshelf will be. Generally, 3⁄4-in.-thick by 1-in.- to 11⁄2-in.-wide lipping will suffice formost shelves. For really heavy-duty shelves,


After a 1-in.-wide mahoganycleat is screwed to the under-side of the shelf, there’s nomeasurable sag.

This 1⁄2-in.-thick cherry shelf washung on shelf pins in a cabinet,then loaded with books. Astraightedge held under theshelf indicates a total sag ofalmost 1⁄4 in.

DRAWING FULL-SCALE

Sketching Dimensions on the Blackboard

Good furniture design involves testing the look ofa piece before committing to the real thing.Woodworker and designer Frederic Hanisch findsthe blackboard a good place to start. As he showshere, you can easily draw your idea full-scale,refining the design before cutting any wood. Atape measure will help you gauge proportions.

For practice, draw a small table, indicating the top with a few horizontal lines and then laying outthe length of a leg and its relationship to the top(A). Mark the leg’s width at the bottom where itwill meet the floor (B). The great thing aboutdrawing full-size on a blackboard is that you caneasily refine your measurements (C). If thingsdon’t look right to you, simply erase the chalk and draw a new line.

To get a better sense of proportion, try your handat a perspective view. Sketch the top first, anddon’t be concerned about your artistic efforts. Arectangle falling on its side is enough to get asense of what the top might look like (D). Addlegs to one end of the table, remembering that inyour full-scale sketch the top overhangs the legs(E). Then draw one back leg, giving the table aplanted feel (F).

Once you’re happy with the overall design, usethe existing full-size sketch to draw a plan view(from above, looking down) to determine specificdimensions, such as for the top overhang andapron-to-leg joinery (G). A sketch such as this isoften all you need to do before cutting out parts.


A

C

E

G

F

D

B

APPEARANCE AND STRENGTH

Working Around Defects

If you’re careful, you can often get a surprisingyield of parts from a board that some might con-sider scrap. For example, this questionable plankof ash actually contains a full set of table legs(and more), which you can determine by makingsome basic measurements and marking thepotential parts out in chalk (A).

When working with planks like this, begin bymarking any defects to avoid, such as checks onthe end of a board or any knots along its length(B). Continue down the length of the plank, mark-ing out parts and noting, for example, where twolegs might be cut side by side (C).

To conserve wood, sight the plank for warp, andthen crosscut the stock where a part ends near-est the most severe section of warp (D). Thisapproach yields straighter pieces that won’trequire much jointing to flatten. Joint one face (E)

and one edge (F), and then plane the stock to thedesired finished thickness (G).


A B

C

E

G

F

D


With the stock now flat, straight, and with oneedge squared, lay out the individual blanks for theparts. Use a ruler and chalk or pencil, makingsure that the parts fit within the confines of theblank, while allowing for any necessary saw kerfs(H). Start by ripping the board down the middle,referencing the jointed edge against the rip fence(I). If the stock warps after ripping, it may needrejointing. When everything is straight, rip theblanks to final width (J).

Cut the legs to finished length. Here, a stop blockclamped to a crosscut sled on the table sawallows accurate multiple cuts (K). Cut from theopposite side of the blade to remove any knots orother defects (L), and then butt the stock againstthe stop to finish the cuts (M).

With this type of careful layout and precise cut-ting, you can end up with more defect-free partsthan you originally planned on (N).


H

J

L

N

M

K

I


Maximizing Parts from a Plank

A great way to make the most of your wood isto work directly with rough stock, cutting outindividual parts before any surfacing begins. Withmany blanks, the first order of business is toscrub away dirt and debris with a stiff metalbrush to avoid dulling your cutting tools (A).

The best approach to laying out is often to use atemplate made from thin plywood to trace theparts onto your blank (B). Using a templateallows you to preview the wood quality and graindirection and facilitates nesting the parts asclosely as possible for maximum yield.

The most efficient way to cut out complex orcurved shapes is to use the bandsaw. Start byseparating the plank into bite-size chunks (C) andthen into oversized blanks for individual parts (D).

Once you’ve cut the parts to rough shape, flatten one face of each part on the jointer (E).


A

C

E

D

B


This process straightens one side while revealingthe full extent of its grain pattern (F). Next, sendthe parts through the thickness planer (G). Keepplaning until the stock is at the desired finishedthickness (H).

[TIP] When thickness-planing stock,

plane an equal amount from both sides to

balance any internal stresses that may

otherwise induce warp.

Use the template again to lay out the final con-tours of the parts (I). Then go back to the bandsaw and saw as close to the line as you can (J). Finish up by sanding and fairing the con-tours smooth.


F

H

J

I

G


Sawing Out Straight Grain

This is a nice plank of ribbon-stripe mahogany,but the curve of the grain doesn’t follow theedges of the board, and parts cut from it willlook skewed. Although this reduces the overallwidth of the board, it’s worth cutting the plank torearrange the grain so that it runs parallel to theedge of the board (A).

Begin by laying a straightedge parallel to the grainas best you can by eye, starting at one corner ofthe board, and angling the straightedge towardthe opposite end, following the grain. To checkthe width of board that will remain, use a rightangle and a ruler to measure from the straight-edge to the opposite edge of the board (B).Following the straightedge, draw a line onto thestock (C).

Cut as close to the line as you can on the band-saw (D). Then joint the sawn edge straight (E).Finally, register the jointed edge against the ripfence and saw the board to width (F).

The finished plank lost about 2 in. of width, butthe grain is now aligned with the edges of theboard (G).


A

C

E

G

F

D

B


Arranging Grain Between Boards

When you’re making a panel from a series ofnarrower boards, arranging the grain of adjacentboards can make all the difference in the look ofa piece. Here, cabinetmaker Frank Klausz posi-tions three rough-jointed boards in preparationfor laying out a tabletop (A). Whenever possible,it’s best to orient each board so the side thatpointed towards the center of the tree faces up.This “inside face” has a richer, deeper appear-ance, especially after a finish is applied. You caneasily identify the inside face by reading theannular rings on the end of the board, whichcurve upward at their ends (B).

Arrange the boards edge to edge, and then slideeach board back and forth until the grain patternsmerge as harmonious patterns. Once the boardsare arranged to your liking, mark a V across themso you can reorient them later during glue-up (C).Mark and crosscut the boards, leaving themabout 4 in. oversized in length for now (D).

Be sure to check for necessary width (E), andthen mark the stock in preparation for removingany sapwood or other blemishes (F). Once allyour marks are made, rip the boards to width andjoint each mating edge. Then reassemble theboards in order and glue up the top.


A

C

E F

D

B


Stiffening a Shelf with Lippings

Adding a wooden lip to the front of a shelf cansubstantially increase its stiffness and prevent itfrom sagging during use. To begin, prepare theshelf by clamping blocks wrapped in clear tapeto the top face of the shelf (A). The blocks helpalign the lipping flush to the shelf; the taperesists glue squeeze-out.

No special joinery is needed; a good coat of gluespread evenly along the front edge is enough tobond the lipping to the shelf (B). Once you’vespread the glue, position the shelf horizontally,place the lipping against the shelf, and use moreclamps to draw the lipping against the blocks (C).Use longer clamps to pull the lipping tight againstthe edge of the shelf. The sign of adequateclamping pressure is a small bead of glue escapingalong the entire joint (D).

Once the glue has dried, remove the clamps andblocks, and smooth the joint by scraping it andthen lightly sanding it (E). To dress up the face ofthe shelf, you can rout a decorative profile on thetop and bottom edges of the lipping (F). Afterrouting, crosscut the ends of the lipping flushwith the shelf. Thanks to the stout lip, the fin-ished shelf will hold stacks of books or otherheavy items without deflecting under load (G).


A

C

E

G

F

D

B


Making a Torsion-BoxShelf

Built like an aircraft wing, a torsion box can with-stand incredible loads, spanning long distanceswithout sagging. Furniture maker Lon Schleiningstarts by making an inner framework, cutting aseries of rabbets and dadoes in 3⁄4-in. by 3⁄4-in. pinestock. End rabbets are easily cut on a crosscutsled on the table saw, with a dado blade and astop block to register the cuts (A). Repositionthe stop block to make the dado cuts (B).

With one sheet of 1⁄4-in. plywood under the work,assemble the framework by gluing all the lapjoints (C). Once the frame is together, spreadglue over its entire face (D), and then lay a sec-ond sheet of plywood onto the frame (E). Repeatthe gluing procedure to coat the first sheet byflipping the assembly over and spreading glue onits opposite face.

Place a 3⁄4-in.-thick platen made from melamine-coated particleboard (MCP) on each side of theassembly, and raise the whole affair above thebench on blocks of wood. Then clamp theassembly with as many clamps as you canmuster (F). Before leaving the assembly to dry,be sure to sight the construction to ensure thatit’s dead flat (G). If necessary, make any adjust-ments by shimming the work off the bench.

Once the glue has cured, remove the clamps andplatens, and if you want, edge the finished shelfwith solid wood to conceal the joints. The shelf isnow ready to support a heavy load (H).


A

C

D

E

G

H

F

B

Working Difficult Wood, Page 162Dimensioning Wood, Page 142

Cutting planks into furniture parts involves not

only using the right machines but also understanding

your wood well enough to ensure that parts are cut as

precisely as possible. This means knowing how to deal

with wood’s inherent quirks when performing basic operations such

as jointing, planing, ripping, and crosscutting. You need to know how

to best deal with knots, cracks, severe warp, and other defects. Learning

to cope with these imperfections is part of the challenge of cutting wood

and can help you turn scrap lumber into prized treasure. This part

of the book describes how to approach these processes so that your

milled parts are strong, beautiful, and cut to the exact shapes and

sizes you need.

Cutting Wood

PART FOUR

SECTION 10 OVERVIEW

142

Dimensioning Wood

Cutting Veneer

➤ Flattening on aJointer (p. 147)

➤ Planing to Thickness(p. 149)

➤ Ripping a WidePlank on the TableSaw (p. 151)

➤ Ripping NarrowBoards from a WidePlank (p. 153)

➤ Crosscutting Usingthe Miter Gauge (p. 154)

➤ Cutting to Lengthwith a Miter Saw (p. 154)

➤ Crosscutting with a Table-Saw Sled (p. 155)

➤ Cutting Sheet Partswith a Circular Saw(p. 156)

➤ Sawing LargeSheets on the TableSaw (p. 157)

➤ BandsawingComplex Shapes (p. 158)

➤ Cutting and JoiningVeneer (p. 160)

Milling Solid Wood

Sizing Plywood Cutting Shapes

complex shapes, such as the flowing curve ofa chair leg, requires the right tools andknowing how to use them correctly.

Milling Raw Stock

Dimensioning stock involves milling thematerial so that it is straight, flat, of a con-sistent thickness, and has square edges.Properly done, the process flattens anywarped surfaces and yields pieces that aresmooth enough for layout work and joinery.The milling sequence can be outlined in ageneral way by tracing the route of the lum-ber from machine to machine:

In this section we’ll look at themilling process, which involves turningrough planks into finished parts ready

for joinery or assembly. In order to sizestock accurately, it helps to understand howyour woodworking machines work. It’sequally important to become familiar withhow your material reacts under differentmachining processes. Following the correctmilling procedure allows you to take controlof dimensioning boards so you get the partsyou need. Dealing with large stock, such asoversize boards or full sheets of plywood, isanother challenge you can successfully tackleif you approach it in a sensible manner andwith a few helpful aids. And producing

SECTION 10 OVERVIEW

producing wood that is warped or rough.Making your stock truly flat and square is ajob worth doing yourself.

When milling wood, you’ll need to beable to set up machines to make square cuts,such as when setting a table saw bladesquare to the table. You’ll also need to beable to accurately check the resulting cuts, soinvest in quality squares, and use the appro-priate size for the surface you’re reading.

During the milling process, ear and eyeprotection are needed to combat the roar ofmachinery and the flow of dust and chips.Blade guards are a must. If, like most of us,you find your stock table-saw guard clumsy,fit your table saw with one of the excellentaftermarket versions. To save fingers andplace pressure against tables and fences,make sure to use push sticks, push blocks,and hold-downs when appropriate.

An often overlooked piece of safetyequipment is the table-saw splitter, or riving

1) At the jointer, begin by flattening one face of the board.

2) At the thickness planer, dress the board to its final thickness.

3) Back at the jointer, straighten and square one edge.

4) At the table saw, rip the board to final width.

5) At the miter saw or table saw, crosscutthe board to final length.

Milling lumber in the proper sequence isnecessary to ensure stock that’s ready for fur-niture. If you try to save time by buying pre-milled stock, one of the above steps mayhave been overlooked or performed poorly,

Dimensioning Wood 143

A small engineer’s square is accurate forreading the edge of a board to checkwhether it’s perpendicular to an adjacentsurface.

Blade guards andpush sticks save fin-gers. This tall pushstick clears theguard and is madefrom plywood so itsheel won’t split orbreak during use.

SECTION 10 OVERVIEW

knife. This little piece of metal can be a lifesaver by preventing kickback, which iscaused by the blade lifting the workpieceand hurling it towards you with great force.Kickback most commonly happens whenyou’re ripping a board. Sawing can releaseinternal tensions inside the board, allowingthe two separated parts to warp and pressagainst the rising rear teeth of the blade,which then lift and throw the board (see the drawing at left). A splitter doesn’t allow the wood to press against the blade.Unfortunately, most stock splitters are troublesome to install and use. The answer is to buy an aftermarket splitter that can beinstalled or removed without tools.

Milling stock correctly also involvesremoving knots, splits, and other defects.Learn to carefully inspect a board after it hasbeen cleaned up in the thickness planer butbefore cutting to final dimension. Mostcracks and other blemishes show up easily atthis stage. If a knot isn’t a visual problem,you can leave it in, but be sure to tap it tomake sure it’s sound and won’t fall out later.

One of the trickiest parts of checking forsound stock is inspecting for end checks—those cracks at the ends of boards that resultfrom the drying process. Hairline checks canbe hard to see, so it’s best to cut slices off theend of the board, and then check the slicesfor cracks. First crosscut an inch or two from the rough end, then cut off a sliceabout 1⁄8 in. thick. Check the slice for cracksby gently bowing it with your hands. If it

Dimensioning Wood144

Kerf Opens Up

Wood is forced away from fence and contacts back of blade.

Kerf Closes

Wood closes toward blade and makes contact at back.

HOW WOOD PINCHES A SAW BLADE

A splitter prevents wood from moving into the blade as it’s ripped,eliminating the chance of kickback. This aftermarket “snap-in”Biesemeyer splitter is easily removed and replaced without the use of tools.

See “Filling Knots with Epoxy” on p. 173.➤

SECTION 10 OVERVIEW

bends a fair amount without breaking, the endof your board is sound. However, if it snapseasily, you’ll have to keep cutting further intothe board until your test slice doesn’t break.

Cutting to Final Length

You can crosscut to final length using amiter saw or table saw. Final cuts sometimesinvolve removing just a whisker from theend of a board. Unfortunately, the hard endgrain can cause blades and other cutters todeflect, misaligning the cut when you try toremove just a hair from the end of a piece.One trick to reduce this deflection is tomake the cut very slowly. However, thisdoesn’t always work, and you may need totry another approach.

A nice trick for removing just a smidgenof wood off the end of a piece is to use theside of your miter saw blade. Lower the blade,and butt the end of the workpiece againstthe plate (not the teeth). Gently lift the


To check for hairline end checks, first crosscut a thinslice from the end of a board.

Bend the sample slice by hand. If it contains checks, it will snap easily.

You can remove about 1⁄64 in. by pushing the stock into the blade’splate and then lifting up the saw and cutting.

SECTION 10 OVERVIEW

machine with the fence angled at 45 degrees.The tool has a massive, fixed knife thatlevers its way across the wood, leaving ashaved surface that’s super-smooth and at atrue 45-degree angle.

For super-precise cuts, try setting a low-angle plane for a very light cut and shavingthe end of a piece. A handplane can takeshavings so thin that they fall from the cutas dust. The nice thing about using a planeto trim work is being able to remove such anexacting amount of wood that it allows youto sneak up on a perfect fit.

stopped blade while holding the work firmly,and then make a cut. You’ll remove about 1⁄64 in., or the amount of set on the blade.

One way to shave miters is to use a knife-cutting machine called a miter trimmer.After a miter has been rough-cut on a mitersaw, the workpiece is clamped into the


Clamp or hold the work against the trimmer’s fence,and start to lever the blade across the wood.

Shaving the end ofa piece with a low-angle plane offersmore precision thanany other method.

The miter trimmer lets youremove very thin shavings for aperfect fit, and the finished cutis glassy smooth (inset).

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Flattening on a Jointer

All rough wood has some degree of warp, andthe best tool to use to begin straightening yourstock is the jointer. As woodworker Paul Anthonydemonstrates here, start by sighting along theplank to determine its curves so that you canplace the cupped or bowed side down on thejointer table (A).

Make sure to joint with the grain to avoidtearout. One way to inspect a rough board’sgrain orientation is to take a few swipes on theedge of the plank on the jointer (B) to reveal thegrain lines in the wood (C).

Once you’ve noted the direction of the grain, setthe infeed table for a medium cut (about 1⁄32 in. to1⁄16 in.), and place the bowed side down on thetable. Long planks can be maneuvered withoutstrain if you stand away from the infeed end ofthe table and gently bow the board so it flexes,placing pressure on the infeed table (D). Continuewalking up to the jointer behind the board, keep-ing one hand over the infeed table while theother hand lifts the trailing end of the boardslightly to make the leading end press down ontothe outfeed table (E).

As your hands approach the cutterhead, keep theboard moving with one hand while you reach fora push block with the other (F). Use the pushblock to place pressure over the outfeed tablenear the knives, and use a second push blockwith a heel at its end to grab the end of theboard so your hands are safe while above thecutterhead (G). As the board nears the end of thecut and starts to hang off the outfeed table, useyour upper body weight over the push blocks tokeep the stock from tipping (H).



A

C D

E F

G H

B

See “Types of Warp” on p. 8.➤

MILLING SOLID WOOD

After the first cut, check the face to see how muchstock you’ve removed. You’re looking for a cutthat continues uninterrupted for the length of theboard. Here, a few more passes are needed (I).

Boards with a bow in the middle will be flattenedas material is gradually removed from each end,until the center is lying against the jointer tables.It’s more efficient in this case to take severalpasses at a time from each end of the board,rather than running it full length each pass. Whenflattening the trailing end, you can swing theguard away from the fence and pull the boardhalfway back to take another pass (J). Then simply place it onto the tables and make anotherpass (K).

Once the freshly cut surface runs uninterruptedalong the board’s length, stop to eyeball the plankfor straightness (L). If you notice any significantcurvature, take another pass. When you’re done,the board should be flat over the majority of itssurface, although it can still contain some uncutareas (M).


I

J

K L

M

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Planing to Thickness

After jointing one face, you’re ready to bring theboard to the desired thickness using the thick-ness planer. Start by measuring the thickest partof the board (A) and adjusting the depth of cuton the planer to that dimension (B).

Note the grain orientation, and be sure to feedthe plank into the planer in the correct directionto avoid tearout. Make the first pass with thejointed side down on the bed, standing at the end of the board (C).

[TIP] To minimize planer snipe, lift

the board slightly as it enters the planer,

and again as it exits.

Stay on the infeed side of the planer as you guidethe stock through the machine to support theoverhanging end (D). Once the board is centeredin the planer and well supported, move to theoutfeed side and support the opposite end tokeep it from tipping up and into the cutterhead (E).



BA

D

E

C

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Once you’ve established a continuously cut sur-face on the first planed face, flip the board endfor end and onto its opposite face (F) beforesending it through the planer again (G). This reorientation keeps the grain in the correct direc-tion and ensures that you take equal amountsfrom each side to minimize warp.

A large planer with an induction motor is a greatmachine for taking aggressive cuts when you’remilling rough stock, although it may produce arough, washboardlike surface. Unfortunately,when you’re taking a very light cut, the serrated-metal feed rollers may leave a series of fine-lineimpressions in the board (H). For a better finalcut, some woodworkers finish up by taking alight pass with a benchtop planer, which has ahigher-speed universal motor that provides morecuts per inch. These machines also have smoothrubber feed rollers that won’t leave marks in the board (I).


WARNING Removing material

from only one side of a plank will

usually cause it to distort due to

uneven stresses inside the wood.

Be sure to cut both sides equally

to keep the plank flat.

▲!

F

G

H

I

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Ripping a Wide Plank on the Table Saw

After jointing and planing your stock flat and to aconsistent thickness, you’re ready to saw it towidth on the table saw. But first you’ll have tostraighten and square one edge on the jointer bystanding the stock on edge with one face againstthe jointer’s fence. At this stage, don’t try toremove any defects that might be near the jointed edge (A).

After squaring one edge, set up the saw byadjusting the blade height for the thickness of thestock. A good rule of thumb is to raise the bladehigh enough so the bottom of its gullets are justabove the workpiece (B).

Begin by placing the jointed edge against the ripfence. When sawing a long board, stand near itstrailing end to begin feeding it into the blade.Place yourself to the left of the blade (as you face it) and concentrate your attention not at theblade but at the fence, to ensure that the stockcontacts it fully throughout the cut (C). Whenyou’re within reach of the saw table, keep yourleft hand stationary on the tabletop to apply pres-sure towards the fence, while your right handfeeds the plank (D).

[VARIATION] When ripping thick boards

or planks with wild grain, add a short

fence to your existing rip fence, with its

end aligned with the rear of the blade.

Make the fence 1 in. thick so it’s easier to

set up cuts using your fence’s cursor.

Ripping in this manner is perfectly safe

and creates space for the wood to spread

apart towards the fence without binding

on the blade.



A

B

C D

VARIATIONVARIATION

MILLING SOLID WOOD

[VARIATION] When you deal with thick,

heavy, hard-to-handle stock, it can help to

first reduce the size and weight of the

piece on the bandsaw. Thanks to its

downward cutting action, the bandsaw

has no potential for kickback. You can set

up a fence, or simply gauge the width

with a pencil, and then saw to the line

freehand. After bandsawing, move back

to the table saw and make a trim cut to

clean up the bandsawn edge.

As you near the end of the cut, move your lefthand out of the way and push the board past theblade. For safety, ride one finger along the fenceto ensure that your hand stays away from theblade (E). At the end of the cut, the board is likelyto tip over the end of the saw table due to itsoverhanging weight. The safest approach is tohave an outfeed table behind the saw to supportthe work. Also, apply downward pressure to theboard as you feed it past the blade (F).

If there were any defects near the original jointededge, orient the sawn edge against the rip fenceand adjust the fence to the desired width of cut,taking note of the defects so you remove them inthis final pass (G).


VARIATION

E F

G

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Ripping Narrow Boardsfrom a Wide Plank

Due to internal stresses in almost all boards, rip-ping multiple narrow sections from a wide boardrequires the right approach to ensure that yoursawn stock remains straight. Begin by settingthe rip fence for a cut about 1⁄8 in. wider than yourdesired finished width. With the jointed edgeagainst the fence, feed the work smoothly pastthe blade with your left hand keeping pressureagainst the fence (A).

Whenever you’re ripping stock that’s less thanabout 4 in. wide, use a push stick as the end of the board nears the blade (B). As the boardseparates, guide the dimensioned piece with thepush stick while your left hand pushes the freedsection past the blade (C).

Without resetting the fence, continue ripping theremainder of the board into separate, slightlyoversized pieces. To illustrate how wood movesafter ripping, group the individual boards backtogether in the order that they were sawn.Chances are, you’ll notice gaps between them,which reveals bowed edges from the sawingprocess (D). To re-straighten the edges, takeeach board back to the jointer and re-joint oneedge (E). With such narrow stock, you can usethe same push stick you used on the table sawto keep your hands clear of the knives (F).

After jointing each board, orient its jointed edgeagainst the rip fence and trim the opposite edgeto finished width (G). Remember to use a pushstick for the last portion of the board (H).

[TIP] For optimal cutting, keep your

blade clean. Spray the blade with a citrus-

based cleaner, and then use a nylon abra-

sive pad or a brass brush to scrub the

gunk from the blade.


A

C

G H

E F

D

B

Cutting to Length with a Miter Saw

A better option for crosscutting, particularly withlong or heavy stock, is to use a power miter saw,also called a chopsaw. The first step is to cross-cut one end of the workpiece perfectly square byholding the stock firmly and accurately againstthe saw’s fence. For the best results, build acrosscutting station to house your saw so you’llhave longer work tables and a longer fenceagainst which to register the stock (A). Be sureto remove enough stock from a rough end sothe sawn edge is free of end checks and otherdefects (B).

Next, flip the stock end for end, registering thepreviously cut end against a stop block as you cut the opposite end to finished length (C). Ifyour stock is longer than the working fence ofyour sawing station, you can make an extensionthat allows you to accurately register longerboards (D).

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Crosscutting Using the Miter Gauge

The miter gauge lets you make excellent cross-cuts on the table saw, but you’ll only use it forsmall work, as it can’t safely support long or verywide stock. With the power off, position thestock at your cutline, holding it firmly against thegauge’s fence with your left hand (A). Push thestock and gauge in an even, controlled move-ment, using your right hand on the gauge’s knobto feed the work past the blade (B).

Once the cut is made, use your left hand to slidethe workpiece slightly away from the blade (C)

before pulling the work and gauge back to you(D). This prevents you from splintering the sawnedge as you retract the workpiece.


A

C

A

C D

B

D

B

MILLING SOLID WOOD

Crosscutting with a Table-Saw Sled

Wide panels, such as case parts, are best cross-cut on the table saw. If a panel is short enough,it’s a simple matter to set the rip fence andguide the work past the blade. But do this only ifthe edge that bears against the fence is longenough to keep the panel from veering awayfrom the fence during travel (A).

To crosscut long and wide stock, you can buildand use a shop-made sled. Runners attached tothe bottom of the sled ride in your saw’s miter-gauge grooves, and a stout fence at the front ofthe sled registers the stock square to the bladefor square cuts every time. The workpiece can becarried primarily to the left of the blade (B) or tothe right, depending on how your table saw is setup (C). Either way, be sure to support the over-hanging end of a long workpiece with a spacer ofthe same thickness as your sled’s base at the farend of your saw.

For repetitive cuts in parts that are longer thanyour sled’s fence, you can clamp an extension tothe fence and then clamp a stop block to theextension (D). The block will accurately registermultiple parts and ensure that your final cuts areall to the same length (E).


A

B

C

D

E

SIZING PLYWOOD

Cutting Sheet Parts with a Circular Saw

Because of its size, a full-sized sheet of plywoodcan be cumbersome to handle in the workshop.If it’s too much of a struggle to cut the sheet onyour table saw, try pre-cutting it into smaller,slightly oversized pieces first, using a portablecircular saw and a shop-made saw guide. Thepieces can then be easily trimmed to final sizeon the table saw.

The jig is very simple to make, and consists of aplywood base onto which you glue or nail a ply-wood fence to guide your saw (A). To set up thecut and prevent tearout, lay out what will be thewidth of your saw kerf, and then score both sidesof the kerf line with a sharp knife (B). Clamp the jig so its base aligns perfectly with the appro-priate line (C).

With the panel supported on both sides of thecut, simply push your saw along the jig’s base,making sure the edge of the saw rides along thefence during the entire cut (D). You’ll minimizetearout if you use a crosscutting saw blade andposition the best side of your panel facing down,since the blade’s cutting action lifts fibers up (E).


Plywood fence, 1/2-in. to 3/4-in. thick

Cut small rabbet for chip clearance.

Plywood base, 1/4-in. thick

Make base 1/2 in. or so wider than distance from circular saw’s base and attach to fence. The first time jig is used, the sawn edge becomes the reference cutting edge.

A

B

D E

C

SIZING PLYWOOD

Sawing Large Sheets on the Table Saw

To cut a full sheet you’ll need an outfeed table. Ithelps if you have infeed support in front, such asa table that’s the same height or slightly lowerthan your table saw’s height. Lay one end of thesheet on the infeed table, with the opposite endon the saw table, and one edge against thefence but away from the blade, and turn on thesaw. Walk back to the end of the panel, stand atthe far corner of the sheet to triangulate yourfeed pressure, and move the panel into the bladeby pushing diagonally towards the rip fence (A).

To keep the sheet against the fence at the start ofthe cut, try lifting the end of the panel slightly soit bows a bit. This will increase pressure on thefence as you push the sheet into the blade (B).

Walk with the panel as you push it forward, stay-ing on the far side to maintain pressure againstthe fence (C). As the sheet nears the end of thecut, move to the back of the panel and guideeach divided section with one hand, again keep-ing your eyes on the fence (D). As the parts separate, lean over the saw to place downwardpressure over each piece, then push the keeperpiece past the blade while holding the offcut stationary (E).

Once you’ve separated the parts from the sheet,be sure to place the sawn edge of each pieceagainst the rip fence and trim the opposite factoryedge, which is typically not very straight nor par-ticularly smooth (F).


A

C

E

F

D

B

CUTTING SHAPES

Bandsawing Complex Shapes

Sawing curved parts is best accomplished on thebandsaw, where there’s no kickback to contendwith due to the downward force of the blade. To prepare a leg blank for subsequent pattern-shaping, furniture maker Sam Maloof first uses atemplate to outline the part onto a plank of wal-nut. Using a template in this manner allows youto pick the best parts of a board and avoiddefects (A).

For really large boards, it pays to have a helper.To begin the cut, assistant Mike Johnson sup-ports the trailing end of the blank while Maloofsteers it at the blade (B). Once the majority ofthe wood is on the table, it’s a one-person affairto maneuver the stock while pushing it forwardto follow the outline (C).

Straddle the stock on either side of the blade,using your rear hand to push the work while yourforward hand does the steering (D). If the stockis too heavy and you don’t have a helper to sup-port the outfeed side, you can walk around theback of the table and pull it through (E).


A

C

E

D

B

CUTTING SHAPES

When enough wood has been trimmed away,steering long stock through the blade is possiblewithout help (F).

One trick is to push the work lightly into one sideof the blade on its rear edge (away from theteeth), and then gently rotate the work as it bearsagainst the blade to cut the curve. This techniqueallows you to make minute changes withoutovercutting past your line (G). To crosscut a longpiece, use your left hand to guide the cut whileyour right hand supports the overhanging stock(H). Using these techniques, you can saw veryprecise curves in any kind of stock (I).


F

G

H

I

CUTTING VENEER

Cutting and JoiningVeneer

Cutting and dimensioning veneer can be trickybecause this material is so thin that a standardcutting approach with conventional tools willresult in broken or shattered wood. The first stepis to saw the veneer by hand to rough length.Using a veneer saw, lay your material underneatha piece of MDF that has a straight edge, and usethe edge to guide the saw (A). Don’t try to makethe cut in one pass or you’ll tear the veneer.Instead, make several scoring cuts, pulling thesaw towards you until the blade passes throughthe work and into the scrap wood below.

To join these two pieces of maple veneer edge-to-edge (B), furniture maker Frank Pollaro firstsaws each edge straight and square using thesame technique as in crosscutting, but this timesawing along the grain. Again, light scoring passeswork better than heavy cuts (C).

Once the parts are cut, you’ll need to tape themtogether in preparation for gluing onto a sub-strate. While holding the two sheets together,run a piece of moistened veneer tape across thejoint at one end. Make sure to tape what will bethe show face of the veneer (D). Immediatelyafter sticking the tape to the wood, use a roller toset the tape tightly to the veneer (E). Continueworking your way along the joint, sticking tapeacross the joint line every few inches (F).


A

C

E

F

D

B

CUTTING VENEER

Finish up by laying a long strip of tape along thejoint line (G). On a long piece like this, it’s best toimmediately press the moistened tape onto theveneer by hand before it loses its tackiness, thenfollow up with the roller (H).

The finished piece is ready to glue to a substrate(I). On the back side, which will contact the sub-strate, the seam is tight and the surface issmooth, ensuring that there won’t be any gaps orbumps on the show side (J).


G H

I

J

See “Gluing Veneers” on p. 248.➤

Making Repairs

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

162

Working Difficult Wood

➤ Ripping WithoutBurning (p. 171)

➤ Routing in theCorrect Sequence (p. 171)

➤ Taking Light Cuts (p. 172)

➤ Wetting BeforeRouting (p. 172)

➤ Flattening Veneer (p. 180)

➤ Filling Knots withEpoxy (p. 173)

➤ Filling GappedJoints with Wood (p. 173)

➤ Filling Cracks withWood (p. 174)

➤ Replacing Lost Chips(p. 175)

➤ Gluing Down Slivers(p. 176)

➤ Inlaying a WoodPatch (p. 177)

➤ Filling Knotholes (p. 179)

Getting Clean Cuts Flattening Veneer

site directions side by side, making smoothingsurfaces a serious challenge. Brittle woodsand delicate veneers both have a tendency tochip when sawn. And highly figured veneeris often so buckled that it resembles a mogulslope at a ski resort, making it difficult topress onto to a substrate.

Other vexing problems are splits andcracks, unsightly knots, and small chunksthat break off from surrounding wood.You’ll also come across woods with resinsthat can accelerate burning. Some woodscontain deposits, like the abrasive silica

Many species of woods are diffi-cult to work, particularly some ofthe denser tropical varieties such

as purpleheart, bubinga, or teak. Very hardwoods blunt cutting edges, which can thenscorch the wood fibers. Even milder woodscan be troublesome, especially when thegrain pattern is uneven or highly figured.For example, quilted bigleaf maple or bird’s-eye maple both have a tendency to tear,leaving small pockets of ragged fibers thatspoil the surface. Several species have inter-locked or reversing grain that rises in oppo-

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

absorbed by the wood before planing. Don’tworry: Moisture won’t soak in very deep.After planing, any residual moisture shoulddry up after 30 minutes or so.

If you have a planing session scheduledfor a large amount of difficult wood, tryadding a 15-degree back-bevel to your planerknives and perhaps your jointer knives aswell (see the drawing on p. 164). Bevelingthe back of your knives effectively increasesthe cutting angle from the standard 50 or 60 degrees to 65 or 75 degrees. The result isa steeper angle of attack and a cutting edgethat’s less likely to dig below the surface,lifting up fibers or chips. You can grind thebevel yourself, although a sharpening serviceis more likely to do a consistent job on knifesets. The downside is that the knives (andthe machine) will have to work harder tomake the cut, so deep cuts won’t be possible.And the planed surface won’t have the cus-tomary sheen you’re used to, but a somewhatduller appearance and slightly rougher feel.For practical reasons, it’s best to keep a spareset of knives ground with back-bevels to use

found in teak, which can dull cutting edgesquickly. And certain woods are known to pose serious health risks when worked.Fortunately, there are a number of approachesyou can take to overcome these difficulties,as I’ll discuss in this section.

Preventing Tearout

Tearout is a common problem, especiallywhen you’re working with figured woods.The problem is often prevented by sharpcutters and a slower feed speed—the rate atwhich the work is fed past the cutter or thecutter past the work. Unfortunately, evensuper-sharp knives and a slower pace maynot overcome the tendency for fibers to chipbelow the surface of exceptionally tear-pronewoods, such as bird’s-eye maple.

Most woods prone to tearing will do soduring thickness-planing. One way to mini-mize this is to take a super-light cut on thelast one or two passes. Another approach isto wet the stock with water to soften thefibers just before taking a light final cut.Wait a few minutes for the water to be

Working Difficult Wood 163

To minimize tearout on figured wood,soften the surface fibers by using a spongeto saturate the wood with water before sur-face planing.

Adjust the planer for a super-light cut, waita minute or two for the surface fibers tobecome saturated, and then make a lastpass through the planer.

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

only when you’re machining really cantan-kerous woods, and then switch back to yourstock knives for normal milling.

The last resort for dealing with tearout isto use a hand scraper. This simple, easy-to-use tool can save the day when all yourmachines and fancy setups have failed toprovide clean cuts. While a scraper leaves asomewhat rough surface, it removes fiberswithout tearing them, making it a greatchoice for smoothing really wild wood orsurfaces that suffered tearout from a previousmachining operation.

Crosscutting can also cause chipping,especially in brittle, open-pored woods likewenge, most of the oaks, and many of thedenser ring-porous species. Even worse areplywood and other sheet goods such asMCP (melamine-coated particleboard),which are notorious for chipping and splin-tering due to their brittle composition andultrathin surface coatings and veneers.Although some chipping can occur on thetop side of boards and panels cut on thetable saw, it’s most noticeable on the bottom.To minimize this, use a high-quality crosscutblade with 60 or more teeth (for a 10-in.blade). For even cleaner and safer cuts, makeor buy zero-clearance throat plates andinstall them on your crosscutting machines.These inserts support the wood fibers adja-cent to the saw kerf as the blade exits on theunderside of the workpiece, greatly reducingtearout. A zero-clearance throat plate alsoprevents small offcuts from jamming in thethroat-plate opening and possibly exploding.

Working Difficult Wood164

Tilt the scraper for-ward when pushingthe tool or back-ward for a pull cut.Bowing the scraperalong its lengthhelps the middlebite to take thickershavings.

See “Using a Hand Scraper” on p. 227.➤

Standard Cutting Angle New Angle with Back-Bevel

Planer or jointer knife

Wood

Rotation

Typical cutting angle of 50° - 60°

Higher cutting angle of 65° - 75°

1/16 in.

15° Grind bevel on back of blade.

BACK-BEVELING YOUR KNIVES

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

To virtually eliminate tearout in plywoodor MCP, you can use a sharp knife to scorethrough the veneer fibers or surface coatingon both sides of the cutline before sawing.After incising two parallel lines, lay thescored side down on the table saw for cross-cutting, and set the fence. The techniquerequires careful fence positioning to ensurethat the blade lines up precisely in the mid-dle of your marks. But the clean results areworth the extra effort.

If you want an absolutely perfect surfaceon only the top side of your work, and theunderside doesn’t matter because it won’t beseen, you can virtually eliminate top-sidesplintering by raising the table-saw blade ashigh as possible. This creates less forwardrotation as the teeth enter the material, amajor cause of topside chipping. Be sure youmake this cut carefully and deliberately, sincethe blade will be much more exposed thanduring normal cutting.


To minimize exit tearout on a table saw (left) or a miter saw (right), replace your factory throat plate with a commercial or shopmade zero-clearance version.

To eliminate tearout in plywood, score thecutline by guiding the knife with a long,heavy straightedge, making two scoringcuts alongside the kerf you’ll be cutting.

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

When routing, you can utilize many ofthe same approaches you use for clean cutson the table saw. Whether you’re using ahandheld router or a router table, rout withthe slope of the grain whenever possible.And keep the work or tool moving at a con-stant and appropriate feed speed.

A special technique applicable only torouters and shapers is to feed your stock orthe router backwards, a process known asclimb cutting. Instead of lifting and tearingunpredictably, a climb cut removes only tinyslices of wood with each cut, dramaticallyreducing tearout (see the drawing on facingpage). However, because you’re feeding thework or bit in the direction of the cutter’srotation, the bit will want to throw a hand-held router away from the workpiece. Ifyou’re using a router table, the bit rotationwill try to pull the workpiece out of your grip.

Using a power feeder on a router table isthe safest method for climb cutting. Buthandfeeding is possible if you take some pre-cautions. To reduce the pull, remove as muchexcess material as possible before routing.For example, you may trim your parts on the table saw first, move the router fenceinto the bit, or raise or lower the cutter,depending on the cut you’re making. Theidea is to leave 1⁄8 in. or less of material forthe climb cut. Alternatively, you can routmost of the stock in the conventional for-ward direction, then readjust the bit or fenceand make a light climb cut. However,because a climb cut wants to move the bitaway from the work, it’s always best to take afinal “insurance pass” cutting in the standarddirection, which pulls the bit into the workto ensure a fully cut profile.


To avoid chipping on the top side of a panel, use a good-qualitycrosscut blade, raising it as high as it will go.

You’ll experience less tearout and burning by moving the workwith constant momentum at the appropriate speed, with the grainoriented so that it slopes away from the cut.

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

with the dark stuff? Well, faster feeding mayreduce burning, but the trade-offs are tornfibers and cutters that deflect or bog down.The idea is to seek a comfortable balance,since different woods and different machinesetups require different feed speeds. You’llhave to experiment to find the right feedspeed. Just remember to keep the work orthe tool moving during the cut to avoidburns, and keep your blades and cutters freeof pitch and other resins by scrubbing themwith a blade/bit cleaner on a regular basis.

When you rip into the middle of stock,or make a closed cut, sometimes the stock

Avoiding Burning

Burning or scorching stock is quite com-mon. When ripping or routing, a cuttingtool generates enough friction to createintense heat. Dense species are particularlysusceptible, but so are many softer resinouswoods, like cherry. Burning wood should beavoided whenever possible because it pro-duces a black smear that’s difficult toremove. The biggest causes of burning areslow feed speeds and sudden stops, both ofwhich serve to increase friction and usuallyresult in black marks. So why not just sendthat board through lickety-split and be done


Normal Cutting

Climb Cutting

Cutter can take a bigger bite, but tearout is likely.

Rotation

Feed

Depth of cut is limited, but it leaves a tear-free finish.

Feed

CLIMB CUTTING REDUCES TEAROUT

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

after only a few hours’ exposure to sunlightand air.

While ultimately color change is a goodthing, wood that darkens during the buildingphase can result in mismatched parts whenit’s time to assemble or apply a finish. Thebest prevention is to cover light-sensitivewoods with a sheet when you’re not workingthem. Also, avoid stacking odd-shaped parts together, so that any exposure to lightoccurs evenly.

Making Repairs

Most of us have suffered wood chipping orcracking at an inopportune time. A typicalscenario might be a small piece splinteringoff the edge of a board while you’re profilingthe edge, leaving an irregular or torn surface.In fact, many of the boards we work withalready contain blemishes, such as knots,

burns no matter what you do. For mostclosed cuts, it makes sense to rip twiceinstead of just once. Make the first cut about1⁄32 in. oversize, and then reset the fence andtake a second skimming pass to remove anyburn marks from the first pass while trimmingthe part to the desired size. Alternatively,you could remove the last 1⁄32 in. on the join-ter, but be careful: It can be tricky to get aparallel cut on this machine.

Keeping an Eye on Color

The hue and tone of all woods eventuallychange as time goes by. Most woods reactslowly, as exposure to light and other envi-ronmental conditions affects the pigmentsand chemicals in the wood. This color-altering process is eagerly anticipated bywoodworkers, since most woods develop aricher patina as they age. However, somewoods change color in short order, whichcan cause havoc during the building process.One of the best examples of this is blackcherry, a photosensitive wood that darkens


Closed cuts cancontribute to burn-ing. To fix the prob-lem, you can ripburn-prone woodsslightly oversizedand then saw themto final size by tak-ing a light trim cut.

Pulling up the tape on this sample of blackcherry reveals how much the surroundingarea has darkened after only a few hours in sunlight.

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

Working Hazardous Woods

Many species of wood can cause mild oreven severe physical reactions when they’reworked. Typical examples are some of thetropical woods, such as cocobolo andimbuya, both of which can bring on respira-tory problems and harsh skin reactions. Butmore common woods, such as some of theoaks or pines, are also known to affect cer-tain people. Most of these reactions occurfrom inhaling the tiny dust particles we gen-erate as the wood is worked. In some cases,chemicals in the wood can mix with sweatand enter the bloodstream through the skin,causing some unlucky woodworkers to fall illfrom simply touching the wood.

splits, or cracks. Rather than throwing allthis stuff on the firewood pile, we owe it toourselves to get into the habit of routinelyrepairing cracks, replacing missing chunks,and inlaying new wood into blemished ordamaged areas. This approach ensures thatour work is sound and free of unsightlyimperfections. To that end, the photo essaysin this section provide plenty of approaches.

One repair approach that takes a slightlydifferent tack involves highlighting a dam-aged area rather than hiding it. For example,long cracks in the middle or ends of boardscan be bridged with an inlay of decorativewood, which adds visual interest while itstiffens the area and prevents any splits fromworsening.


This stunning but potentiallyflawed panel of oak will makean extraordinary tabletopthanks to the butterfly inlaysthat span and stabilize largecracks in the end of the plank.

SECTION 11 OVERVIEW

goggles to protect eyes and a cartridge-typerespirator to protect your lungs. A respiratorfilters out particles much better than mostpaper dust masks. For better face and lungprotection, you can wear a helmet that sealsoff your entire head from dusty air whilesupplying fresh air via a filter mechanism.

One thing to keep in mind with poten-tially unsafe woods is that repetitive or long-term exposure can sensitize you to a specificwood. This means that once you’ve devel-oped a reaction to a particular species, yournext exposure to that wood can cause amuch more severe reaction. When thisoccurs, the safest approach is to avoid thatparticular wood altogether.

Some woods can also be hazardous toplants and animals. While most woodworkersfind black walnut perfectly safe to work, itsshavings can be harmful to plants and deadlyto horses and other hoofed animals if usedas bedding. Unfortunately, there is no stan-dard for gauging toxic woods because differ-ent woods affect people differently, if at all.However, a few general safety precautionsare in order.

Safety Gear

If you’re working a new or suspect wood, yourbest line of defense is to wear extra protection.This includes donning gloves and full-lengthclothing to cover exposed skin, and using


Defend yourself from aggravat-ing woods by wearing safetygoggles and a respirator and bydonning long-sleeved clothing.

An air-supplied helmet enclosesyour entire face and draws infresh, filtered air for cleanerbreathing.

GETTING CLEAN CUTS

Ripping Without Burning

Ripping long stock on the table saw without hes-itating or stopping is the best way to eliminateburning, but the technique requires some chore-ographed handwork. Start by placing a push sticknearby, carefully oriented so you can grab it easily.Begin to feed the board with your right hand asyour left presses the stock down on the tableand sideways against the fence (A).

When it’s time to grab the push stick, maintainforward momentum by switching, and feedingthe board with your left hand while your rightpicks up the stick (B). Complete the cut byremoving your left hand once the stock is sepa-rated and pushing the keeper piece past theblade with a push stick (C).

Routing in the Correct Sequence

When routing around two or more edges whereend-grain cuts are inevitable and badly slopedlong grain is probable, such for as a four-sidedpanel, begin by routing the end grain first, whichwill most likely tear at the back of the cut. It certainly will with cherry, a somewhat brittlewood (A).

Make the next pass on the adjacent long-grainedge (B). The beginning of this second cutremoves the end-grain tearout from the first pass(C). Continue cutting in this sequence for anyremaining edges.


A

C

A

C

B

B

GETTING CLEAN CUTS

Taking Light Cuts

To reduce tearout, take multiple cuts instead ofone heavy pass. Adjust the bit height or depth sothat the first cut removes a fair amount of wood,but not so much that it taxes the bit (you’ll hearit complain) or makes the stock hard to push (A).

Between passes, adjust the bit to cut about 1⁄8 in.more, depending on the bit profile (B). On thefinal one or two passes, take a light, skimmingcut (C). These light cuts generate wispy chipsand fine dust, completing the profile without tearing fibers.

[VARIATION] Instead of altering the

fence setting to take lighter cuts, use tape

as shim material. Set the fence for the

final pass, and then add a few layers of

masking tape to its face. Take successive

cuts with the stock against the tape,

removing a layer or two after each pass

(far left). Then remove the tape altogether

and make a last, final pass with the stock

against the fence (left).

Wetting Before Routing

If you soften the fibers of wood with waterbefore routing, you’ll reduce the chances oftearout. The technique can be used throughoutthe routing process, but is usually only necessaryon the last few passes. Soak a sponge withclean water and liberally wet the surfaces to berouted, and then wait a minute or two for thefibers to relax (A).

Lubricate the fence with paste wax to help over-come some of the friction caused by the dampstock, and set the bit or fence for a light cut.Then rout as you normally would (B). Routingremoves most of the moisture and leaves atearout-free edge.


A

C

A B

VARIATION

B

VARIATION

Filling Gapped Joints with Wood

Gaps or cracks in assembled joints are notuncommon, particularly with dovetail joints (A).Luckily, the gap can be patched with a little slipof wood, which blends better than filling the area with epoxy.

To make the gap a consistent width for patching,use a fine saw to cut a straight kerf and clean outany dried glue at the same time. Make sure notto cut past the baseline of the joint (B).

To make the patch, select a piece of stock fromthe same project, and rip it to thickness until itjust fits into the gap. Then force some glue intothe crack and onto the repair piece, and tap ithome with a small hammer (C). Once the gluehas dried, plane and sand the repair flush withthe surrounding joint.

MAKING REPAIRS

Filling Knots with Epoxy

Two-part, slow-set epoxy is great for filling smallgaps on the surface of work because it doesn’tshrink, and the slower setting time allows anytrapped air bubbles to rise to the surface andescape before the adhesive hardens.

First clean out any loose stuff, and then dribblethe epoxy into the cavity. If the crack travelsthrough the board, cover the back side with plas-tic wrap or waxed paper. Try to mound the epoxyover the blemish. This may require a couple ofapplications because of the adhesive’s high viscosity and its willingness to run everywherebut up (A).

Once the epoxy has cured hard, use a sander orscraper to level the mound and smooth the sur-rounding area (B). Because most knots and inclu-sions are dark, and because dried epoxy is clear,the repair blends into the surrounding area and isbarely noticeable (C).


A

C

B

A

C

B

MAKING REPAIRS

Filling Cracks with Wood

Filling cracks with wood is more involved thanusing epoxy, but it’s a better disguise and worththe effort when you’re faced with long splits,particularly in lighter-colored woods (A).

For the most effective camouflage, make yourfiller piece from the same stock as the woodyou’re repairing. Start by splitting a section of thestock with a chisel (B). Then use the chisel againto sever a thin strip from the board, orienting theflat back of the chisel towards the strip in orderto slice it to even thickness (C). This rivingapproach creates a flexible strip that’s moredurable for tapping into the crack.

Bevel the strip on both sides with a chisel (D) orby running it over an upturned block plane untilthe edge is as sharp as a knife’s. Then chop thestrip into shorter sections for easier installation.Number the strips so you can glue them insequence for a continuous grain pattern (E).

Spread glue on the edge of each strip and tap itcarefully into the crack. Clamps on either side ofthe crack help prevent further splitting (F). Oncethe glue has cured, pare away most of the pro-jecting material with a chisel (G). Finish up by leveling the strips and smoothing the surfacewith a small plane (H). The completed repair ishard to detect, even with a trained woodworker’seye (I)!


A

C

E

G

I

F

H

D

B

MAKING REPAIRS

Replacing Lost Chips

If you chip a piece of wood from a part you’reworking on, stop what you’re doing and hunt forthe piece—even if you have to get down on yourhands and knees with a magnifying glass.Although it’s possible to mend a damaged partusing a piece of similar wood, the repair will bemore noticeable. The reason your lost chip is soimportant is that it precisely matches the color,texture, grain pattern, and grain direction of your board—not to mention that its shape is adead-on match (A).

When you’ve found the lost chip, gently push itinto its cavity to make sure it fits well. You mayneed to remove a few torn fibers to get the sepa-rated part to mate perfectly (B).

Remove the chip, spread some white or yellowglue into the recess and onto the chip itself, andthen use masking tape to clamp it back in place.Stretch the tape as you wrap it around the repairto provide sufficient pressure for a good bond(C). Be sure to use as much tape as needed topull the chip tight without gaps (D).

Wait for the glue to set, and then carefullyremove the tape and sand the area to level it andremove any excess glue. The repair should bepractically impossible to detect (E).


A

C

E

D

B

MAKING REPAIRS

Gluing Down Slivers

If you find a raised split or sliver that’s still par-tially intact, you can glue it back without toomuch fuss. First prepare a toothpick by roundingover one of its ends with some sandpaper. Thenbegin the repair by using a slim knife or otherthin prying tool to lever the crack open as muchas you can without breaking it. Force somewhite or yellow glue under the sliver with a finger (A).

[TIP] A craft knife, such as X-Acto®

brand, makes an excellent tool for cutting

and prying into small parts. You’ll find

them at art-supply stores.

With the knife still holding up the split, use thesharp end of the toothpick to add a dot of cyano-acrylate (CA) glue on top of the white glue (B).Immediately remove the toothpick and use theopposite rounded end to push the sliver into theadhesive and hold it there while the CA gluebonds, which occurs almost instantly (C). Thewater in white or yellow glue will activate CAglue in seconds, so you can remove your tooth-pick “clamp” and allow the CA glue to hold whilethe stronger white or yellow glue dries. When allthe glue has thoroughly dried, smooth and levelthe repair with some fine sandpaper wrappedaround a sanding block.


A

B

C

MAKING REPAIRS

Inlaying a Wood Patch

Letting in a wood patch into large cracks or dingsis a good way to hide blemishes while repairingstructural weaknesses. Start by outlining thedefect on the board in pencil, and then cutting apatch slightly larger than the outline. Use thesame type of wood for the repair, and select andorient the grain so that it matches the workpieceas well as possible. Be sure to mark the workand the patch to note its proper orientation (A).

Use a small plane to cut a slight back-bevel allaround the patch (B). Then position the patchover the blemish with the larger surface facingup, and mark around its narrower base with aknife (C).

Next, set up a plunge router with a 1⁄4-in.-dia.straight bit (a spiral upcut bit works best for this)and set the bit so it projects about 1⁄8 in. less thanthe thickness of the patch (D). Plunge the spin-ning bit into the repair area, guiding the routerfreehand and staying 1⁄16 in. to 1⁄8 in. inside yourknife lines (E). Chisel out the remaining waste byregistering the tip of a chisel into the knife linesand chopping straight down (F).



A

C

E

F

D

B

MAKING REPAIRS

Before gluing the patch into place, plane a smallchamfer around its bottom edge to ease installa-tion (G). Spread glue into the recess and onto theedges of the patch, and then push the patch intothe recess by hand, making sure to orient thegrain in the order that it was marked (H). Place a scrap block over the patch and drive it all theway home with a few sound taps from a ham-mer. You should see glue squeeze out along theentire joint (I).

Once the glue has dried, plane and sand thepatch flush with the surface (J). The completedrepair will fool most passersby (K).

[VARIATION] Instead of trying to con-

ceal a blemish such as a large crack, you

can call attention to it instead by inlaying

a wooden butterfly across the grain for

visual impact as well as strength.


G

I

K

J

H

VARIATION

MAKING REPAIRS

Filling Knotholes

Knotholes can have visual appeal but generallyrequire some repair work to make them soundenough for furniture. This cherry knot is typicalfare, with soft punky wood that should beremoved in its center, surrounded by beautifulswirling grain at the perimeter (A).

Chuck a straight bit into a plunge router and set itfor a 3⁄8-in. depth of cut. Then, staying away fromthe outer walls, guide the router freehand toremove most of the knot’s center and create aflat bottom (B). Use a small gouge to clean up tothe walls and to pick away any loose bark orother debris, until the walls of the hole are sound(C). Finish prepping the knothole with some finesandpaper by easing over the sharp upper edgesof the wall and whisking away remaining loosefibers (D). Give the hole a blast of compressed airto ensure that it’s clean.

Lay some waxed paper under the knothole, andthen mix a batch of two-part, fast-setting epoxy(five-minute epoxy works well). Dribble it into thecenter of the hole, being careful not to drip anyon the walls (E). This initial round of adhesivestiffens any loose parts and lays the groundworkfor subsequent filling.

Once the epoxy has set to the touch, add anotherlayer, but this time use a slow-setting epoxy. Ifyou like, you can get creative by adding Japancolors or colored metal flakes to your new batch(F). As before, dribble the liquid into the center ofthe hole without splashing the sides. A toothpickgives a more precise, pinpoint aim at this stage(G). You can add enough epoxy to level the holeif you wish, but leaving a depression adds aunique touch. In the latter case, continue addingthe epoxy until the hole is only half filled and aportion of the walls remains visible. A coat of finish over the repair and the surrounding woodmakes this knothole pop (H).


A

C

E

G H

F

D

B

FLATTENING VENEER

Flattening Veneer

Most veneers are flat enough to glue to a sub-strate, but wildly figured woods and burls arenormally heavily buckled and often quite brittleand fragile. This type of wood must be flattenedbefore it’s glued to a core, or it will break apartwhen pressed.

Flattening can be a two-part process, dependingon your work schedule and the type of veneerglue you use. The first stage is to flatten thesheet by softening the fibers. Start by spritzingthe veneer with clean water, first spraying oneside (A), which will cause the sheet to curl to theopposite side, and then spraying an equal amountof water on the curled side (B). Wait a minute ortwo for the moisture to soak in and the fibers torelax, during which time the sheet will level outsomewhat. When the veneer has softened, lay asheet of newspaper on your bench, place theveneer on top, cover the veneer with anothersheet of paper, add some stiff plywood or MDFover the paper, and add weight on top (C). In afew minutes the sheet will be flat enough for the next step.

If you’re going to store your flattened veneer,you’ll need to monitor it at this stage by removingthe damp newspaper and replacing it with freshstock daily until the newspaper does not showany more signs of moisture, which can takeabout a week (D). If you try to stash it while thefibers are still moist, you’ll invite mold to take upresidence, which will destroy your prized wood.Once the veneer is thoroughly dry, store it on aflat shelf between sheets of plywood or MDFwith weight on top. It will be ready for veneeringwhen you are.


A

C D

B

FLATTENING VENEER

If you’re going to veneer within the week usinghide glue, you can move to the next stage oncethe veneer is flat, even if it is still damp. This stepprepares the sheet for gluing and stiffens it so it’seasier to handle. Start by brushing hot hide glueonto both sides of the sheet (E). While the glueis still warm, lay an old sheet of newspaper ontowhat will be the show face. (Avoid newspaperwith fresh ink, or the dyes may transfer onto thewood.) Adhere the paper to the wood by gentlyrubbing it with a soft brush (F).

Now flip the assembly over, lay some plasticwrap or waxed paper over the glued, core side ofthe veneer, and then place a piece of plywood orMDF over the stack (G). Immediately clamp theassembly to the work surface (H).

Once the glue has cooled, peel off the waxedpaper and you’re ready to apply the veneer. Thenewspaper side faces up, while the substrateside already has a coat of glue ready to bewarmed up and pressed to the substrate with a household iron and the hammer-veneering technique (I).


E

G

I

H

F

See “Hammer Veneering” on p. 249.➤

Bending Wood, Page 184

There is something deeply satisfying—and curiously

magical—about bending a piece of stiff, straight wood.

We feel like the alchemists of old, altering our material

in a way that normally can’t be done. To bend wood,

we must rely on its inherent plastic nature when it is treated in the right

manner. As we’ve seen, wood is quite flexible in its natural green state,

and it’s possible to introduce curves simply by working it while it’s still

wet. But there are other, more controllable methods for bending wood,

including kerfing it, sawing it into thin strips, or introducing steam and

heat until the material softens enough to force it into a curve. In this

part of the book, you’ll find plenty of methods for conjuring up the

curves of your dreams.

Bending Wood

PART FIVE

Steam-Bending

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

184

Bending Wood

➤ Bending a SimpleSlat (p. 197)

➤ Bending a KerfedBoard (p. 198)

➤ Filling Kerfs withLaminates (p. 200)

➤ Laminating with aTwo-Part Form (p. 202)

➤ Veneering Curves ina Vacuum (p. 203)

➤ Laminating Free-Form in a Vacuum (p. 204)

➤ Steam-Bending aSimple Curve (p. 206)

➤ Steam-Bending aSevere Curve (p. 207)

➤ Steam-Bending aComplex Curve (p. 209)

Green Bending Kerf-Bending Bent Lamination

building up a curve by gluing together mul-tiple thin strips of wood. Steaming woodplasticizes it, making it flexible enough tobend into a curve. In this section I’ll discussall these bending strategies so you can selectthe ones that work best for you and yourproject, or try your hand at all of them.

Choosing Good Benders

Some woods bend quite easily. Others won’tbend without breaking no matter what youdo. Experience with a particular species oreven a specific log is your best guide, andeven then, parts can break. Selecting goodbending stock is part of the challenge ofbending wood. Certain species are known to

Many woodworkers considerbending wood a mysterious art.However, there’s no magic to it.

Although it does involve skill and a particu-lar understanding of your material, bendingwood is fundamentally a science with itsown basic rules. Thanks to wood’s some-what pliable nature, it’s possible to makealmost any degree or type of curve you candream up. The simplest approach involvesusing green wood, which is more supplethan dried stock. More complex strategiesinclude kerfing, laminating, and steaming.Kerfing involves cutting kerfs in a piece ofwood to thin its cross section, thus allowingit to bend more easily. Laminating means

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

spaced growth rings, which indicate the buttend of the tree. In addition to the lower halfof the tree, fast-grown wood, which usuallydisplays a whiter color or more sapwood, isgenerally easier to bend.

If you’re steam-bending, green wood isbest, and the fresher the better. Air-driedwood is a good second choice and is easier tobend than kiln-dried stock. But for generalbending, it is most important that the woodhas minimal grain runout along its edges.

bend quite well, especially those with long,tubular fibers, such as the oaks, hickories,and ashes. Other popular woods for bendinginclude soft maple, cherry, sweet gum, andyew. However, it’s possible to bend evendense or brittle woods such as hard maple orrosewood if you follow a few guidelines.

Due to a tree’s natural sway, the butt areaof the trunk generally produces wood that’smore pliable (see the drawing above right).But you need to know how to detect thatsection in a board. For example, let’s say youneed to select a 4-ft.-long bending sectionfrom an 8-ft.-long board. Take your bendingsection from the end that has more widely

Bending Wood 185

Good bending stock includes (from left toright) green hickory, air-dried soft maple,air-dried Northern ash, green white oak,and air-dried cherry. Three butt sections ofcherry and walnut (background) will makeexcellent benders.

Upper portions sway but don’t bend significantly.

Roots and earth act as fulcrum for bending.

Wood closer to base bends when tree begins to sway.

Best wood to bend is at butt of tree.

HOW A TREE MOVES

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

How Wood Bends

Essentially, bending wood involves deform-ing its fibers by either stretching or com-pressing them. During a stretched bend,longitudinal fibers are pulled and elongated.The opposite happens during compression,when individual fibers are shortened in thesame way an accordion works, while alsosliding past each other as the piece shrinksalong its length. Most bends consist of bothstretched fibers (along the outer curve) and

Straight grain that runs the full length of the piece will make it much less susceptibleto breaking along the grain lines.

The best way to get straight wood is to rive it. But you can also use straight-grained sawn stock—cutting the straight-grained areas from wider boards if necessary.

Bending Wood186

See “Using Rived Wood” on p. 124.➤

Stretching Wood

Greater stress is placed along the outer curve where fibers elongate.

Length before bending

Stretched wood grows in length.

Compressing Wood

Compression occurs along the inner curve, where individual fibers shorten as well as slide past each other.

Compressed wood shrinks.

STRETCHED AND COMPRESSED FIBERS

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

cut away the blemished areas after bending.Small creases and bumps commonly causedby compression can often be cleaned up witha few swipes from a plane or scraper.

Keep in mind that almost all bent wood,especially bent-laminated and steam-bentstock, experiences two reactions, known asspringback and spring-in. Springback is thetendency for the curve to spring outwardtoward a larger radius after the bendingprocess. Springback typically happens when wood is stretched but also will takeplace during mild compression bends.Spring-in, which occurs when wood is

compressed fibers (along the inner curve).But when wood is kept from stretching bythe use of end blocks on a bending strap, forexample, the entire piece can come undercompression. How much the wood deformsand what type of tension the fibers experi-ence depends on the bending approach youtake and the severity of the bend itself. Forexample, a 3-ft. length of wood can easily“grow” more than 1 in. when stretched andcan shrink by the same amount when com-pressed. That’s a lot of fiber movement!

Because of this stress to the fibers, there’salways the risk that your wood will deformtoo much during a bend. The result willeither be tension or compression failure, orsometimes both in the same piece. If yourstock is oversized enough, you may be able to

Bending Wood 187

The steam-bent cherry at left cracked at theoutside of the curve due to tension fromstretching. The fibers of the steam-benthickory at right separated along the innercurve due to compression.

Compression wrinkles across the grain ofthis steam-bent walnut leg don’t go verydeep, and can usually be eliminated after-wards by planing or scraping.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

Bending Green Wood

The simplest way to bend wood is to workwith green stock, using relatively thin pieces,which are flexible enough to bend quite easilyby hand. Once bent, green wood must berestrained in that shape until it dries, typi-cally by holding it in a shop-made form.Unfortunately, you can’t significantly curvewide green stock because the bending forcerequired is too great and the fibers will mostlikely separate. But for narrow parts or shal-low curves, it’s an easy, low-tech way to go.

Kerf-Bending

Sawing a series of kerfs in wood effectivelyreduces its thickness, making it pliableenough to bend. This approach is quite pre-dictable and works well with dried woodbecause you don’t have to worry aboutwarpage after the cuts are made and thewood starts to shrink. Once you’ve createdthe curve, you’ll need to glue or nail the partto a curved framework or other structure tomaintain the bend, or fill the kerfs withepoxy. Also, you’ll need to conceal exposedkerfs either with veneer or with frame piecescut to the finished curve.

The trick with kerf-bending is to figureout how thick to leave the uncut face area.You’ll need to experiment, but you’ll proba-bly find that an uncut thickness of 1⁄8 in. orso works for most woods. Brittle or extra-dense woods will require thinner sections.Also, the farther apart the kerfs are spaced,the more rigid the material will be. Forexample, if you saw a 1⁄8-in.-wide kerf deepenough to leave 1⁄8 in. of wood beyond thekerf, and locate a kerf every 1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in.,you can get a board to bend to a radius of 20 in. or less, depending on the wood. For

heavily compressed, is the opposite ofspringback, and results in the radius tighten-ing after the initial bend. Different woodswill have different spring tendencies, and theamount of movement is usually slight. Forexample, a 20-in. radius might spring in orout 1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in. Thicker wood and moredramatic curves result in greater amounts ofmovement. The only way to deal with thesetraits is to compensate by over- or under-bending your stock. Unfortunately, there areno firm guidelines for this. Experience andthe type of wood are your best guides.

One rule stands above all else: The moresevere the curvature and the thicker thewood, the harder it will be to bend, and thehigher the risk that the fibers will fail. To getstarted, it’s a good idea to begin with thinstock and try to bend mild curves. Once youget a feel for the techniques involved and thebending properties of different woods, youcan graduate to more complex curves.

Bending Wood188

You can readilybend thin, greenstock by utilizing a form, such asyour knee.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

Laminates are generally pliable enoughwhen cut to a thickness of 1⁄8 in. or less.But as you add multiple laminates, you’llencounter greater resistance. This means thatthicker assemblies require thinner laminatesthan do thinner assemblies. You can test thethickness of the laminates you’ll need bybending a sample piece around your form.You should be able to bend the piece easilyto the shape of the curve with only lighthand pressure.

Once you know the correct thickness, sawthe laminates to rough size on the bandsaw,resawing them from a thick block that’s beencut slightly oversized in width and a fewinches oversized in length. Unless your bladeleaves an exceptionally smooth surface, it’susually best to follow up each cut by planingor jointing the sawn face of the block before

consistent curves, it’s very important thatyou space your kerfs evenly and cut them toa consistent depth. Otherwise, you’ll intro-duce flat or kinked areas in the show surface.

Laminating Wood

Lamination-bending involves making piecesfrom strips of dry wood (the laminates) thatare thin and pliable enough to bend. Youspread glue on their surfaces and clampthem in layers over a curved form. The curedglue between each layer is what holds thecurve, and the multiple gluelines make theassembly very strong, rigid, and stable.

Bending Wood 189

By using the table saw to cut a series ofregularly-spaced kerfs into the underside of a plank, you can easily curve a thick,wide board.

Check the laminate thickness by bending a test piece around yourdesired curve.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

resawing the next laminate from it. Afterslicing all the laminates, smooth the sawnsides by securing the pieces to a smooth, flatpanel with double-sided tape, and passingthem through the thickness planer untilthey’re the desired thickness for bending.

Most laminate-bending requires the useof a multiple-part form—typically made oftwo parts. You position the stacked andglued laminates over the bottom form,which is shaped to the desired inner curve of the work. A mating form (or a series ofshaped blocks) on top helps distributeclamping pressure (see the drawing on facingpage). To generate the desired curve, startwith a drawing and then transfer the outlineof the curve to the form with a series of pin-pricks from an awl. Draw the full curve byinserting nails into your awl marks and thenpositioning a flexible ruler against the nails.

A simpler approach is to use a vacuum-bag setup, which requires only one form overwhich to place the laminates. The bag, undervacuum, then places the necessary pressure

Bending Wood190

The bandsaw is the best tool for resawing laminates to thickness aslong as you use a fence that’s 90º to the table, or at least parallel tothe blade.

Clean up the bandsaw marks by stickingthe laminates to a flat melamine and run-ning them through the planer.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

Bending Wood 191

Make form slightly thicker than stock width.

Plywood, particleboard, or MDF

Drill holes for clamps.

Clamp

Base allows easy clamping to benchtop.

Cut back of blocks square to centerline for good clamp purchase.

90°

Saw curve in oversized piece and then cut into individual blocks.

Laminates or steamed wood

MAKING A BENDING FORM

Draw your desired curve on paper, and then use an awlto transfer the curve as a series of pricks to the firstlayer of the form.

Connect the dots by inserting nails in the awl marks andscribing along a flexible ruler held against the nails.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

over the top of the laminates to press themtogether as the glue cures.

Because the bent laminates are always intension, it’s best to use a glue that dries hardand rigid, such as plastic resin or epoxy.Softer adhesives, such as white or yellow glue,do a decent job of maintaining the curvesbut have a tendency to creep over time, oftenleaving telltale bumps of glue along the glue-lines or slightly shifted laminates.

I get great results using Unibond 800, aplastic-resin glue that consists of a resin youmix with a powder.

With bent laminations, keep in mind thatthe joint faces won’t look like solid wood,especially if you use a lot of thin laminates.To conceal the multiple gluelines as best youcan, glue the laminates together in the samesequence in which they were sawn from theblock. This approach keeps the grain patternas continuous as possible.

Bending Wood192

To avoid shifting ofthe cured glue orsmall movement ofthe laminates, usean adhesive thatcures super-hard,such as the resin/powder variety ofplastic-resin glueshown here.

Glue and nail two or more layers of 1/4-in.-thick plywood to ribs.

Make ribs from 3/4-in.-thick plywood and saw to desired curve.

Base

Drill 1/2-in.-dia. holes between ribs to allow air to escape.

CONSTRUCTING A FORM

FOR VACUUM-BAG CLAMPING

See “Choosing and Using Glue” on p. 237.➤

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

Steaming Wood

Introducing moist heat into the pores ofwood via steam is an age-old approach tobending wood. When you heat the fibers aswell as the lignin that helps bind themtogether, solid chunks of wood—as much as2 in. or more in cross section—can be bentinto severe curves without noticeable dam-age to the fibers. Once the wood cools anddries, the curve sets.

The best wood for steam-bending isgreen stock. Air-dried and kiln-dried stockare second and third choices, respectively.Failure rates are likely to rise when you’reusing dry wood, since the lignin has alreadybeen set, particularly with kiln-dried wood.Also, it takes longer to moisten and thusheat the inside of dry stock, whereas theabundant moisture already inside green stockhelps conduct heat quickly so the steamingprocess is more effective. However, regard-less of the moisture content, you can increaseyour odds of bending success by payingattention to your stock’s grain orientation.For most woods, such as the oaks and hick-ories, your best bet is to bend the tangentialface, and not the radial surface. Certainwoods, such as ash, prefer a mix of radial andtangential grain and respond best when thegrain runs diagonally through its cross section.

To heat and soften wood, you’ll need toproduce steam inside a container where thetemperature is least 200˚F, which you can doby building a steam box (see the drawing onp. 194). Your steam box can be simple orelaborate, but the essential idea is to create asealed box with an access door for the wood,a temperature gauge, a drain to liberateexcess water, and a few small holes to release

Bending Wood 193

Most woods respond best when you bend the tangential face, and sometimes a face made from diagonal grain. Avoid bending wood on the radial face when possible.

Tangential face

Radial face

Diagonal grain

GRAIN ORIENTATION FOR BENDING

This simple steam box is made from exterior-grade plywoodsheathing, with steam piped into the box via an electric kettle.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

Be careful, though: Over-steaming will softenthe wood to the point where it will lose itsstrength and become brittle and difficult towork. Again, as with most wood bending,experimentation is the key to success.

Once the wood is ready to bend, you’llneed to work quickly and deliberately,pulling it from the steam box and placing itonto a curved form for bending. Be sure towear heavy gloves and to practice thesequence ahead of time. The wood will bevery hot for quite a while, but it loses elas-ticity much more quickly, so smooth steps inthe actual bending process really count.

As with laminate-bending, you’ll need to make bending forms. However, steam-bending forms are generally much simpler tomake because there’s no need to distributeclamping pressure over the entire surface.One-part forms that support the inner curvature will suffice for most simple curves,as long as you devise a method for holdingthe ends in place, such as with clamps orwedges. For shallow curves, you can forcethe wood against the form by hand.Dramatic bends require extra hands or helpfrom rigged-up ropes and pulleys or anyscheme that employs leverage to help bendthe wood to the form. Two-part or multiple-part forms are great for more complexcurves, where you might have a compoundbend such as an S curve. Here, you mayneed to secure long wood or metal poles tothe upper form to gain leverage and help thewood deform to its new shape.

For really severe bends, a bending strap ortwo placed over one or both faces can do alot to prevent failures by limiting stretching.Fixed or adjustable end blocks attached tothe strap butt against the ends of the stock

pressure. Your steam generator can be assimple as a kettle of water boiling on aportable stovetop with the steam piped intothe box. Or you can set up a more involvedsystem, perhaps hooking a propane supply to a pressure cooker or even an enclosedheating element.

Steaming times will vary depending onthe wood and your particular setup, but agood rule of thumb is one hour per inch ofthickness, and perhaps a few minutes more.

Bending Wood194

Make box from 3/4-in.-thick exterior plywood.

DoorStack stock on dowels.

Drain hole

Drill 1/4-in. holes to allow air to circulate, to release pressure, and to accept thermometer.

Meat thermometer

Steam source

Angle steam box to allow excess water to drain.

BUILDING A STEAM BOX

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

half hour, depending on the wood and thedegree of curvature. If you have more partsto bend, it makes sense to free up the formby removing the bent part and placing it in acooling form, which is essentially a one-partbending form shaped to the inner, finishedcurve. (Remember that your bending formmay be over- or under-curved to allow for

and help control the bend. Commercialstraps are available, or you can make yourown from thin steel. It’s best to use galva-nized or stainless steel so the metal won’treact with wood tannins and turn the stockblack. For simple bends, you can load thehot wood between end blocks and onto asingle strap, placing the strap on the outsideof the work. This one-strap approach usuallyresults in slight stretching along the outercurve and mild to medium compression onits inner surface.

For challenging, complex shapes where youintroduce two or more significant curves inreally thick stock, it’s best to use two straps,one outside and one inside the curve. A two-strap approach usually results in heavy com-pression along both the outer and innercurves because the straps and end blocksrestrict fibers that would normally stretch.

Once you’ve bent the wood to your form,let it set. This can take a few minutes to a

Bending Wood 195

A steel bending strap with steelend blocks wraps around theoutside curve to contain thewood fibers and prevent themfrom splitting.

This multiple-part form includesbending straps above andbelow the workpiece for greatercontrol during a severe com-pound bend.

SECTION 12 OVERVIEW

the cooling forms for a day or two is usuallysufficient for the moisture content to returnto normal. Green stock can take a month ormore, depending on the thickness, species,and working environment. Luckily, coolingforms also make excellent drying forms, andleaving your bent wood in them for a monthor more ensures that it will dry evenly with-out significant warpage.

spring.) A cooling form can be as simple as apiece of rope tied off at the ends to hold thecurve. A more involved form might be madefrom stacked plywood or MDF shaped tothe finished curve and drilled with holes forclamp purchase. If you have a lot of identicalparts to make, you can bend them all in onesession if you have several cooling forms tomove the bent parts to.

For bent green stock, you’ll need to allowthe wood to dry before further tooling, justas you would with any green wood. Withdry air- or kiln-dried wood, keeping parts in

Bending Wood196

Once the curve has set for a few minutes, transfer the blank to a cooling form so you can continuebending other blanks.

GREEN BENDING

Bending a Simple Slat

With fresh, green wood that’s not too thick, youcan make a shallow bend over a simple form byhand. Start by centering the stock over the form(A) and then using your upper body weight topress the wood to the curve (B). Avoid suddenforce, or the wood might crack. Instead, keepconstant pressure over the part until you feel itwants to bend.

[VARIATION] To help with a simple

bend, fashion a metal strap from thin steel

sized a little longer than your stock, with

wood handles bolted to the ends. Use the

strap over the part to gain better control

and to apply more consistent pressure

over the entire piece.

As soon as the wood is bent, transfer it to a dry-ing form, which can be as simple as a straightpiece of wood with two end blocks, one of whichis adjustable (C). Adjust the space between theblocks as necessary, and then rebend the stockso it’s captured between them. This secondbending requires very little force once the initialbend has been made (D).

Because you’re working with green wood, you’llneed to let the part dry to the correct moisturecontent, which can take weeks or even months.The easiest way to do this is to leave the part inthe drying form and hang it out of the way in anarea where air can freely circulate (E).

Bending Wood 197

A

VARIATION

D

E

C

B

KERF-BENDING

Bending a Kerfed Board

Sawing a series of regularly spaced saw-bladeslots, or kerfs, across the grain of a plank willeffectively thin it enough that the remainingintact stock can be bent, even in a relatively wideboard. To regulate the spacing, it’s best to use anindexing stick attached to an auxiliary fencethat’s fastened to a crosscut sled or your saw’smiter gauge.

Make the index stick from dense hardwood, andinstall it in a saw kerf that you’ve sawn into theauxiliary fence. The kerf should be equal to thethickness of the sawteeth and slightly shallowerthan the depth of the kerfs you’ll cut into thestock. Then fix this fence to the sled so the indexstick is positioned to the left of the blade at a dis-tance equal to the desired spacing between thekerfs, in this case, about 1⁄4 in. (A). Make the stickslightly longer than the width of your stock toease the positioning and removal of the work-piece. Raise the blade to within 1⁄8 in. of the topsurface of the stock, which should also be slightlyabove the top edge of the index stick (B).

For the first cut, butt the stock against the stick,turn on the saw, and push the sled and stockpast the blade (C). After cutting the first kerf, slipit over the index stick, making sure the boardfully contacts the fence and sled surface (D).Then saw the second kerf by once again pushingthe stock and sled past the blade (E).

Bending Wood198

A

C

E

D

B

KERF-BENDING

Continue in this fashion to slot the entire board,cutting each kerf and then slipping it over theindex stick to make the next cut (F). As youreach the end of the board, place a support panelunder its overhanging end to support the stockand keep it from flexing (G).

Once you’ve sawn all the kerfs, sight down theedge of the board to check that they’re all thesame depth (H). Gentle hand pressure should beenough to bow the board to the desired curve (I).

Bending Wood 199

F

G

H

I

KERF-BENDING

Filling Kerfs with Laminates

If you saw a series of kerfs parallel to the grainof a long blank, and then glue veneer into thekerfs, you can bend the sawn stock to a gentlebow and the glue will hold the curve. Themethod involves both kerf-bending and laminate-bending techniques.

Start by calculating the number of regularlyspaced kerfs you’ll saw in your blank and thenumber and thickness of your filler laminates.After milling the blank to width, place it betweenthe blade and the bandsaw fence and lock thefence into that position. Then clamp a blockbehind and butted against the fence at each end (A).

To set up for cutting equally spaced kerfs, milltwo shims, each of which is equal in thickness tothe width of one saw kerf plus the thickness ofone filler laminate. Release the fence, insert theshims between the blocks and the fence, andthen relock the fence to the table (B).

As a design accent, you can use contrastingwood for the laminates and angle them wherethey’ll stop in the stock. To do this, draw anangled line on the top face of the blank (C). Makethe first kerf cut by guiding the stock against thefence, stopping when the blade touches the lineyou drew (D).

To cut the second kerf, unclamp the fenceblocks, remove the shim (E), and reclamp theblock up against the locked fence (F).

Bending Wood200

A

C

E F

D

B

KERF-BENDING

Then unlock and move the fence (G), reinstall theshims, and tighten the fence again (H). Saw yoursecond kerf as before, stopping when the bladereaches the marked line (I).

Continue in this manner, sawing a series of kerfsby resetting the fence, blocks, and shims aftereach cut. As you saw, keep pressure against theflexible strips just in front of the blade so thestock bears fully against the fence (J). You’ll cut the last kerf with the blade one laminate-thickness away from the fence (K).

Once you’ve sawn all the kerfs in the blank,adjust the fence to the thickness of a kerf cutand saw all the laminates from another blankequal in height to your working blank. If youchoose a contrasting wood, your laminates willstand out in the finished piece (L).

Using stock at least as thick as your workingblank, make a two-part gluing form, drawing theinner and outer curves to match the desired cur-vature, then sawing them out on the bandsaw. Ifyour sawcuts are rough or if the curve is not pre-cisely fair, insert a piece of thin, smooth woodbetween each form and the working blank toeven out the curve during glue-up. Then spreadglue on all the laminates, press them into thekerfs, and begin clamping up the blank, workingoutward from its unkerfed end (M).

As you continue to add clamps, the form willbegin to close over the blank, drawing the lami-nates together (N). Use enough clamps to ensurethat all the joints pull tight without gaps (O).Once the glue has cured, you can clean up thetwo kerfed faces by sweeping one face over thejointer and then planing the opposite face smoothin the thickness planer.

Bending Wood 201

G

I

K

M

O

N

L

J

H

BENT LAMINATION

Laminating with a Two-Part Form

You can create a beautiful, strong curved part bygluing multiple strips of wood together around acurved form. Start by laying out your laminates inthe same sequence that they were cut in fromthe block. Apply glue to both sides of each lami-nate, except for the two outside surfaces. Alayer of plastic wrap beneath the work protectsyour work surface from adhesive, and a creditcard is handy for spreading glue evenly (A).Stack all the laminates together, making sure thetwo uncoated surfaces face outside (B). Adjustthe stack until all the edges are reasonably flush.

Position the stack in the form, and clamp anouter block at one end of the form, again check-ing that the edges of the laminates are as flushas possible (C). Working along the form insequence, clamp the next block adjacent to thefirst one. A slightly loose clamp ahead of thesequence helps get the bend started (D). Onceyou’ve added the last clamp, go back and checkthat all the clamps are tight (E).

When the glue has cured, straighten the edgesby first cleaning up one edge with a plane,removing dried glue and leveling the laminateswith each other (F). With one edge reasonablyflat, place this edge down and plane the oppositeedge in the thickness planer (G). Once the sec-ond edge is clean, turn the stock over and planethe opposite edge to make the piece consistentin thickness. Then continue planing alternatingedges until you reach your desired final width.

Bending Wood202

A

C

E

G

F

D

B

BENT LAMINATION

Veneering Curves in a Vacuum

A vacuum-bag setup makes a great tool for glu-ing curved parts together, especially veneerwork. Laying veneer over a curved substrate, orcore, lets you utilize some of the world’s finestwoods while building curved panels that appearto be solid wood. You’ll need to build a curved,one-piece form, and then use this to create thecore by stacking multiple laminates, or sheets, ofthin, bendable plywood onto the form and gluingthem together in the vacuum bag. Once you’vemade the core and trimmed it to rough size,you’re ready to add the veneer facing. Cabinet-maker Peter Breitfeller starts by masking thecontact surfaces of the form with clear packingtape to prevent excess adhesive from gluing theveneer to the form (A).

Spread or roll glue onto one face of the core.(Never apply glue to veneer, or it will curl uncon-trollably.) Lay the veneer onto that side, then flipthe assembly over and apply glue to the oppositeside of the form (B). Position the second sheet of veneer onto the second side of the form, andthen tape the assembly to the form to prevent itfrom shifting once it goes into the bag (C).

Carefully slide the assembly into the bag (D).Then seal the bag closed (E) and turn on the vacuum pump. As air is being evacuated, smoothout the bag over the assembly to ensure thatthere aren’t any significant wrinkles where it contacts the veneer (F). Once the glue has set,remove the work from the bag and let the gluecure for a day before working the curved part any further.

Bending Wood 203

A

C

E

F

D

B

BENT LAMINATION

Laminating Free-Form in a Vacuum

All sorts of wild laminate bends are possible witha vacuum bag, forgoing any type of form at alland simply pushing the work into a bend whilethe vacuum takes effect. To do this, you’ll needto make a pliable platen slightly larger than yourlaminates. The laminates will rest against theplaten, which provides a way for air to escapeduring evacuation. Using bending plywood (acommercially available 3⁄8-in.-thick plywood thatbends easily in one direction), cut a series of 1⁄8-in. grooves in the surface to provide channelsso air can escape (A). At one end and on theungrooved side of the platen, glue on a block ofplywood and then drill a hole through the centerof the block and through the platen for thepump’s air nipple, centering the hole in one ormore grooves cut on the opposite side (B). Place the platen inside the bag, and then installthe nipple through the bag and partway into the platen (C).

Apply glue to all the laminates and stack themtogether. Tape the middle of the stack, and thenwrap all but the leading edge of the stack withplastic wrap to prevent glue from oozing into thebag (D). Slide the stack into the bag and over theplaten, making sure that the unwrapped portionrests over the hole in the platen to prevent plasticfrom impeding suction (E).

Bending Wood204

A

C

E

D

B

BENT LAMINATION

[VARIATION] Instead of using a pliable

plywood platen, you can buy a commer-

cial plastic mat called EvacuNet, which

you cut to fit under your laminates to

evacuate the air. The material can be bent

in any direction, facilitating compound

curves. Make sure the end of the mat falls

over the air exit hole, and keep the work

back a few inches from the hole.

Seal the bag and turn on the pump. As soon asthe bag starts to draw over the work, shut off thepump (F). Before the full vacuum is drawn, youcan form the curve you desire. Using a clamp asa stop block, place one end of the bag and work-piece against the stop and lift the opposite end tocurve the work (G). Once you have the curve youlike, turn the pump on again and let it draw a fullvacuum. At this point, the bag will hold the curvewithout further assistance from you (H). Oncethe glue has set (preferably overnight), removethe work from the bag and check the joints,which will be rough with glue and have slightlyshifted laminates but should reveal no gaps (I).After the adhesive has fully cured, smooth oneedge on the jointer, place that edge against yourtable saw’s rip fence, and trim the second edgesmooth and parallel to the first.

Bending Wood 205

VARIATION

F

H

I

G

STEAM-BENDING

Steam-Bending a Simple Curve

A mild bend in medium-thick stock can beaccomplished very simply with a curved formand pressure from your feet to coax the bend.Woodworker Lon Schleining starts by steamingthe wood for the appropriate length of time.Moving quickly, he then pulls the wood from thesteam box and immediately hooks one endunder a cleat at one end of the form, and placespressure over the opposite end with his foot (A).

Let a portion of your weight rest on the piece toencourage the fibers to stretch and the piece tobend. Avoiding sudden force (which may causebreakage), slowly increase your foot pressureuntil the piece starts to wrap onto the form (B).Maintain pressure with your foot. When theopposite end reaches the form, get ready toclamp it into place (C).

Once you’ve made the bend, clamp the free end,using a caul over the wood to distribute pressure.A cleat under the form gives the clamps room forpurchase (D). Let the wood cool and dry in theform for 24 hours.

Bending Wood206

A

C D

B

STEAM-BENDING

Steam-Bending a Severe Curve

Dramatic bends require more involved strategies,such as the use of a bending strap and a power-ful system for pulling the curve once the woodhas been steamed. Chairmaker Don Weber pre-pares for the bending process by storing thestrap atop the steamer as the wood cooks. Thisheats up the strap, which will help keep thestock hot during the bending process (A). Hebegins by pulling a thick blank of green, rivedwhite oak from the steamer, immediately placing it between end blocks and onto a bend-ing strap (B).

A shopmade bending form with a windlass-typemechanism provides the necessary force to bendthick chunks of wood. Moving deliberately andquickly, wedge the assembly against a dowel andthe center of the form. Then attach a cable toeach end of the bending strap, and begin to crankthe windlass to draw the assembly to the form(C). Moving slowly but without stopping, keepturning the windlass as the piece begins to con-form to the form (D).

With the windlass cranked all the way in, thestock is almost fully engaged with the form (E).


Bending Wood 207

A

C

E

D

B

STEAM-BENDING

To coax the last bit inward at the ends, clampacross the form and the assembly to help drawthe ends closer to the curve (F). At this point,use a block of wood and a hammer to tap thestock down so it makes good contact with theform’s backing surface, ensuring that the stockwill be flat (G). Then go back and fully clamp theassembly to the form until the ends are tightagainst it (H).

At this point, the stock needs to cool. Beinggreen wood, it must also dry thoroughly beforebeing put to use. Rather than tying up the bend-ing form for a month or more while waiting forthe part to dry, wrap a length of string around theends of the stock while it’s still in the form, andthen remove the assembly from the form and letit dry in a well-ventilated area of your shop (I).

Bending Wood208

G

H

I

F

STEAM-BENDING

Steam-Bending a Complex Curve

Bending multiple curves in the same piecerequires building a multiple-part form that helpsshape the piece to the desired curves. If yourstock is really thick, such as a 2-in.-square blank,you’re better off using bending straps on bothsides of the stock and devising some sort ofleverage to help power the bend once the piecegoes into the form.

Monitor the heat and the time while you steamthe workpiece, and when it’s time to pull it fromthe steam box, be sure to wear heavy gloves.Here, chairmaker Brian Boggs selects a piece ofgreen, sawn hickory from a stack of steamingwood (A).

[TIP] To speed up the steaming process,

turn off the steam every half hour or so to

cool the steam box, but not below 150˚F.

This creates a vacuum, which draws more

moisture into the wood.

To make an S bend, place the hot wood on top ofthe lower bending strap and insert it into the bot-tom form (B). Use a wrench to crank anadjustable end stop into the end of the blank,squeezing the fibers somewhat and ensuring thatthe part is well-seated in the form (C).

Using all your body weight and a long woodenbar to increase leverage, slowly and steadilylower the first half of the top form and theattached upper bending strap onto the bottomform, making the first bend at one end of theblank (D). Place a metal pin through a plywoodbracket to hold the position.

Bending Wood 209

A

B

C

D

STEAM-BENDING

Next, using a second bar, lower the second halfof the top form onto the bottom form to make anopposite bend at the opposite end of the blank(E). Tie off this second form by wrapping somerope around the second and first bars (F).

Once the wood has sat long enough for the curveto take a set, remove it from the bending formand transfer it to a cooling form, placing one end against a stop and under a block-and-boltclamping system (G). The wood will spring backslightly once it’s out of the bending form, but it’ssupple enough at this point to rebend to themajor curves of the cooling form by arm poweralone (H).

Once you’ve bent the stock as far as it will go byhand, pin it in place on the form by sliding a boltthrough plywood braces secured to the sides ofthe form (I).

Bending Wood210

E

G

I

H

F

STEAM-BENDING

If necessary, use a clamp to squeeze the stockfurther to the form’s surface (J), or use wedgesin strategic locations (K). At the opposite end,draw the clamping block and the work tight tothe form by snugging up the nuts over the block.An impact driver fitted with a socket head makesclamping quick, but a regular wrench will just aswell, only more slowly (L).

[VARIATION] For convenient and faster

clamping to a cooling form, you can

devise a block-and-bolt clamping system

and use an impact wrench to quickly

clamp the workpiece to the form. This

removable system can be placed almost

anywhere along the curve to ensure that

the work is drawn up tight.

Once the stock is secure on the form, store thepart on the form until it’s fully dry, especially ifyou’re working with green stock (M).

Bending Wood 211

J

L

M

VARIATION

K

Finishing Wood, Page 255Gluing and Clamping Wood,

Page 236Smoothing and Preparing Wood,

Page 214

Smoothing,Gluing,and Finishing

It might be argued that the bulk of your work is done

once your joints have been cut and all the parts dimensioned.

The truth is, when it comes to the visual impact of the stuff

we make, the most important work has yet to begin. Smoothing

surfaces, gluing parts together into a unified whole, and applying

a stunning finish all combine to create the final effect. Most finishes

magnify any blemishes, which makes smoothing and refining your wood

such a vital phase. Selecting the right glue and gluing up in an ordered

manner can take the pain out of assembly, ensuring that all your joinery

comes together without misalignment. Once you’re ready for finishing,

you’ll want to choose the best finish for your wood and apply it like

a pro. These final sections will help you complete your masterpiece

in a way that makes all your hard work pay off—and that leaves you

with fantastic-looking furniture.

PART SIX

Preparing for a Finish

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

214

Smoothingand Preparing Wood

➤ Smoothing with aPlane (p. 225)

➤ Using a HandScraper (p. 227)

➤ Flattening with aBelt Sander (p. 228)

➤ Using a DrumSander (p. 229)

➤ Using a Random-Orbit Sander (p. 231)

➤ Sanding a SmallTable by Hand (p. 232)

➤ Hand-SandingContours (p. 233)

➤ Steaming Out Dents(p. 234)

➤ Filling Small Cracks(p. 234)

➤ Raising the Grain (p. 235)

Planing andScraping

Sanding Wood Making Repairs

knowing when to smooth your parts andwhat tools are most effective at the task.

What is Smooth Wood?

After you’ve cut all your joints and dimen-sioned your stock, many of your woodenparts will have saw marks from the bandsaw,miter saw, circular saw, or table saw. Mostwill display machine marks or mill marks,terms used to describe a series of regularlyspaced scallops on the surface produced bythe router, jointer, or thickness planer. You’llalso come across a depression on the ends of

Wood that has been sawn orotherwise cut requires one finaltask before finishing to make it

as attractive as possible. This last step is tosmooth its surface, removing the marksfrom our tools and cleaning up any othersmall blemishes. Smoothing can be accom-plished in several ways. Of course, we’re allfamiliar with sanding wood, but there arealternatives that are often more effective andless tedious or dusty, such as scraping andplaning. This section details how toapproach the smoothing process, including

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

Some of us mistake these surface marks forfigure markings in the wood. The lines leftby router bits and high-speed benchtopplaners are faint and easily fool the eye.Jointers and heavy-duty planers, with theirslower induction motors, create more widelyspaced, deep marks that are easily detectedand leave a rougher surface (see the drawingabove). Increasing the rotational speed of the

boards known as snipe, a common flaw thatoccurs when wood is passed through a thick-ness planer and sometimes when pushedacross a misaligned jointer.

Generally, saw marks are readily apparentand can be removed with a swipe of a planeor a quick sanding. But the more subtlemachine marks left by rotating router, jointer,or planer cutters can be harder to detect.

Smoothing and Preparing Wood 215

Machine cutter

Rotation

Feed

Rotation of cutter leaves circular cuts in surface.

Machine mark

1 in.

8 cpi

16 cpiFast Rotation/Slow FeedRouter bits and high-speed benchtop planers produce more cuts per inch (cpi) for a smoother surface.

Slow Rotation/Fast FeedSlower-speed jointers and floor-model planers produce deeper, more widely spaced cuts, leaving more noticeable machine marks. This can be offset some by slowing down your feed speed.

HOW MACHINE MARKS ARE MADE

The line running across the face of this oakboard shows the extent of snipe—the thinnerarea at the end of the board created duringthickness planing. The series of regularlyspaced lines along the edge indicatemachine marks created by jointer knives.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

When Should You

Smooth Parts?

You often have the option of smoothingparts before cutting joints or gluing piecestogether. Sometimes this is the bestapproach because you can easily lay boardsflat on your bench. However, this can com-promise your joinery or make it impracticalto glue parts together. While ultimatelythere is no one easy answer, it’s generallybest to smooth parts after the joinery work isdone, but before assembly. For example, in acomplex assembly such as a three-way miterjoint, it makes sense to smooth the individualparts because you can easily access areas suchas inside corners that will become hard toreach after assembly. As long as you stayaway from the joints themselves, your joinerywon’t be compromised.

When preparing boards for gluingtogether into a panel, you can save effort byfirst jointing the edges, and then sanding orhandplaning the surfaces of individualboards. After smoothing, glue the boardstogether and then use a sander or a scraperto level just the areas at the joints, so youdon’t have to work the entire panel.

The flip side is that some work is far easierto smooth after assembly. Parts joined cross-grain to each other are the best examples. Ina top with breadboard ends, for instance, it’sbest to scrape or sand adjoining parts afterputting them together, leaving you with onesmooth, level surface.

cutter and slowing down the feed speed canreduce these marks and make the surfacesmoother, but they’ll still be there.

Even subtle machine marks will be accen-tuated after you apply a finish, so it’s impor-tant to hunt for them diligently and removethem during the smoothing process. To helpyou see machine marks, set up an incandes-cent task light immediately behind andalmost level with the workpiece surface.Then stand in front of the piece and sightacross its surface. You’ll quickly see thesemarks left by your machines. Just be sure toremove them completely before starting thefinishing process.

Smoothing and Preparing Wood216

Scrape the surfaceof legs beforeassembly so youdon’t have tosmooth up againstinside corners later.

See “Choosing Joints” on p. 104.➤

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

Power-Sanding

Versus Handplaning

Sanding your work with a power sander issometimes the only way to dependablysmooth parts without breaking a majorsweat and risking tearout. But don’t overlookthe lowly handplane as a viable alternative. Itproduces less noise, less dust, is often faster,and will typically leave a flatter surface inexperienced hands. While it’s worth investi-gating the types of sanders and sandingtechniques available, I encourage you to takethe time to master the plane so you can useit in situations where sanding would be lessdesirable or inappropriate.

When it comes to fine sanding of verylarge, flat surfaces, a random-orbit sander iseasier on your arms than scrapers or planes.However, power sanders are available in avariety of forms to suit almost any purpose.For example, a sanding disk that mounts toyour table-saw arbor provides a fast way tosand convex curves or small, flat pieces. The


Smoothing individual boards before glue-up is a loteasier than tackling a long, wide panel.

After glue-up, a quick swipe with a scraper takes careof any small misalignments along the joint line.

Sanding cross-grain surfaces, such as thisbreadboard end, after assembly is morereliable than trying to smooth and levelthem beforehand.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

trick is to use a gentle touch, holding thework lightly against the spinning disk toprevent burning.

For effective smoothing of concave sur-faces such as a chair’s crest rail, inflatabledrum sanders are available in various diame-ters. More affordable for the small shop is abenchtop oscillating-spindle sander, whichcan be fitted with large or small spindles,depending on the sweep or diameter of thecurve you need to sand.

Keep in mind that you should sand in thedirection of the grain whenever possible.When you’re sanding flat work, the directionis usually obvious. However, when sandingcurved work, such as the concave curve of arail, you’ll want to sand “downhill” (see thedrawing on facing page). Sanding in thismanner is more effective because it reducesthe chances of pulling out fibers or burningthe stock. It also leaves a finer scratch pat-tern and a smoother surface.

Another critical aspect of the sandingprocess is moving through a succession ofsandpaper grits, as shown in the chart below.Each grit size leaves a specific scratch depthand pattern on wood. Thus, the idea is toleave the finest scratch pattern possible bymoving through successively finer grits, since


Common Grits in Sandpaper

GRIT # DESCRIPTION

40,60 & 80 Very coarse

100 & 120 Coarse

150 & 180 Medium

220 & 320 Fine

400 Very Fine

Fine-sanding large surfaces such as tabletops is easilydone with 220-grit sandpaper attached to a random-orbit sander.

You can mount a disk sander on the table saw forsmoothing and truing up outside curves. Press lightlyto avoid burns.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

each successive grit is necessary to removethe scratches left by the previous coarsergrit. For general furniture making, this usu-ally means starting your sanding processwith 100-grit or 120-grit paper (for fairlycoarse sanding), resanding the entire surfaceusing 150 grit or 180 grit, and then finishingwith 220 grit, again sanding the entire sur-face. Some woodworkers follow this with320 grit, but this is overkill for most woodsand usually only makes sense for sandingfinishes.

If you decide to skip a grit instead of fol-lowing this regimen of moving through thegrits, you risk leaving the odd deep scratchhere and there in your work.

The downside of sanding is that it typi-cally doesn’t create perfectly level, flat, orsquare surfaces, especially when you’re work-ing near an edge or balancing a big sander


An inflatable drum sander makes quick work ofsmoothing and refining inside curves, such as those ona crest rail.

A benchtoposcillating-spindlesander is slower-going but leaves asmoother surface,thanks to the up-and-down action ofthe rotating spindle.

Sand this part of the curve in this direction, or “downhill” to the grain.

Spindle-type sander

Rotation

Feed

To sand this area, flip stock over so grain is downhill and against the rotation of the sander.

SANDING CURVES WITH THE GRAIN

See “Finishing Wood” on p. 255.➤

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

on a small surface. This is where the hand-plane excels. When you’re faced with anassembly that needs minor leveling, such asthe joints in a door frame, a handplane willquickly flush up parts without the risk ofrounding over or dishing the surface. If youset the plane for a very light cut, cross-graintearout will be minimal and can be cleanedup easily with some light sanding by hand.

One of the great things about a sharpplane is that it can accurately flatten a sur-face that consists of both end grain and longgrain. For example, when smoothing thesides of a dovetailed drawer, you’re facedwith smoothing both the long-grain face ofthe drawer side and the end grain of the pinson the drawer front. Sanding tends to abradesofter face grain more than end grain, leavingan out-of-flat surface. A plane will produce


A sharp plane setfor a very fine cutcan shave a jointlevel while keepingthe surroundingsurfaces flat.

Leveling the harder end-grain pins with the softer long-grain side of a dovetailed drawer is best done with aplane to ensure that the drawer sides stay flat.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

next to a duller, power-sanded area. In addi-tion, all power sanders leave some sort ofdefinable scratch pattern in your work thatneeds to be removed to prevent a dull orlackluster look after finishing. Therefore, thebest way to do this final sanding is by hand.

Although you’ll want to do much of yoursanding by simply backing the paper withyour hand, everyone’s sanding-tool arsenalshould include a sanding block or two.Wrapping sandpaper around a block doestwo things: First, sandpaper backed by ablock is more effective at sanding and lastslonger. And second, it ensures that you won’taccidentally dish a surface or round it over.Felt blocks, corked-backed wood blocks,plain wood blocks, or even flat chunks ofmarble all have their place when it comes to hand sanding. Felt and cork provide thenecessary cushion for most block-sandingtasks, but harder materials such as stone orhardwood also have their advantages.

more consistent results, leaving you with flatdrawer sides that slide smoothly in and outof a case.

For me, the most compelling aspect ofusing a plane is the speed and accuracy withwhich I can get my work done. When all issaid and done, it’s simply faster to plane thanto sand. Add to this the benefits of no roundedsurfaces, no dust, no vibration, and no harshnoise—just an enjoyable swishing sound anda pile of gleaming shavings at your feet. Sowhy not plane your wood when you can?

Sanding by Hand

Whether your work is smoothed with apower sander, a plane, or a scraper, it willprobably require a final sanding before it’sready for a finish. This final fine sanding willeven out any inconsistencies in the surfacethat might otherwise show as a patchwork oflight and dark areas when a finish is applied,such as the glossy surface left by a handplane


Sanding blocks make sanding more effective and ensure that your work stays flat. You canmake them or buy them, but make sure that they’re sized to fit your hand comfortably.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW


You’ll get better sanding results and more life out

of your sandpaper if you learn to cut, fold, and hold

it in the correct manner. With this folding technique,

the grit side of one quarter always touches an adja-

cent paper-only side, keeping your paper fresh and

ready for action. This approach works best for fine

sandpaper, such as 220-grit and up.

1. Starting with one-third of a sheet, fold it in half,

making a sharp crease at the fold line. 2. Open up

the folded paper and fold one half side into a quarter.

3. Fold the first half side onto itself and over to the

second half, creating four quarters. 4. With your

paper folded for action, the correct grip is to grasp

the paper with three fingers and a thumb, while slip-

ping your pinkie under the working side to maintain

your grip. 5. When the first two sides become worn,

open them up. 6. Fold the used quarters onto them-

selves while opening up the remaining two unused

sides. 7. Finish by wrapping the two fresh quarters

around the worn quarters, leaving you with two new

sides ready for sanding.

FOLDING AND HOLDING SANDPAPER➤

1

4 5 6 7

2 3

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

The basic approach when sanding byhand is to sand with the grain wheneverpossible, using a soft-faced felt- or cork-covered block for large, flat surfaces. Be sureto keep the paper free of debris by regularlytapping it with the palm of your hand. Andchange paper when the grit is worn. I’llrepeat this one: Don’t be cheap. Throw awayworn paper, and grab a fresh sheet. Over-using a sheet only serves to burnish the sur-face and will not smooth it consistently.

While a cushioned sanding block willtake care of most of your hand-sandingchores, a harder block is very effective forlight shaping of wood, such as gently round-ing over a surface. For example, you shouldease any sharp edges on your parts. A hard-wood block wrapped with 220-grit sandpaperis excellent for this job and will help toensure a consistent radius.


Holding your workbetween benchdogs allows you tosand an entire sur-face without havingto stop andreclamp. Use lots of downward pressure, and keepthe block moving in the direction ofthe grain.

A hardwood block wrapped with 220-grit paper willaccurately round over the edges of a tabletop as wellas its corners.

SECTION 13 OVERVIEW

any torn areas in the surface, indicating thatmore serious smoothing is necessary beforefinal sanding. When you see these dust-packed cavities, scrape the area to removethe tearout before continuing your sandingregimen.

There are two primary reasons for round-ing over any sharp corners in your work.First, wood is a hard material, and any areathat hasn’t been eased over will feel uncom-fortable. Equally important is that sharpwood invites chipping or splintering.Rounding these areas with even as small aradius as 1⁄32 in. makes your furniture invitingto the touch and ensures that it will faremuch better over the years.

One of the benefits of sanding by hand is that it often reveals areas that have beeninadequately machined before smoothing.For example, sanding dust will quickly fill


During hand-sanding, torn areas on the surface arerevealed by sanding dust that packs into the cavities(left). Before sanding further, smooth the blemishedarea with a scraper (below).

PLANING AND SCRAPING

Smoothing with a Plane

Planing wood to remove machine marks is fasterthan sanding and leaves a more reliably flat sur-face. With a sharp blade set for a light cut, startby noting the direction of the fibers so that youcan plane with the grain of the wood (A). Insteadof clamping a board to the bench for planing, it’sbest to use a bench with bench dogs, whichgrasp each end of a board without impedingplane travel. Be sure to push or tap the board flatto the benchtop as you snug up the dogs (B).

Starting at one end of the board, place the front,or toe, of the plane on the work, applying lots ofdownward pressure at the toe to prevent tipping(C). As the entire plane body engages the sur-face, equalize your downward pressure by usingboth hands to push the tool onto the surface asyou propel it forward (D). At the end of theboard, apply downward pressure at the rear, orheel, to prevent the plane from diving onto thebench as it exits the wood (E). Each pass along theboard should be done in one swift movement.



A

C

E

D

B


Make all subsequent passes by overlapping theprevious cut, moving in a sideways patternacross the board (F). Be sure to stop now andthen to clear any debris from the board that maystick to the plane’s sole, impeding the cut (G). Asyou progress, keep an eye on the flatness of thesurface by regularly checking it with a straight-edge (H). To correct any out-of-flat areas, simplyplane a little more in the high spots.

Be aware that any snipe at the ends of a boardprobably won’t be removed by the first few passes of the plane. The depressed area of thesnipe will be revealed by its duller reflection (I).You’ll probably plane the entire surface severaltimes before the iron reaches to the depth of thesniped areas.

On the last few passes, retract the iron slightlyfor an even lighter cut, which produces an evensmoother surface. At this point, the plane shouldbegin to take a continuous shaving from one endto the other (J). You’re done when each passacross the stock produces a full-length and full-width shaving (K).


F

H

J

K

I

G


Using a Hand Scraper

There are many times that a handplane will tearthe wood, no matter how carefully you set upthe plane and sharpen its iron. This typicallyoccurs when working highly figured woods, suchas this walnut board with its swirling grain. Slighttearout shows up as duller, lighter-colored areasand requires smoothing before a finish is applied(A). Instead of sanding, it’s much faster andmore effective to scrape the area with a handscraper, also called a card scraper.

While a scraper can generally cut in any directionwithout tearing, it’s best to scrape with the grainwhen possible for the smoothest surface. Youcan push the scraper, tilting it forward and bend-ing it slightly with your thumbs until it starts tobite into the wood. Push the tool in sweeping,fluid movements to avoid overscraping in onearea, which can leave a hollow (B). Sometimesit’s easier to pull the scraper, again tilting it in thedirection of the cut and placing your fingers at theback of the tool in the center to guide the cut (C).Like a plane, a properly sharpened scraper makesshavings, not dust, although the shavings aremuch finer than those you typically get from aplane (D). (The scraper shaving is shown at theleft in the photo.)

One of the great things about card scrapers isthat they will cut cross-grain wood without signifi-cant tearing (E). In addition to card scrapers, youcan use large or small scraper planes, whichwork in a manner similar to handplanes. Largescraper planes excel at working large surfaces,while small scraper planes are great for smooth-ing highly figured edges without dishing them orscraping them out of square (F).


A

C

E F

D

B

SANDING WOOD

Flattening with a Belt Sander

Belt sanders remove wood in a hurry and there-fore are best used for rough work only. However,they come in handy for leveling twisted boards,especially on old or salvaged wood that mightcontain metal fasteners, such as this reclaimedplank of chestnut (A). Hitting a hidden nail in thiskind of wood with a handplane or fine sandercould do serious damage to the tool, while a beltsander fitted with a coarse belt will grind it flushwithout complaint.

Start by clamping the board to a bench, shim-ming it underneath where necessary for support.Then use a pair of winding sticks (two shopmadesticks with parallel edges) to read the surface fortwist, noting the high spots (B). Begin sandingthe high spots by holding the tool at a 45-degreeangle to the board, which makes for a moreaggressive cut (C). Once you’ve leveled the highspots, continue sanding the entire board at thesame diagonal angle (D). After sanding the surfacein one direction, switch to the opposite diagonalby holding the sander in the opposite direction.Be sure to stop now and then to recheck thesurface for flat with your winding sticks (E).

Once the surface is flat, finish by sanding withthe grain, moving the sander in an even patternacross the board to avoid digging into one area (F).

[VARIATION] A belt sander makes a

great tool for smoothing small parts if you

turn it upside down and clamp it securely

in a bench vise. Instead of taking the tool

to the work, lightly press the work onto

the flat area of the belt to smooth and

refine its surface.


A

C

E F

D

B

VARIATION

SANDING WOOD

Using a Drum Sander

A drum sander can be a lifesaver when you’refaced with a board that’s too wide or gnarly foryour thickness planer (A). Keep in mind that youshould begin with a relatively straight plankbecause, like a thickness planer, a drum sanderwill not flatten a board; it will only smooth it andbring it to a consistent thickness.

Start by setting the sander’s cutting depth to thethickest part of the board, and begin sanding byplacing the cupped side of the board down ontothe bed of the machine. You’ll know the cuppedside is down when sanding marks appear on thetop side in the middle of the plank (B). As theboard exits the machine, be sure to support itsweight at the outfeed end (C).

Reset the cutting height, but no more than about1⁄32 in., and even less on really wide stock ordense hardwoods. Take another pass on thesame side (D). Drum sanding is a much slowerprocess than thickness planing, and only verylight cuts should be made. The third or fourthpass reveals that only about half of the first sideof the plank has been sanded (E).



A

C

ED

B

SANDING WOOD

When most of the surface has been sanded (F),flip the stock over, adjust the depth of cut, andbegin to sand the opposite side. Since this wasthe cupped side, the first few passes will abradeonly the outer edges of the plank (G). Continuesanding this face, adjusting the depth of cut witheach pass until most of the surface has beensmoothed (H).

At this point, you can flip the board over witheach pass, adjusting the depth of cut until all therough areas are removed on each face. On thelast two passes on each face, send the boardthrough without adjusting the depth of cut. Thistwo-pass approach produces the smoothest sur-face and a plank that’s ready for finer sandingwith an orbital sander and eventually by hand (I).


F

G

H

I

SANDING WOOD

Using a Random-Orbit Sander

Random-orbit sanders leave a finer scratch pat-tern than regular orbital sanders and havebecome the finish sander of choice in mostshops. They work well on small parts but reallyshine when sanding large areas because theyremove large amounts of wood relatively quickly.The key to using the sander correctly is to move itin the general direction of the grain of the woodand to let the weight of the sander itself do thework, without pressure from your hand (A).

It’s important to change sanding disks when theybecome worn. Many sanders have a hook-and-loop pad that allows you to attach fresh hook-and-loop disks by simply peeling off the old oneand pressing a new one into position. Holes inthe disks allow dust to be sucked through thepad and into a shop vacuum hooked up to thetool, keeping the work and the work area relativelyfree of dust (B). To get the most life out of a disk,regularly wipe or blow the work surface free ofdebris, and clean the disk by giving it a few tapswith the palm of your hand (C). Failure to keepthe work or the disk clean results in a buildup ofsanding nibs on the disk (D) that then leaveheavy scratch marks on your work.

For most woods, it’s best to begin sanding with150-grit or 180-grit paper. Once the surface issmooth, switch to 220 grit and sand the entire areaagain to remove the scratch pattern left by theprevious grit. Since random-orbit sanders leave afine but detectable scratch pattern, always followup by sanding with the grain by hand, using thelast grit you used on the sander (E).


A

C

E

D

B

SANDING WOOD

Sanding a Small Table by Hand

All wood should be sanded by hand before fin-ishing to make it as smooth as possible andleave as fine a scratch pattern as is practical.This small table is a good example of how toapproach the technique, and the methods usedhere can be applied to all your sanding jobs.

Always sand with the direction of the grain.Whenever possible, use a sanding block to backup your paper. On broad surfaces, such as thistop, use a cork or felt block (A). As most of these surfaces were first smoothed with a hand-plane, it’s best to start with a quick sanding with150-grit or 180-grit sandpaper, followed by a rigor-ous sanding using 220-grit paper. An exception tothis method is when you’re sanding end grain,which scores deeply when sanded by too coarsea grit. Here, after planing, use the same cork orfelt pad and sand along the edge with 220-gritpaper (B).

When you’re faced with inside corners, such as where a leg stands proud of a rail, positionyour paper flush with the end of your sandingblock and sand in short jabs towards the leg (C).As you sand, check to see that you’ve sandedevenly by looking for an even, dull sheen over the entire piece.

When faced with cross-grain parts, always sandthe enclosed or trapped part first, moving in thedirection of the free part and overlapping it slightly,such as on this rail where it meets the leg (D).Then follow by sanding the free area to smooth itwhile removing the cross-grain sanding marks leftby the previous sanding (E).


A

C

E

D

B

Hand-Sanding Contours

Refining and final-sanding the curves in yourwork can be problematic without the right tools.For large, sweeping surfaces such as curveddoor panels, you can use a sponge-type sandingpad (available at most automotive-supply stores)that accepts stick-on sanding disks. The pad hasenough give to conform to large-radii concaveand convex surfaces (A).

For large or tight curves, try making your ownsanding blocks in different radii from scrap hard-wood (B). Then pick the block that matches asclosely as possible the curve you need to sand, andwrap sandpaper around it to smooth the surface.

Commercial sanding pads can be used to smoothreally tight contours and fillets. Made from a firm,rubbery material, they’re available in a variety ofprofiles to match just about any sanding job you’relikely to encounter (C). These pads work best withfine sandpaper, as coarser-grit papers tend tobreak or deform when pushed into deep profiles.

SANDING WOOD

Sanding without a block is always a part of thesanding process, and you’ll generally tackle workthis way when reaching into areas where a blockwould limit your access. Remember that you’rerefining the surface just before applying a finish,so take care not to introduce new scratches inthe work you’ve just smoothed. After smoothingone surface, such as the top of this table, place aclean piece of carpet or other soft material underthe top to protect it while you smooth the rest ofthe piece (F).


F

A

B

C

MAKING REPAIRS

Steaming Out Dents

Dings and dents are bound to happen, butthanks to the elastic nature of wood fibers, smalldents are a snap to fix, as long as the fibersaren’t torn (A). To raise the crushed fibers backto the surface, start by setting a household ironor edgebanding iron to its hottest temperature,and thoroughly soak a clean paper towel withwater. Hold the wet towel directly onto theblemish, and then press the hot iron onto thetowel (B). The iron will produce steam (withoutburning or scorching the wood), which softensthe fibers and allows them to rise to the surface.

Typically, the dinged area is now a small bump on the surface. Once the wood had dried, sandthe area level with fine sandpaper and the dingdisappears (C).

Filling Small Cracks

Sometimes small blemishes surface during yourfinal, prefinish inspection. A good case in pointare hairline gaps at joint lines, such as in thisdovetail joint. To remedy the situation, start bysanding the area with fine sandpaper, producingdust and pushing it into the cracks (A).

Next, use a thin solution of shellac (a 1-lb. to 3-lb.cut) and the tip of a toothpick to drop some finishinto the cracks (B). Before the shellac dries(which takes only minutes), sand the area withfine sandpaper (C). You may need to repeat theprocedure a few times until the gaps are filledwith the dust/shellac mixture and are level with the surface. Don’t worry about the darkerappearance of the repaired area; the first fewcoats of finish you apply will blend it into the sur-rounding surface.


A

C

A

C

B

B

PREPARING FOR A F INISH

Raising the Grain

If you plan to use water-based finishing productson your project, it’s wise to pre-raise the grainafter finish-sanding your piece and before begin-ning the finishing process. This is because thefirst coat of a water-based stain or finish tends toraise wood fibers, especially on softer woods.Although you can sand away the raised fibersafter the first coat dries, this can remove irregularamounts of stain or finish in the process, creatingunsightly splotches that are difficult to fix. Graindoesn’t need to be pre-raised on very densewoods or when you’re using oil or solvent-basedfinishes.

Using filtered or distilled water, soak a clean ragand thoroughly wet the surface of your work (A).Don’t overlook any end-grain areas, which aren’tsubject to the same amount of fiber raising butnevertheless will feel rough to the touch if leftunattended (B).

Once the wood has dried, which may take only10 minutes or so, sand the surface with yourfinest grit (C). Don’t sand aggressively, or you’llcut through the wetted layer and expose freshfibers that will rise once more. Sweep your handsover the surface when you think you’re done; itshould feel as smooth as silk, which tells youyou’re ready for finishing (D).


A

B

C

D

WARNING Avoid tap water when

pre-raising grain. It often contains iron

salts that can react with tannin-rich

woods, producing gray spots.

▲!

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

236

Gluing and Clamping Wood

➤ Gluing Oily Wood(p. 243)

➤ Clamping Moldingswith Tape (p. 244)

➤ Pulling Miters Tight(p. 245)

➤ Clamping PanelsFlat (p. 246)

➤ Using Vacuum as aClamp (p. 247)

➤ Veneering withPlatens and Cauls (p. 248)

➤ Hammer Veneering(p. 249)

➤ Hammer Inlay (p. 251)

Gluing Oily Wood

Clamping Up Gluing Veneers

➤ Removing ExcessGlue (p. 254)

Removing Glue

that can expand your woodworking horizons.And while most of us will never have enoughclamps for every need, there are some greatalternatives you can employ when clampsare few or when they simply can’t reachwhere you need to go. In this section, I’lldiscuss glues and clamping, and how tomake your glue-ups successful even in themost challenging situations.

Gluing up tabletops, doors, cabi-nets, and other complex assembliescan be tricky business, as can be

laying up veneer. If you screw up, all yourhard work may be down the drain. That’swhy it pays to glue up and clamp in anorderly and efficient manner. Woven intothe fabric of this sticky scenario is the glueyou choose. Some adhesives are easier touse, and it’s worth getting to know those

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

than modern glues, all important attributesfor our woodworking joints. It’s a glue worthgetting to know.

Many of us exclusively use commonwater-based white and yellow glues becausethese modern synthetic adhesives are so con-venient. While yellow glue is slightlystronger than white glue, both are plentystrong enough for bonding wood. In fact,like hide glue, they are much stronger thanthe internal bonds of the wood fibers. Yellowglue is thicker than white glue, which somefind advantageous. However, thinner gluesare easier to apply and spread and offer alonger open time, giving you more time toget the clamps on. The good news is thatyou can dilute yellow or white water-basedglues as long as you don’t add more thanabout 10 percent water.

Choosing and Using Glue

There are many types of glue for the wood-worker, and you can pick and choose thetype you use depending on the particularproject you’re gluing up. One of the best—and often most overlooked—is hide glue.Woodworking’s oldest glue, hide glue is anatural adhesive made from the bones andtissue of animals. Hot hide glue must beheated in a pot and applied while warm. Theglue is easy to work with and is reversible,which is possibly its best feature. This meansyou can reactivate it with heat and water—even hundreds of years in the future, lettingyou (or your descendants) repair your furni-ture without having to remove old glue orretool the joints as you would with modernsynthetic glues. In addition, hide glue hasgreater shear, peel, and cleavage strength

Gluing and Clamping Wood 237

Different glues for different jobs (from left to right): Glue pot for heating glue and hide-glue granules; modernwhite and yellow glues; Unibond 800, a powder/resin type of plastic-resin glue; and two-part epoxy with easy-to-use pumps.

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

Plus, the two adhesives don’t contain mois-ture. These attributes make epoxy and plasticresin excellent candidates for joints that areunder a lot of stress, such as bent laminations.

They’re also great glues to use when youdon’t want to introduce moisture duringglue-up, such as while veneering in a vacuum.

Except for hide glue, which accepts stainsand finishes, you must be careful not to leaveany glue on the surface of wood beforeapplying a finish. If you do, the glue invari-

It’s a good idea to keep some specialty gluesin the shop, too. Water-resistant and water-proof glues come in handy for outdoor proj-ects that will be subject to a lot of moistureand extreme wet/dry cycles. Polyurethane glueand plastic-resin glue—both water-resistant—and waterproof two-part epoxy are all goodcandidates here. You can also use the newerwater-resistant yellow and white glues,which hold up well under moisture.

In addition to water resistance, epoxy andthe powder/resin variety of plastic resin gluehave other advantages. They both cure to arigid, hard film, which makes them lessprone to creep, the tendency for the driedglue to rise slightly above the surface or shiftbetween a joint line, sometimes misaligninga joint long after a finish has been applied.

Gluing and Clamping Wood238

Mixing a few drops of waterinto water-based glue willimprove its viscosity withoutdamaging its bond strength.Add water until the mixtureflows like heavy cream (inset).

See “Laminating Wood” on p. 189.➤

See “Veneering Curves in a Vacuum”on p. 203.

➤

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

ably shows up as a dull or glassy spot. Toavoid this, it pays to learn how to apply yourglue properly so you don’t make a mess inthe first place. You should also know how to clean up any excess that squeezes fromyour joints.

Some furniture makers like to prefinishparts of their projects before final assembly,which can make the finishing process gomore smoothly later. If you do this, be verycareful not to get any finishing material onareas that will be glued. To prevent prob-lems, mask off any areas that will be subse-quently glued, or work up to joint shoulderscarefully without getting finish on the jointsthemselves. Otherwise, the finish may clogthe pores of the wood, inviting joint failure.


Undetected glue lefton the surface ofwood will show upas an ugly smearonce you apply thefirst coat of finish.

Prefinishing parts before final assembly lets you workcomfortably on a flat surface and apply finish to areasthat would be difficult to access after gluing up.

Don’t get any finish in your mortises, on tenon faces,or anyplace where glue must bond to bare wood.

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

Applying GlueIt’s common for beginners to use too muchglue when gluing up. Usually this isn’t aproblem, except that it wastes glue and makesa mess of your glue-up table. But overgluingyour joints can also lead to wayward gluegetting into the pores of your show surfaces,only to reveal itself later as an unsightlysmear under your finish. On the other hand,applying too little glue can starve a joint asthe glue is forced into the pores from theclamping process, leaving little to hold thejoint at the joint line. To get a better handleon applying glue, there are a few tools andtechniques you can employ.

For complex assemblies, it’s best to pouryour glue into a small can, such as a cat foodtin, and then use small brushes to apply theglue. When gluing wide surfaces, use a 3-in.foam roller instead of a brush. The foamholds a lot of glue without dripping, and letsyou apply it evenly.


Narrow and wideacid brushes let youput glue where youneed it. Pouringglue into a small,non-tipping tinmakes it easy to getthe precise amounton the brush.

A 3-in. foam roller, sliced on the bandsaw from a 12-in.-long tube,makes an efficient applicator for covering big surfaces.

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

So how much glue is enough? The idea isto wet the fibers of the wood you’re about tobond. An even, thin film is sufficient as longas both parts are wet. On closed joints such asa mortise and tenon, where you can’t easilyplace pressure over the joint, you should wetboth the tenon and the mortise. On openjoints that can be manipulated, such as anedge joint, you need only apply glue to onesurface. This works because you can eitherrub the parts together by hand to wet the


Dry hide glue lasts nearly forever and

can be stored indefinitely if kept away

from moisture. Not so with modern white

and yellow glues, which typically have a

shelf life of about a year. To ensure that

your white or yellow glues are fresh, date

them when you buy them, and throw out

anything that’s been sitting on your

shelves for more than a year. If you’re in

doubt about a specific glue’s worthiness,

glue up a sample joint and then break it

apart. If the break occurs on the glueline,

your glue is suspect and should be

replaced. To help preserve glue, keep it

from freezing. If white or yellow glue

gets too cold, you’ll notice that it pours

from the bottle in stringy clumps. If this

happens, throw it away and use fresh

glue. You’ll sleep better knowing that

your joints are well bonded.

KEEP YOUR GLUE FRESH➤

Most glues aren’t date-stamped at thefactory. If you label them with a perma-nent marker when you buy them, you’llalways know when your glue is fresh.

With closed jointssuch as mortisesand tenons, brushglue both in themortise and on thetenon to ensure agood bond.

SECTION 14 OVERVIEW

mating edge, or let clamp pressure do thejob. Either way, look for beads of excess glueescaping the joint line once the joint isclamped. The trick is to apply enough glueto produce a thin film that coats both sides,without having so much that glue oozes allover the place once the clamps are applied.


Taking apart a properly wetted edge jointreveals healthy amounts of glue on bothsides of the joint, but not so much thatexcess glue makes a mess once the clampsgo on.

On open joints, such as an edge joint, you can run one fat beaddown the center of one edge.

Rubbing the parts of the joint together, or simply clamping it, dis-tributes glue to the unglued face. Squeeze-out is a good sign thatthe fibers are well-coated with adhesive.

GLUING OILY WOOD

Gluing Oily Wood

Many tropical woods—particularly rosewoods—contain oils and resins that can impede glue andprevent a good bond. To ensure that your glue-upis successful, it’s best to clean the joint beforeapplying adhesive. If possible, joint the surfacejust before assembly (A) or carefully sand thearea that will receive glue, using a hard block toavoid rounding over the edges (B).

If your joints have been sitting for a while, rubthem with a rag dampened with naphtha, a quicklyevaporating solvent that will carry off excess oils(C). Once the surface looks dry to the touch, glueit up immediately (D). Don’t dawdle or the oilscan rise back to the surface of the joint, andyou’ll have to repeat the cleaning procedure.


A

B

C

D

CLAMPING UP

Clamping Moldings with Tape

Ordinary masking tape makes a great clamp forareas where ordinary clamps can’t easily reach,such as when you’re gluing moldings or otherdelicate parts, or when you don’t need thestrong pressure that regular clamps afford. Plus,using individual strips of tape gives you greatercontrol in positioning parts that have a tendencyto slide around when coated with glue.

[TIP] Buy the cheaper variety of masking

tape. It has a weaker adhesive that’s less

likely to pull or tear off wood fibers when

you remove it.

To glue molding around three sides of a plywoodtop, begin by applying glue to the front of thecase (A). Hold a side molding in position, and useit to help align the front molding as you push itinto place (B). Now attach strips of tape over thefront molding and to the case, stretching eachpiece so that it applies pressure over the joint (C).

Attach a side piece next. To prevent a starvedjoint at the miter, first apply a thin coat of glue toeach miter face, and allow these thirstier end-grain areas to absorb glue in the pores (D). Thenreapply glue to the miters and along the caseside, and press the molding tight to the case andthe adjoining molding (E). Again, stretch pieces oftape over the joint, looking for a healthy amountof squeeze-out along the joint line (F). Look fortight joints all along the completed glue-up (G).If one area reveals gaps, you can try applyingmore tape, or use a small clamp to pull the jointhome (H).


A

C

E

G

H

F

D

B

CLAMPING UP

Pulling Miters Tight

Miters can be tricky to glue together because oftheir angles and the fact that adding glue makeseverything want to slide around, misaligning yourjoints. To help overcome this problem, you canuse pairs of biscuits in the miters to reinforce thejoint and align it at the same time. Also, adding afew strips of masking tape helps draw the jointclosed before the clamps go on.

First, don a glove, grab a handful of biscuits, andthen squeeze glue into your palm, mashing thebiscuits around in your hand until they’re well-coated with glue (A). Moving quickly, install thecompressed biscuits in their slots before theyhave time to swell (B).

Assemble the miters, and then stretch a piece oftape across the center of the joint (C). Apply yourclamps so they oppose each other on each cor-ner of the joint, increasing the pressure on eachclamp gently and in succession to avoid misalign-ing the joints (D). Finish by measuring each diag-onal, adjusting the clamps if necessary (E). Whenboth diagonals measure the same, the frame isperfectly square.


A

C

E

D

B

CLAMPING UP

Clamping Panels Flat

Creating wide, flat panels from individual boardscan be a chore if you don’t follow a sensible pro-cedure. The first step is to work on a flat sur-face, which ensures that your work will be flat.Next, clamp the parts together without glue, andcheck that there are no gaps along your jointlines. This dry run also ensures that you have allthe necessary gear nearby as you start to spreadglue (A).

Apply glue to one edge of each board (but notthe outermost edges, of course), and then posi-tion the boards edge to edge on top of yourclamps. Starting at one end of the panel, applygentle (not full) pressure on the end clamp, at thesame time aligning the ends of the boards bytwisting them up or down until their surfaces areflush (B). Now move to the adjacent clamp, andrepeat the procedure by applying pressure to theclamp while you align the surface in that area (C).Continue to the opposite end of the panel, againapplying gentle pressure with the end clampwhile aligning the boards with your other hand (D).

Before tightening the clamps further, go over thesurface of the joints with a finger to feel for anymisalignment (E). When you feel a raised area,place a block of wood over the offending boardand give it a sound rap with a mallet to bring thejoint flush (F). Once all the joint lines are flush,fully tighten each clamp.

If you wish, wipe off the excess glue now. Theneither store the panel flat on your flat bench, orstand it as vertically as possible until the glue hasdried (G).


A

C

E

G

F

D

B

CLAMPING UP

Using Vacuum as a Clamp

A vacuum-clamping system with a vacuum bagprovides an efficient method for bonding wood.Work placed in a vacuum experiences about1,750 lbs. per sq. ft. of pressure—plenty for glu-ing wood together. The procedure is especiallyhandy with wide work, where regular clampsmight not be able to reach into the middle of apanel. You’ll need to make a grooved platen toserve as a platform and insert it in the bag. Thegrooved surface allows air to escape when workis placed upon it (A).

Once your vacuum system is ready to go, roll aneven coat of glue onto both surfaces of theboards you’re gluing together (B). Place thepieces together, and then tape their edges to pre-vent the parts from sliding around in the bag.Brown packing tape is a good choice because it’sstrong, stretches well, and removes easily with-out tearing the fibers of wood (C). After tapingthe assembly together, slide it into the bag (D),seal the bag, and then turn on the vacuum pump(E). The pump withdraws air from the bag and should reach 25 in. of mercury, or roughly1,750 lbs. per sq. ft. As the air is being evacuated,use your hands to smooth out any wrinkles in the bag (F).

It’s usually best to leave the work in the bagovernight, or for at least eight hours. Once youremove the piece from the bag, you should seetight seams all along the joint line (G). If youused a water-based glue, remember that thework will still contain moisture, so be sure tostore the assembly on a flat surface and allow itto release any dampness for another day or sobefore putting the part into service.


A

C

E

G

F

D

B

GLUING VENEERS

Veneering with Platensand Cauls

If you’re not familiar with hammer veneering ordon’t have access to a large veneer press or avacuum-clamping system, you can still glue upyour veneers by putting together a small-scalepress, using clamps and ready supplies you prob-ably already have in your shop.

Using melamine or any other flat, smooth sheetstock, make a platen that’s slightly wider andlonger than your core material, and place it on topof some thick wood cauls. To allow clampaccess, set the platen and cauls atop risers ofsome sort, like the plywood boxes here. Thenposition your core material on this setup, and rollglue onto its surface (A).

[TIP] Except when hammer veneering,

never apply glue directly to veneer, or it

will curl uncontrollably.

After applying glue to one face of the core stock,place a sheet of veneer on the platen, positionthe glued side of the core over it, and glue theopposite face of the core (B). Lay the secondsheet of veneer onto the core, and then cover itwith a second platen (C).

Lay cauls across the top platen, making sure theyalign with the lower cauls. Begin clamping thestack by applying clamp pressure as close to thecenter as possible (D). The idea is to work fromthe center outward so that the glue is evenly dis-tributed over the veneers. Use as many clampsas you can, spacing them around the stack (E).The platens and the cauls above and below themhelp distribute the necessary clamp pressure soyour thin veneers are well-bonded to the core.


A

C

E

D

B

GLUING VENEERS

Hammer Veneering

Hammer veneering involves using warm hideglue and a veneer hammer, which acts more likea squeegee than a hammer. Start by heating theglue to correct the consistency. At the right tem-perature, it should flow like heavy cream (A).

Use a brush to apply a liberal amount of the glueto the core material (B). Lay the veneer onto theglue, and then brush more glue on top of theveneer (C). While the glue is still warm, begin towork the hammer back and forth on the veneer.Move generally from the center outward, pushingdown hard on the hammer to stick the veneerwhile working any trapped air or excess glueunder the veneer to the perimeter, where it canescape along the edge. At the same time, pushany excess glue on top of the veneer off to thesides (D).

[TIP] When the tip of your veneer ham-

mer becomes clogged with cooled glue,

lay a scrub sponge in a pan of warm

water and rub the tip over the sponge to

clean away any excess.

If you need to cover a core that’s wider than yourveneer, you can add a second sheet by brushingmore glue onto the core, adjacent to the sheetyou just laid (E). Lay the second sheet onto thecore so one edge overlaps the previous sheet,and as before, brush glue onto its surface (F).Work this sheet with the hammer as you did pre-viously, staying close to, but clear of, the joint linebetween the two sheets (G).



A

C

F G

E

D

B

TIP

GLUING VENEERS

As you work, check the veneer by tapping it witha fingernail. A hollow sound indicates an area that hasn’t stuck to the core (H). To secure anunstuck area, or if the glue cools too much asyou’re working (it gels as it cools and will ceaseto grab the veneer), heat up the hammer by plac-ing it in the boiler with the glue pot removed (I).Once the hammer is hot, place its blunt end ontothe veneer to warm and reactivate the glue (J),and press again with the hammer.

When both sheets are well adhered and whilethe glue is still warm, lay a straightedge over thearea where the sheets overlap, and use a sharpknife, or preferably a veneer saw, to slice throughboth sheets (K). Peel up the topmost cutoff stripwith a thin blade or artist’s palette knife (L), andthen lift the remaining edge of the sheet so youcan remove the second strip from below (M).Once you’ve removed the strips, work the jointline, pressing it flat with the hammer (N).


H

J

L

N

M

K

I

GLUING VENEERS

Hammer Inlay

Once you’ve learned to veneer with hide glueand a veneer hammer, the next step is to tryyour hand at inlaying a border using similar tech-niques. Begin by cleaning up the border of yourhammer-veneered work by cutting the perimeterto the width of your desired inlay, using a mark-ing gauge. For the cleanest cuts, use a markinggauge fitted with a knife cutter instead of a pin,or guide a sharp knife with a straightedge (A).Heat the glue with the hot head of the hammer(B) and remove the excess veneer by peeling itup with a thin knife (C).

Cut your border strips, making them oversized inlength. Then, working one side of your panel at atime, spread hot glue along the edges of theveneer and position a strip of inlay along theedge, using the hammer to stick it in place (D).Move to an adjacent side and repeat the process,overlaying a second strip of inlay onto the first(E). At the corner, cut a miter through bothpieces by pressing firmly with a sharp knife (F).Remove the two excess pieces (G) and rub theinlay at the miter with the hammer. Continueadding and mitering inlay around the entire panelin this manner.



A

C

E

G

F

D

B

GLUING VENEERS

Next, lay a strip of crossbanding (any veneerwhere the grain direction is 90 degrees to theedge of the work) against the inlay so that itextends past the corner and slightly beyond theedge of the core (H). Follow by laying a secondstrip of banding at the corner along the adjacentedge (I). As you did with the inlay, cut a miterthrough both pieces, this time using a 45-degreedrafting triangle to guide your knife (J). Peel backthe veneer as before and remove the two offcuts(K). Add more glue if necessary, and continuepressing the banding and the miter to the corewith the hammer (L). Continue in this fashion toinlay and crossband all four corners.

At this point, excess glue may start to build up onthe face of the work. When this happens, use asponge with a rough surface dipped in warmwater to scrub and wipe away any extra glue (M).


H

J

L

M

K

I

GLUING VENEERS

To complete the border, brush glue on anyremaining areas (N) and hammer a new piece inplace, letting its ends overlap the previous sec-tions (O). Use a razor knife to slice through over-lapping bandings (P), remove the excess, andstick the banding on as before with the hammer.

The veneered panel shows a nice contrastbetween mahogany veneers in the center, bor-dered by inlay strips of maple and crossbands ofwalnut (Q). To complete the project, turn the coreover, raise one edge slightly by laying it on ascrap stick, and use a veneer saw to trim awayany overhanging veneer on the opposite edge (R).


N O

P

R

Q

REMOVING GLUE

Removing Excess Glue

The best glue-ups result in a bit of excess gluethat squeezes from the joint line, indicating thatenough glue was used (A). To remove excesswhite or yellow glue, you have two options. Thefirst is to wait until the glue is in a rubbery state,which usually takes a half hour or so, and thengently cut it away with a sharp chisel (B). Bewarned that waiting longer is a recipe for disaster,because fully dried glue has a tendency to ripaway wood fibers if chiseled or scraped off atthis stage, and sanding the stuff is practicallyimpossible without gumming up your sandpaper.

I think that a better approach is to wipe awayexcess glue while it’s still wet. The challenge isto do this without smearing the glue into thepores of the wood, where it’s bound to show uplater. Start by thoroughly wetting a clean rag withclean water (C), and then wringing out all excesswater until the rag is damp, like the nose of a dog(D). Fold the rag into a comfortable shape thatfits your hand.

As soon as you’ve clamped a joint, wipe the jointline with a swipe from your rag (E). Chances are,this first wiping won’t remove all the glue and, infact, sometimes spreads it around a bit. Nowtake your rag and refold it, exposing a fresh areawithout glue (F). Repeat your wiping sequencealong the joint (G). You’ll probably need to repeatthe refold-and-wipe cycle multiple times beforethe joint and its surrounding area are free of anyexcess glue. And for really messy glue-ups,resoak the rag and squeeze it out several timesto clean it, and then repeat the wiping sequenceonce more.


A

C

E

G

F

D

B

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

Finishing Wood

➤ Coloring withChemicals (p. 262)

➤ Fuming Wood (p. 263)

➤ Smoothing BetweenCoats (p. 264)

➤ Wiping On aPenetrating Finish(p. 265)

➤ Removing Glue onthe Go (p. 267)

➤ Spraying a LacquerFinish (p. 268)

➤ Finishing Interiors(p. 270)

Coloring WoodSmoothing

Between CoatsApplying a Finish

➤ Finishing the Finish(p. 271)

Smoothing the Finish

255

want the best finish we can achieve, whichmay include coloring the wood. In this finalsection we’ll look at adding color to yourwood, picking the right finish, and applyingit to make your project look its best.

Coloring Wood

I confess that wood stains don’t see a lot ofuse in my shop. For color, I prefer to selectfrom nature’s palette of beautifully coloredwoods. Having said this, of course I do usestains now and then, and so will you. Andwhen you do, you have several options tochoose from, including pigment stains, dyestains, and chemical stains.

The final step to a project almostalways involves adding a finish. Notonly do finishes beautify wood by

deepening its color and accentuating itsgrain patterns, but they protect wood byslowing down the rate at which moisturetransfer takes place. This keeps your fin-ished projects more stable and less likely towarp. Also, a good finish makes cleaningeasier, coating the pores of the wood so dustand dirt can’t get trapped inside. All thesame, you can certainly forgo a finish andsimply leave your wood smooth and bare.Many kitchen utensils fare well this way anddevelop their own “finish” over time throughuse. But for most of our woodwork, we’ll

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

They do a much better job than pigmentstains, particularly at coloring dense woods,and are available in practically any color andhue, including intense, brilliant colors.

When stained, some woods are subject to blotching, a tendency for the wood toaccept the stain unevenly. This can result inunattractive patches of darker or lighterareas that can spoil the look of a project.Woods prone to blotching include softwoodslike pine and fir, as well as hardwoods likealder, aspen, soft maple, and birch. Highlyfigured woods such as curly cherry can alsobe a problem.

One way to overcome this trait is to usegel stains, which are absorbed by the woodmore evenly, although not as deeply as ordi-nary pigment or dye stains. Anotherapproach is to prime the surface with woodconditioner, which fills the pores slightlywhile allowing subsequent application ofstains and finishes.

Chemical StainsAnother way to “stain” wood is to use chem-icals to transform its natural color. The nicething about chemicals is that they changethe color of the fibers themselves, withoutadding anything to disrupt the wood’s natu-ral grain pattern. The effect can mimic thelook of the same wood years later, after ithas mellowed with age and developed abeautiful patina.

As shown in the chart on the facing page, there are many chemicals that workwell to color wood. However, there aretwo—potassium dichromate and potassiumpermanganate—that consistently darkenwood in deeper shades of brown, which isthe natural tone that wood achieves overtime as it oxidizes and reacts to light.

Pigment and Dye StainsPigment stains and dye stains consist of colored particles in a liquid that acts as acarrier. When applied to wood, the particleslodge in the pores, imparting their color tothe surface. The particles in pigment stainsare much larger than the particles in dyestains. Therefore, they tend to primarilylodge in large pores, like those in ring-porous woods such as oak and ash, resultingin excessively dark rings and an unnaturalappearance on those woods. Pigment stainsdon’t do a very good job of coloring dense,close-pored woods like maple because thepores are too small to offer a home to thepigment particles. Although pigment stainsare convenient and reliable, they tend toobscure and cloud wood’s natural character.

For a staining effect that comes closest towood’s natural look, dye stains can’t be beat.With these stains (sometimes called anilinedyes), the particles are much smaller andtend to disperse more evenly on the surface.

Finishing Wood256

To prevent splotching, brush on a wet coat of woodconditioner before staining. Let it soak into the poresfor a few minutes, then remove any excess with aclean cloth.

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

Mixed with water to form a solution, eachchemical is available in crystal form. (Lookfor a supplier under “Laboratory Equipmentand Supplies” in the yellow pages.) Bothpotassium dichromate and potassium per-manganate are applied in an identical manner.

The method is simple: Stir one or twotablespoons of the chemical into a quart of

clean, lukewarm water. Apply the solutionwith a rag or sponge, liberally soaking thewood and letting it stand for 15 minutes ormore before wiping off the excess. Let thewood dry, which may take a few hours, thencut back the raised fibers with fine sandpaper.

Then apply your finish of choice.Another way to chemically color your

wood is to fume it using ammonia, whichreacts with natural tannins in the wood,creating a darker shade of brown. The tech-

Potassium dichromate’s orange hue reactsfavorably with walnut, darkening its naturalcolor and adding brown hues to provide an“aged” look in minutes. It also works well oncherry, although it tends to add brown tonesthat aren’t typically found in the natural-aged wood. Potassium permanganate, whichhas an intense purple tint, does a great jobon mahogany by slightly darkening it,adding a brown shade while highlighting itsnatural orange undertones. In fact, mosthardwoods will respond favorably to thesebrews, but be aware that results can vary,even within the same species and the samecut of wood. It’s always best to first experi-ment on the specific wood you’ll be coloring.

Finishing Wood 257

Chemicals that Color Wood

CHEMICAL, MIXED IN WATER COLORING WOODS THAT REACT WELLTO 15% SOLUTION EFFECT

Alum Reds and purples Most hardwoods

Ammonia Yellow-browns and browns Oak, especially white oak

Calcium oxide Deepens natural colors Walnut, cherry, mahogany

Copper sulfate Greens and grays Most hardwoods

Ferrous sulfate Grays and blacks Most hardwoods

Potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar) Gray-browns Most hardwoods

Browns, with orange Walnut, cherry, mahogany

Potassium dichromate highlights

Browns, with orange Mahogany

Potassium permanganate and purple hues

See “Coloring with Chemicals” on p. 262.➤

See “Raising the Grain” on p. 235.➤

WARNING Mix potassium

permanganate and potassium

dichromate in glass containers only.

Don’t use metal, which may react

to the chemicals.

▲!

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

cent ammonium hydroxide. (Householdammonia has less than 5 percent.) Mostblueprint-supply or business-supply storescarry gallon containers. As with the chemicalsmentioned earlier, fuming alters the surfacecolor of the wood itself without filling thepores or disturbing the grain pattern, result-ing in a very natural look.

Choosing a Finish

Novice woodworkers always ask what the“best” finish is. The truth is, any finish isgreat as long as it protects the wood andachieves the desired look.

There are two basic types of finishes: filmand penetrating. Overall, a film finish ismore durable and offers better protectionbecause it more fully seals the surface of thewood, slowing down and limiting theamount of moisture that the wood can takeon and give off. But penetrating finisheshave a big following because of their ease ofapplication and maintenance and, above all,for their more natural look.

With a film finish such as lacquer,polyurethane, or heavy coats of varnish orshellac, you touch and see the finish itself,which to some degree masks the woodbeneath. On the other hand, penetrating fin-ishes like oil, oil/varnish blends, or thinnedshellac lie just below the surface, coating thepore walls and saturating the fibers whileexposing more of the natural character of thewood and its texture. For me, the projectdetermines which type of finish I’m going touse. While most of my work gets a simplepenetrating oil or shellac finish, tabletopsand other surfaces that will see hard use willget a few coats of polyurethane or varnish ontop of the oil or shellac to protect thesemore wear-prone surfaces.

nique works best on tannin-rich woods, ofwhich white oak is the best contender.

However, many other woods also react wellwith this technique, especially if you precoatthem with a solution of tannic acid. It’sworth experimenting with different speciesto see the results. You’ll need industrial-strength ammonia with an aqueous solutionthat contains between 26 percent to 30 per-

Finishing Wood258

When staining with chemicals,

treat them with caution to avoid expo-

sure, which can cause severe reactions

and even death. (Potassium dichromate

is the worst offender here. Ingesting

even a small amount can be fatal.)

When fuming, wear a cartridge-type

respirator rated for ammonia fumes,

and use chemical cartridges rated for

the chemicals you’ll be using. Work in a

well-ventilated area, wearing heavy

chemical-resistant gloves, as well as

goggles to protect your eyes from acci-

dental splashes or fumes. (Swimming

goggles work well.) When handling or

storing these potions, don’t let any of

this stuff touch your skin. And of course

it’s very important to keep containers

out of the reach of children.

WORKING SAFELYWITH CHEMICALS

➤

See “Fuming Wood” on p. 263.➤

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

and maintenance. If you don’t have much inthe way of finishing facilities or tools, a pen-etrating finish is probably the way to go. Itcan usually be applied with a rag and doesn’trequire a dust-free environment for applica-tion. When it wears over time, it can bereplenished by simply cleaning and fine-sanding the surface before applying a freshcoat or two. Film finishes, on the otherhand, require more in the way of applicationequipment and facilities. At the very least,you’ll need a high-quality brush and a dust-free drying room. For spraying, you’ll need acompressor and a spray gun as well as a

Keep in mind that not all finishes arecompatible with each other. For example,you don’t want to apply an oil-based mixtureover a water-based finish. But for many finishes you can apply a different finish ontop of another one as long as you allow suf-ficient time for the first finish to fully cure,which can take weeks or even months.When in doubt, it’s always smart to checkwith the manufacturer and to make testsamples of the finishes you’ll be combining.

In addition to choosing a finish for itsappearance and durability, you’ll want toselect it based on its manner of application

Finishing Wood 259

FILM FINISHES VERSUS

PENETRATING FINISHES

Pore

Film FinishesFilm finishes, such as lacquer, polyurethane, varnish, and shellac, have high solids content and build quickly on wood, lying on top of the surface.

Multiple coats quickly fill the pores and then lie on top of wood.

Penetrating FinishesPenetrating finishes, such as oil and thinned shellac, coat pore walls but don’t build significant thickness on the surface.

Pores are coated and surface fibers are saturated, but the result is an “open-pore” look.

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

particular boards will match. Or a customer(your significant other?) is impatient andwants a sneak peek at what the finishedproject will look like. To preview what yourfinish will look like on your project, you canwipe the raw wood with a sponge soaked inclean water or mineral spirits. (Rememberthat water will raise the fibers, so you’ll haveto sand them afterwards.)

place to spray. A typical film finish doesn’trequire much maintenance, but it can be dif-ficult to repair when damaged.

Previewing a Finish

It’s handy to know how a finish will affectthe look of a particular cut of wood. Forexample, you may be laying out parts for aproject and wondering whether the colors of

Finishing Wood260

Finishing oil has an annoying tendency to dry out

quickly, becoming a useless chunk of solidified gunk

in the can. To keep it fresh as long as possible, you’ll

need to limit its exposure to air. To do this, I pour it

from its original container into smaller jars, filling

each to the brim to crowd out the air.

For wiping cloths, I use regular commercial, lint-

free cotton rolls for applying an oil finish. For wiping

it off, however, I’m a little more fussy because I want

the smoothest lintfree cloth possible, to avoid

scratches and cloth residue. The best stuff is pure

cotton that’s been washed many times. You can buy

it from auto-body and finishing-supply stores, but I

prefer to make my own from old T-shirts, sheets, and

pillowcases. For the greatest absorbency, I use flan-

nel sheets. Whatever cloth you use, make sure it’s

clean. I cut it into roughly 20-in. squares, which is a

good size for one hand when folded. Remove any

seams or hemmed areas, but don’t tear the sheets to

size. Instead, cut them with scissors to avoid creating

any loose strands or fuzzy stuff that might get caught

in your finish.

ESSENTIAL OIL-FINISH GEAR➤

Keep your oil inglass jars filled to the brim to prevent the finishfrom prematurelycongealing due to excess air.

Recycled old, washed flannel sheets make great fin-ishing cloths. Cut them to size with scissors insteadof tearing them.

SECTION 15 OVERVIEW

The second approach is to blast yourwood with compressed air. A compressorthat delivers 90 psi (pounds per square inch)will quickly remove surface dust as well asdebris lodged in the pores. Plus, the tip of an air nozzle makes it easy to remove dusttrapped in nooks and crannies. Make surethat your air supply is clean and oilfree, anddirect the air away from your finishing areato avoid raising dust that may settle backdown onto your work.

The wet surface will provide a good indi-cation of the color of the finished piece. Notonly will you see the color and tone of thefinished wood but also any glue smears youmay have missed. And the reflectivity ofthese clear liquids helps highlight machinemarks you might have missed during thesmoothing stage.

Cleaning Before Finishing

The last step before applying your first coatof finish is to clean the surface and the poresof your wood, removing any sanding dust ortraces of dirt. Leaving this stuff on or in thewood will make your finish coats as well asthe wood itself look cloudy. One option is towipe the surface with a tack rag. You can buyone or make one by impregnating cottoncheesecloth with linseed oil. Gently rub allyour surfaces with the cloth, refolding it asnecessary to expose a clean surface of thecloth as you pick up dust.

Finishing Wood 261

A homemade tackrag of cheeseclothinfused with linseedoil does a great jobof removing tracesof dust before youapply the first coat.

Blow out the poresand give your sur-faces a generalcleanup by blastingyour work withcompressed air.

To preview what your project will look likeunder a finish, wet the surface with water,which will mimic the color and hue of thefinished wood.

See “Raising the Grain” on p. 235.➤

COLORING WOOD

Coloring with Chemicals

To give walnut a warm, aged look, start by mixing1 or 2 tablespoons of potassium dichromatecrystals into a quart of warm, clean water, or 1⁄4 tablespoon to 1⁄2 tablespoon into a cup. (Thehigher concentration of crystals creates a moreintense, deeper color.) Stir the solution well untilall the crystals dissolve (A).

Use a clean rag to soak the wood, leaving a wetfilm on the surface (B). The wetting itself darkensthe wood immediately, but it takes several min-utes before the chemical starts to alter the colorof the wood itself. After the wood has sat for 15 minutes or more, use fresh towels to wipe offall the excess (C). After the wood has dried foran hour or more, cut back the raised fibers with alight sanding, using 220-grit paper. Then apply thefinish of your choice. This sample board was col-ored on its entire surface, and then the left sidewas given three coats of lacquer (D).

[VARIATION] This cherry sample board

(far left) was colored with potassium

dichromate on its left side only, and then

the entire panel was finished with three

coats of lacquer.

[VARIATION] Potassium permanganate

was used on the left side of this

mahogany panel (left), and then the entire

surface was given three coats of lacquer.

The left side has a deeper, more vibrant

tone that approximates the color of aged

mahogany.

Finishing Wood262

A

C D

B

VARIATION VARIATION

COLORING WOOD

Fuming Wood

To add color, you can fume wood by exposing itto a strong solution of ammonia. The first orderof business is to construct a fuming tent, whichcan simply be a small, enclosed room or eventhe inside of a rented van. You can make a fum-ing tent by building a frame from 3⁄4 in. PVC pipe,connecting long sections with unglued PVCelbows. Cover the frame on five sides with clearwindow sheeting—the kind of heavy plastic usedto insulate windows in cold weather. Tape thesheeting in place over the frame, then use a heatgun or a hair dryer to stretch it tight (A). If youdon’t glue the frame together, you can reuse itfor future projects by adding longer or shorterpipes, depending on the size of the project youwant to fume. Before pouring the ammonia, nestyour parts together to make sure they’ll fit insidethe tent.

Use a microwaveable plastic tray or somethingsimilar to contain the ammonia (B). For a projectthe size of this small cabinet, pour the ammoniainto the tray to a depth of about 1⁄2 in. This is powerful stuff, and a little goes a long way. Placethe ammonia tray on the floor next to your parts,and position the tent over the tray and the wood(C). Now let the fumes do their work.

After 24 hours, this white oak cabinet has takenon a lovely, golden brown hue (D). Longer expo-sure to the fumes—as much as two days—willdarken the wood further, and applying a finish willhighlight and deepen the color even more.

Finishing Wood 263

A

B

D

C

SMOOTHING BETWEEN COATS

Smoothing Between Coats

The process of smoothing and leveling interme-diate layers of finish is known as cutting back, or scuff-sanding. Start by looking for major blem-ishes such as drips and runs. After the coat hasfully dried, use a new, single-edged razor bladeto scrape and level any offending areas (A).

With the first two or three coats, my choice ofabrasive is a maroon synthetic nylon pad, regard-less of the type of finish. Rub the surface vigor-ously, always moving the pad in the direction ofthe grain, and doubling up the number of strokesat the edges, which tend to be undersanded (B).For shaped areas, such as routed edges or com-plex moldings, use the same pad, which will conform to the area you’re smoothing (C).

With penetrating finishes, the maroon pad is usu-ally good for smoothing right up to the last coat.For film finishes, I use it to scuff-sand betweenthe first two or three coats. However, after thefinish has started to build a film on the surface, Iswitch to 320-grit sandpaper and use this all theway up to the last coat of finish. Use stearatedpaper, which has lubricants that help the paperglide over the finish without sticking (D). Formore aggressive sanding, try wetting the surfacefirst with water or mineral spirits, and using thesame grit paper and sanding block (E). Be carefulwhen wet-sanding like this because you canquickly cut through the finish and into the wood,leaving a bare spot that will need touching up inthe finish room.

Between the last few coats on intricate surfacessuch as moldings or carvings, use 0000 steelwool instead of the maroon pad, because itleaves a finer scratch pattern and scrunchesdown better to make more intimate contact witha complex surface (F).

Finishing Wood264

A

C

E

F

D

B

APPLYING A F INISH

Wiping On a Penetrating Finish

My favorite wipe-on “oil” finish is really a highlythinned varnish. The first step in finishing is todisassemble your project into as many discretecomponents as you can, which makes theprocess easier (A). For the first coat, thin the fin-ish with about 10 percent mineral spirits to pro-mote maximum penetration (B). This helps to“pop” the grain and deepen the color of the wood.

Begin the first coat by oiling the most visible areafirst, such as the top of a table, including its sides(C). Keep an eye on the wood, and if you noticeany dry areas, flood a little more oil onto the spotto keep everything wet (D). Let the wet oil sit forat least 10 to 15 minutes, depending on yourshop humidity. When the finish starts to feeltacky, rub off all the excess with clean, softcloths (E). Be diligent about this; leaving wet ordamp areas may contribute to an uneven finish.

“As above, so below” is a good bit of finishingZen. Always apply an equal number of coats tothe underside or back of the work, especially ontabletops and other large, unsupported panels,even if you’re not going to see them (F). Thisequalizes moisture transfer in the wood, helpingprevent warp.

Let each coat dry overnight, or at least for eighthours. If you finish both sides of a part in onesession, place the least visible side down on tri-angular sticks to minimize contact marks and toallow air to circulate freely around the piece (G).

As you work, it’s a good idea to keep your finish-ing area clean. Once I’ve applied a coat, I wipeoff my work table thoroughly to remove anyresidual oil (H). This not only keeps the work sur-face free of drips; over time my finish table hasdeveloped quite a nice finish itself.


Finishing Wood 265

A

C

E F

D

B

G H

APPLYING A F INISH

Once the first coat has dried, rub the surface ofthe wood with a maroon nylon pad to smooth thefibers (I). Afterward, apply a second, full-strengthcoat, this time starting with the least visible sur-face and moving to the more prominent areas(J). On complex areas, such as the base on thistable, oil the underside first (K) and then turn theproject over to oil the top side. Again, let the oilsit for a few minutes to soak into the fibers. Asmore coats go on, you’ll find the finish becomestackier faster. As before, wipe off all excess finish, making sure to get into any nooks orcrevices, such as at joint shoulders (L).

Continue in this fashion, smoothing betweendried coats and applying new coats until you’resatisfied with the look. It usually takes four to fivecoats before the surface has a nice, even sheen.One way to monitor your progress is to set up atask light behind the work, and then sight acrossthe surface toward the light to look for bare spotsor uneven areas (M). When the finish is smoothand uniform, you’re done.

[VARIATION] You can transform a pene-

trating oil finish into a more durable film-

type finish by wiping on as many as six

coats of a thicker-bodied wiping varnish,

such as Waterlox®. The idea is to lay

down a series of thin coats, letting each

dry without wiping it off. Using a lint-free

cloth dampened (not soaked) with the fin-

ish, apply each coat, moving along the

grain. Make each layer very thin, applying

it in one decisive stroke, slightly overlap-

ping each previous pass. Don’t rewipe the

passes, or you’ll leave streaks. Between

coats, store the work in a dust-free envi-

ronment as it dries, since the surface will

be tacky for several hours.

Finishing Wood266

I

K

M

J

L

VARIATION

APPLYING A F INISH

Removing Glue on the Go

One of the great things about an oil finish is that it’s forgiving and very easy to work with. For example, even while you’re wiping on thefirst few coats, you can correct a previouslyunnoticed glue blemish that the finish accentuated (A).

The fix is easy. While the coat is still wet, use avery sharp chisel or a fresh razor blade and care-fully scrape the area to remove the bulk of theglue (B). Then rub the area with fine sandpaperto remove any last traces of glue and to smoothand even out the surface. You can use wet-drysandpaper for large areas, but ordinary finishingpaper works fine for touching up small spots (C).Now rub a little extra oil into the sanded area,and continue your finishing routine.

Finishing Wood 267

A

B

C

APPLYING A F INISH

Spraying a Lacquer Finish

Of all the finishes that can be sprayed, one ofthe most common is nitrocellulose lacquer. It’spopular because it is attractive, relatively durable,easy to apply, and quick-drying. Spraying lacquer,however, requires a good spray booth to exhaustfumes and to provide a haven from dust.

Start by disassembling the parts of the project. If necessary, label any pieces that have to goback together in a particular order (A). Plan yourspray sequence to move from the least visiblesurfaces to the most visible. You’ll also want tospray all small areas of a part first, then move to larger areas.

When spraying a table like this, for example,begin by laying the top upside-down and sprayingthe outer edge (B). Then spray the broad surfaceof the underside with an even, wet coat (C). Theidea is to overlap each previous spray stroke, andto move quickly so that the entire surfaceremains wet (it will look glossy). This gives thelacquer and any ambient cloud of mist time tosettle onto the surface and melt into the finish,producing a smooth surface.

Let the underside dry to the touch, which onlytakes a few minutes, and then flip the top over tospray the top side. Again, start with the narrowedge (D), and then spray the broad surface,remembering to overlap each stroke (E).

Although lacquer dries relatively quickly, you stillneed to prevent dust from settling into the wetfinish. A dedicated drying rack makes a conven-ient place to store pieces while you’re sprayingothers (F).

Finishing Wood268

A

C

E F

D

B

APPLYING A F INISH

Let the first coat dry thoroughly. (Generally, onehour is sufficient, but check the manufacturer’sinstructions for the specific finish you’re using.)Then scuff-sand the surface to level it and toremove any dust nibs. Using a maroon pad, rubfirmly and evenly along the grain of the wood,working flat areas such as the top in broadstrokes (G). Ball up the pad to conform to shapedareas such as a molded edge (H).

Wipe or blow away any dust before applying thesecond coat (I). Then spray the bottom edge andside as before. Again, let the work dry to thetouch, and then flip it over and spray the topedge and then the top surface (J).

Repeat this spraying and scuff-sanding procedurefor the second, third, and possibly fourth coats,depending on how many you apply. Once thenext-to-last coat has dried, switch from a nylonpad to 320-grit stearated sandpaper to scuff thesurface. The paper will leave a finer and less visible scratch pattern (K). Afterward, apply thefinal coat, spraying an even, wet coat on theentire piece (L).

When spraying complex parts, such as this U-shaped leg assembly, work from the inside out.Begin by spraying the entire innermost surface of the legs (M). Then spray the upward-facingsurface (N). Let the lacquer dry to the touch,then flip the assembly over and spray the oppo-site face. Finish by spraying the outermost edge,which will be the most visible surface on theassembled table. On the first few coats, youmight want to linger a tad longer on end-grainareas, such as this open-tenon joint, whichabsorbs the finish more quickly and requiresmore of it before the pores start to fill (O).

Finishing Wood 269

G

I

K

M N

O

L

J

H

APPLYING A F INISH

Finishing Interiors

You may want to think twice about applying finishes to enclosed areas like the inside of acabinet or drawer box. While film finishes suchas lacquer and polyurethane are OK, most oil finishes emit an unpleasant odor for years tocome when enclosed in an interior. It’s also wiseto avoid applying a heavy finish to bearing sur-faces like the bottom edges or sides of a drawer,because film finishes such as lacquer can stick ifused where parts rub together. Therefore, whenfinishing a drawer, apply your regular finish onlyto the drawer front (A). Don’t use it to finishinside the drawer or on the drawer sides in anattempt to highlight your beautiful half-blinddovetails.

That’s not to say that you can’t finish interiors. Infact, there are times when it is desirable. Forexample, a finished drawer interior is easier toclean. In those cases, a diluted form of shellac isthe perfect finish. Simply mix a 1-lb. cut of shel-lac (1 lb. of shellac flakes or granules to 1 gal. ofdenatured alcohol), and wipe it on the interior sur-faces (B). Sand the first coat with 220-grit paper,and apply a second coat if the first looks dry.Once the shellac dries it won’t smell.

On bearing surfaces such as drawer sides, usethe same thin cut of shellac and rub it on asbefore (C). The shellac highlights the joinery andbrings the color of the wood into line with therest of the piece. Sand this coat with 220-gritpaper and apply another coat if you wish. You can apply one, two, or three coats without fear of building up a surface film that might hindersmooth drawer travel.

Finishing Wood270

A

B

C

SMOOTHING THE F INISH

Finishing the Finish

I can’t remember the last time I didn’t wax myfinal finish to smooth it out. Cabinetmaker FrankKlausz likes to call this final step “finishing thefinish.” Rubbing out your final coat is a great wayto even out any small inconsistencies in thesheen of the finish, and it also makes the finalsurface as smooth as glass. All it takes is a canof paste wax, some 0000 steel wool, and a littleelbow grease.

As finisher John Darrow shows here, start by dip-ping a ball of 0000 steel wool into the can to loadit up with a generous amount of wax (A). (Don’tuse automotive waxes, which typically containabrasives.) Beginning at one end of the piece, rub the surface, using moderate pressure whilekeeping your palm flat to avoid digging into thesurface (B). Work in an orderly pattern to avoidmissing any spots. And don’t hesitate to load upthe wool with more wax if the surface starts tolook dry or the wool begins to skip as you rub.

When working the end areas, redouble yourefforts to ensure that these sections are rubbedas evenly as the middle areas (C). When rubbingthe center area of large, flat work, you can easethe chore by using your other hand to help applypressure (D). Take long, even strokes while keep-ing a wide stance and rocking into the strokewith your upper body.

Once you’ve worked the entire piece, check thesurface. It should have an even, dull sheen fromthe wax. At this point, you’re ready to buff it andremove all excess wax. Using a soft, clean cloth,start to polish the finish by cutting through thewax, rubbing hard and vigorously (E). You’re donewhen the cloth stops grabbing the surface andglides over it instead (F). The best test is to feelthe finish with your fingers; it should be signifi-cantly smoother than your best sprayed-on orhand-applied top coat (G). The final result is a finish with an even sheen and tone (H).

Finishing Wood 271

A

C

E

G

H

F

D

B

Forest Engineering ResearchInstitute of Canada580 Saint Jean BoulevardPointe-Claire, QuebecCanada H9R 3J9(514) 694-1140www.feric.ca

Rainforest Alliance665 Broadway, Suite 500New York, NY 10012(212) 677-1900www.rainforest-alliance.org

The National Arbor Day Foundation100 Arbor Ave.Nebraska City, NE 68410(402) 474-5655www.arborday.org

USDA Forest Service1400 Independence Ave. SWWashington, DC 20250(202) 205-8333www.fs.fed.us

WOOD MILLS

Granberg InternationalChainsaw millsPO Box 2347Vallejo, CA 94592(866) 233-6499www.granberg.com

Know Your WoodsAlbert J. Constantine Jr.Macmillan Publishing

Tropical Timber Identification CenterCollege of EnvironmentalScience and ForestrySyracuse, NY 13210(315) 473-8788

World Woods in ColorBy William A. LincolnLinden Publishing

FORESTRY GROUPS

American ForestsBox 2000Washington, DC 20013(202) 955-4500www.americanforests.org

Earth Day Network1616 P St. NW, Suite 200Washington, DC 20036(202) 518-0044www.earthday.net

European Forest InstituteTorikatu 34Joensuu, Finland(358) 13-252-020www.efi.fi

BOOKS, SERVICES, AND

ORGANIZATIONS

Carolina Biological Supply Company2700 York RoadBurlington, NC 27215(919) 584-0381

Center for Wood Anatomy ResearchUSDA Forest ServiceForest Products Laboratory1 Gifford Pinchot DriveMadison, WI 53726

Ethnobotanical Research ServicesDepartment of AnthropologyOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR 97331(503) 737-0123

Identifying WoodUnderstanding WoodR. Bruce HoadleyThe Taunton Press

International Wood Collectors SocietySecretary/TreasurerInternational Wood Collectors Society2913 Third St.Trenton, MI 48183

SOURCES

Sources

272

APPENDIX

Hud-Son Forest EquipmentChainsaw & bandsaw millsPO Box 345 8187 State Route 12Barneveld, NY 13304(800) 765-7297www.hud-son.com

Log-MasterBandsaw mills16576 US Highway 259NNacogdoches, TX 75965(800) 820-9515www.logmaster.com

Lucas MillCircular-saw millsC/O Bailey’s Inc.PO Box 550 44650 Highway 101Laytonville, CA 95454(800) 322-4539www.baileys-online.com

Mighty-Mite IndustriesCircular-saw & bandsaw millsPO Box 20427Portland, OR 97220(503) 288-5923www.mightymitesawmills.com

Norwood IndustriesBandsaw mills252 Sonwil DriveBuffalo, NY 14225(800) 661-7746www.norwoodindustries.com

273

Peterson Portable SawmillsCircular-saw mills152 View RoadPO Box 98Rotorua, New Zealand((877) 327-1471www.petersonsawmills.com

Procut Portable SawmillsChainsaw & bandsaw mills9975 Old Summit Lake RoadPrince George, BC Canada V2K 5T1(250) 962-0866www.procutportablesawmills.com

Tilton Equipment CompanyChainsaw & bandsaw millsP.O. Box 68 Rye, NH 03870(800) 447-1152www.tiltonequipment.com

TimberKingBandsaw mills1431 North Topping Ave.Kansas City, Missouri 64120 (800) 942-4406www.timberking.com

Wood-Mizer ProductsBandsaw mills8180 West 10th St.Indianapolis, IN 46214(800) 553-0182www.woodmizer.com

Wood SpeciesThere are some 70,000 differentwoods known to man. Of these,fewer than 400 are commerciallyavailable. And of these, many areused only in their country of ori-gin and aren’t exported to otherparts of the world. Still, thatleaves us plenty of wood choicesfor our projects. The photos onthe following pages show variousspecies from around the worldthat furniture makers use on adaily basis. More familiar woodsare listed first, and similarspecies are grouped together,such as the oaks, mahoganies,and rosewoods, for easier com-parison. I recommend that youget to know these woods and usethem as a starting point inunderstanding the captivatingand colorful world of wood.

COMMON

FURNITURE WOODS

The 50 woods shown here haveearned their reputations as valu-able furniture woods. They’relisted here with their commonname or names, along with theirbotanical name—a Latin nameidentifying the genus and (whenpossible) the species of thatgenus. Having both names willhelp you identify lumber at themill or in a book.

Appendix

Appendix274

APPENDIX

Keep in mind that many geo-graphic designations (e.g.,“northern” red oak) aren’t neces-sarily area-specific, due to theongoing transplanting of speciesaround the world. However, theterm does refer to a specific typeof tree. In addition, you’llencounter numerous names thatdiffer from the common name.Some of these are commercialterms, often associated with spe-cific areas or locales.

The nomenclature of woodscan be confusing. The bestapproach is to familiarize your-self with as many woods as pos-sible. Thankfully, you’ll alwayshave new types of wood to try.The woods shown here are onlya sampling of the vast varietiesavailable to us, and importers areconstantly bringing in newspecies.

Black cherry (Prunus serotina)

Northern red oak(Quercus rubra)

White oak (Quercus alba)

Black walnut(Juglans nigra)

African mahogany(Khaya ivorensis)

Brazilian rosewood(Dalbergia nigra)

Indian rosewood(Dalbergia latifolia)

Cocobolo (Dalbergia retusa)

Maccassar ebony(Diospyros celebica)

Gabon ebony(Diospyros crassi-folora)

American white ash(Fraxinus americana)

American mahogany(Swietenia macrophylla)

Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)

Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)

Eastern white pine(Pinus strobus)

Yellow poplar(Liriodendron tulipifera)

Teak (Tectona grandis)

Hickory (Carya spp.)

Appendix 275

APPENDIX

American brown ash(Fraxinus americana)

Japanese ash(Fraxinus mand-schurica)

American beech(Fagus grandifolia)

Douglas fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Alder (Alnus)

Butternut (Juglans cinera)

Birch (Betula)

Redwood (Sequoiasempervirens)

Western red cedar(Thuja plicata)

Yellow cedar(Chamaecyparisnootkatensis)

Andaman padauk(Pterocarpus dalbergiodes)

Amboyna (Narra) (Pterocarpusindicus)

Koa (Acacia koa)

Jarrah (Eucalyptusmarginata)

Pear (Pyrus communis)

Sycamore (Platanusoccidentalis)

Bubinga (Guibourtiademeusei)

Carpathian elm(Ulmus procera)

Anegre (Aningeria)

Basswood (Linden)(Tilia americana)

Olive (Oleahochstetteri)

Lacewood (Silkyoak) (Platanus hybrida)

American Holly(Ibex opaca)

Appendix276

APPENDIX

Zebrawood(Microberlinia brazzavillensis)

Bald cypress(Taxodium dis-tichum)

Imbuya (Phoebe porosa)

Purpleheart(Amaranth)(Peltogyne spp.)

Wenge (Millettia laurentii)

Pau ferro(Brazilwood)(Caesalpinia echinata)

Ceylon satinwood(Chloroxylon swietenia)

Pau amarillo(Chlorophora tinctoria)

Gonçalo alves(Astronium fraxinifolium)

277

INDEX

IndexAAdze, 41African mahogany, 83, 274Air-conditioning, 81Air-drying lumber, 48, 50–52Alder, 83, 128, 275Alum, 257Amboyna, 19, 275American ash, 274, 275American beech, 83, 275American elm, 83American holly, 83, 275American hornbeam, 83American mahogany, 83, 274Ammonia, 257–58, 263Andaman padauk, 275Anigre, 19, 275Aniline dyes, 256AshAmerican, 274, 275

bending, 185, 193black, 83color of, 274, 275defects in, 132–33

Japanese, 275properties, 15–16, 19, 83,

126, 128Tamo, 19

Aspen, white, 83Axes, 28, 30, 35

BBack-beveling, 163–64Bald cypress, 21, 83, 128, 276Balsa, 83Bandsaw mills, 32–34, 46–47Bandsaws, 134, 158–59, 190Basswood, 83, 128, 275Beams, 40–41Beech, 19, 83, 128, 275Bee's wing, 19Belt sanders, 228Bending wood, 183–211

forms, 190–92, 194–96, 197,202

free-form, 204–205green wood, 188, 193, 196,

197selecting wood for, 184–86techniques, 184–85, 187–96,

198–211Bigleaf maple, 83, 126, 162Birch, 12, 83, 128, 275

Bird's-eye maple, 19, 162, 163Biscuit joints, 114–15, 245Black ash, 83Black cherry, 83, 128, 168, 274Black locust, 21, 22, 128Black walnut, 12, 17, 83, 128, 274Black willow, 83Blotching, 256Board feet, 58Boards. See LumberBookshelves, 129, 138–39Border inlays, 251–53Bowls, 123Box joints, 118Brazilian rosewood, 17, 83, 274Breadboard end, 85, 90–91Bubinga, 19, 83, 275Burls, 19Burning stock, 167–68, 171Burr oak, 12Butternut, 17, 22, 83, 128, 275Butt joints, 108–10Buttons, L-shaped, 101Buying lumber, 58–64

CCabinets, back of, 110–11Calcium oxide, 257Camphor, 19Carpathian elm, 275Case-hardening, 51, 52Case molding, 85, 103Catalupa, 83Cedar

color of, 275properties, 13, 21, 83Spanish, 20, 83western red, 83, 128, 275yellow, 20, 21, 83, 275

Chainsaw mills, 32, 42–43Chainsaws, 28Chairs, 123–25Chemical stains, 256–58, 262Cherry

bending, 185, 187black, 83, 128, 168, 274green, 124properties, 17, 19, 83, 129shelving, 130staining, 257, 262

Chestnut, 83Chips, 164–65, 175Circular sawmills, 32, 33, 44–45Clamping, 236, 244–48

Climb cutting, 166, 167Closed cuts, 167–68Cocobolo, 83, 169, 274Color, 17–18, 51–52, 125–26, 168Complex shapes, 158–59, 209–11Compressed fibers, 186–87Copper sulfate, 257Cottonwood, eastern, 83Cracks, filling, 173–74, 177–78,

234Crosscutting, 37, 145–46,

154–55, 164–65Cross-lap joints, 117Cross-sectional surface, 5, 6Crotch wood, 19, 126Curly woods, 19Curves, 158–59

bending, 206, 207–208,209–11

cutting, 134sanding, 218, 219, 233veneering, 203See also Bending wood

Cutting back, 264Cypress, bald, 21, 83, 128, 276

DDado joints, 111–12Decay resistance, 20, 21Defects, 132–33, 144, 168–69,

173–79, 234Dehumidifiers, 81Density, 127–28Dents, steaming, 234Difficult wood, 162–81Disk sanders, 217–18Doors, 85, 92–94, 95–96Douglas fir, 83, 128, 275Dovetail joints, 105, 106, 108,

117, 121–22Dowel joints, 115–16Drawers

bottom of, 85, 97–98finishes for, 270fitting, 85, 99–100

Drawknife, 40–41Drum sanders, 219, 229–30Drying lumber, 48–57

air-drying, 48, 50–52kiln-drying, 48, 50–53, 57shrinkage from, 83, 84stickering & wrapping, 54–56

Dye stains, 256

EEarlywood, 15, 16Eastern cottonwood, 83Eastern white pine, 83, 128, 274Ebony, 18, 83, 126, 129, 274Edge joints, 108, 109–10, 241,

242Elm, 16, 19, 83, 128, 275End checks, 144–45End-grain, 5, 6, 49, 104–105,

109–11End-to-face joints, 108, 109–10,

112Epoxy, 173, 238Equilibrium moisture content

(EMC), 49, 52Eucalyptus, 13Eye protection, 43, 170

FFasteners, 109, 110, 112, 117Felling saws, 28, 35Figured wood, 18, 19, 125–26,

163, 256Film finishes, 258–60Finishes, 10, 213, 255–71

application of, 259–60,265–70

cleaning for, 261coloring, 255–58, 262–64preparation for, 214, 261previewing, 260–61smoothing, 264, 271types of, 258–60, 265–66

Fir, douglas, 83, 128, 275Flatsawn. See Plainsawn lumberFlattening lumber, 143, 147–48Folding Sawing Machine, 37Frame-and-panel, 9, 85, 92–94Free-form bending, 204–205Froes, 124–25Fuming wood, 257–58, 263Furniture, 8, 48–49, 77, 123,

131, 270

GGabon ebony, 18, 83, 274Gel stains, 256Glues

application of, 239, 240–42removing excess, 254, 267types of, 237–39

Index278

INDEX

Gluing, 9, 213, 236–54end-grain, 109–10joints, 114–15, 241–42lamination bends, 192oily woods, 243slivers, 176veneers, 248–53

Gonçalo alves, 276Grade sawing, 30–31Grading lumber, 59–60Grain, 4, 17, 23, 125–26, 128

for bending, 193matching, 137planes and, 5–6raising, 235sawing out straight, 136

Green wood, 123–24, 188, 193,196–97

Growth rings, 6, 15–16

HHalf-blind dovetail joints,121, 122Hammer veneering, 249–53Hand planing, 217–19, 225–26Hardwoods

buying, 60grading, 59–60properties, 6–7, 16–17, 22,

128–29, 256staining, 257

Harvesting trees, 26, 28–29,35–39

Hearing protection, 43Heartwood, 14Heating shops, 80–81Hemlock, western, 128Hewing logs, 40–41Hickory

bending, 185, 193characteristics of, 6, 274pecan, 128shagbark, 12, 83

Hide glue, 237, 238, 241Holly, American, 83, 275Honeycombing, 52Horizontal storage, 68–69Hornbeam, American, 83Humidity, relative, 78–81Hygrometers, 79–80

IImbuya, 83, 169, 276Indian rosewood, 83, 128, 274Inlays, 251–53Ipe, 83

JJapanese ash, 275Japanese white pine, 12Jarrah, 21, 83, 275Jointers, 143, 147–48, 215–16Joints, 104–22

filling, 173gluing, 241–42grain and, 104–105green wood, 124, 125marking for, 127selecting, 104–22sizing, 105–106testing, 106–108

KKerf-bending, 184, 188–89,

198–201Kickback, 144Kiln-drying, 48, 50–53, 57Knots, 144, 173, 179Koa, 275

LLacewood, 19, 275Lacquer, 258, 259, 268–69Lamination bending, 184, 187,

189–92, 202–205Lap joints, 116–17Latewood, 15–16Lauan, red, 83Leg-to-case joints, 85, 88–89, 127Light-and-dark effect, 126, 127Lignum vitae, 128Linseed oil, 261Lipping, 130, 138Locust, 21, 22, 83, 128Logs, 34, 37

hewing, 40–41rough-milling, 30–31, 40–47sealing, 49splitting, 124–25

Long-grain joints, 104–105, 108Lumber

buying, 58–64cutting your own, 26–47identifying, 21–22mail-order, 60–61milling, 30–31, 40–47, 142–61movement of, 7–10, 48–49,

78–103selecting, 62–64stacking, 50, 54–55, 73, 74storing, 65–75terminology of, 58–60wrapping, 56, 70, 75See also Wood

Lumberyards, 60, 62–64

MMacassar ebony, 83, 126, 274Machine marks, 214–16Madrone, 19, 83Mahogany

African, 83, 274American, 83, 274color of, 274properties, 19, 21, 83, 126–27ribbon-stripe, 136shelving, 130staining, 257, 262

Makore, 19Maobi, 19Maple

bending, 185bigleaf, 83, 126, 162bird's-eye, 19, 162, 163properties, 17, 19, 22, 83, 128red, 83, 128spalted, 126sugar, 12, 83, 128, 274

Maroon nylon pads, 264MCP (melamine-coated particle-

board), 164–65Metal detectors, 34Milled parts, storage of, 68–70Milling, 142–61Mill marks, 214–16Miter gauge, 154Miter joints, 113, 245Miter saws, 143, 145–46, 154, 165Miter trimmers, 146Modulus of elasticity (MOE), 128Moisture content, 7–10, 48–49,

52climate and, 78–81, 86reading, 81–82, 87

Moisture meters, 81–82, 87Molding, 85, 103, 244Mortise-and-tenon joints

cutting, 88–89, 107–108designing, 104–106, 118–21gluing, 241green wood, 124, 125

Mortises, 105–106, 107–108,119–20, 121, 124–25

Movement, 7–10, 48–49, 78–103allowing for, 84–86, 88–103predicting, 82–84seasonal changes in, 86of trees, 185types of, 82–84, 82–84

Myrtle, 19

NNitrocellulose lacquer, 268–69Northern red oak, 83, 128, 274

OOak

bending, 185, 193burr, 12figured, 19grain orientation in, 23properties, 16, 20–21, 22, 83,

126, 128red, 14, 22, 83, 126, 128–29,

274repairing, 169shelving, 129staining, 257trees, 8, 12, 13, 14white, 12, 21, 22, 83, 128,

185, 274Odor, of wood, 20, 22Oil finishes, 258, 259, 260,

265–66Oily woods, gluing, 243Olive wood, 19, 275Osage orange, 21Oscillating-spindle sander, 218,

219

PPacific Madrone, 83Padauk, 18, 126, 128, 275Panels, clamping, 246Particleboard, 129Patches, wood, 177–78Pau amarillo, 18, 126, 276Pau ferro, 276Peanut shell woods, 19Pear, 52, 275Pecan hickory, 128Penetrating finish, 258–60, 265–66Pigment stains, 256Pinch dogs, 40–41Pinched wood, 144Pine

color of, 274eastern white, 83, 128, 274

Japanese white, 12properties, 15–16, 18–19, 83,

128shelving, 129sugar, 83, 128, 274western white, 83white, 8, 19yellow, 16, 128, 129

Pink ivory, 17–18Pinless meters, 82, 87Pin-type meters, 81–82, 87Pitch pockets, 18, 20Plainsawn lumber, 8–9, 18, 23,

84, 86Planing

hand, 146, 217–19, 225–26

Index 279

INDEX

thickness, 143, 149–50,163–64, 215

Planks, 134–35, 151–53Plastic-resin glue, 238Plunge routers, 120Plywood

cutting, 156–57, 164–65dado joints, 112drawer bottoms, 97handling, 65, 71–72shelving, 129storage boxes, 66storage of, 65, 69–70, 71–72

Polyurethane finish, 258, 259Polyurethane glue, 238Poplar, 12, 17, 83, 126, 128, 274Pores, 16–17, 22, 256Potassium bitartrate, 257Potassium dichromate, 256–57,

258, 262Potassium permanganate, 256–57Power sanding, 217–19, 228–31Prefinishing, 239Protective equipment, 43, 170, 258Purpleheart, 18, 83, 126, 276

QQuartersawn lumber, 8, 9, 18,

23, 31, 84

RRabbet joints, 110–11Radial surface, 5–6, 82–84, 193Random-orbit sanders, 217, 231Reaction wood, 10Red alder, 83Red lauan, 83Red maple, 83, 128Red oak, 14, 22, 83, 126, 128, 129Redwood, 16, 19, 21, 83, 128, 275Relative humidity, 78–81Resin, 18, 20Respirators, 170, 258Ribbon stripes, 19Riftsawn lumber, 8, 23, 84Ring-porous woods, 16, 126, 256Ripping, 143, 151–52

burning from, 167–68, 171narrow boards, 153wide planks, 151–52

Rived wood, 124–25, 186Rosewood

Brazilian, 17, 83, 274color of, 274gluing, 243Indian, 83, 128, 274properties, 17, 19, 129

Rot resistance, 20, 21Rough lumber, 59

Rough-milling lumber, 30–31,40–47

Rounding over, 223–24Routers, 120, 122, 166, 167–68,

171–72Rule of thirds, 106

SSafety

for chemical stains, 258for felling trees, 35for hewing logs, 41for sawmills, 43

Sanders, 217–18, 228–31Sanding

hand, 221–24, 232–33power, 217–19, 228–31scuff, 264

Sanding blocks, 221–22Sandpaper, 218–19, 222Sapele, 19, 83Sapwood, 14, 15Sassafras, 20Satinwood, 19, 128, 276Saw blades, sharpening, 30Sawmills, 32–34, 42–47Saws, hand, 28, 35, 37Scrapers, 164, 224, 227Screws. See FastenersScuff-sanding, 264Sealing logs, 49Shagbark hickory, 12, 83Sharpening tools, 30Sheet goods, 156–57, 164–65.

See also PlywoodShellac, 20, 258, 259, 270Shelves, 129–30, 138–39Shops, 67–70, 78–81Shrinkage, 83, 84Shrink wrap, 75Sitka spruce, 83, 128Slats, bending, 197Slivers, gluing, 176Smoothing, 213, 214–35

finishes, 264, 271hand sanding, 221–24, 232–33planing and scraping,

217–19, 224, 225–27power sanding, 217–19,

228–31Snipes, 215Softwoods, 6–7, 18Spalted wood, 18, 19, 126Spanish cedar, 20, 83Specific gravity, 127–28Spline joints, 113–14Splines, 91, 113, 114(2)Splitting logs, 124–25Spraying finishes, 259–60,

268–69

Springback/spring-in, 187–88Spruce, sitka, 83, 128Stains, 255–58, 262–64Steam-bending, 184, 185, 187,

193–96, 206–11Steam boxes, 193–94Steaming dents, 234Stickering lumber, 54–55, 73Stiffness, 128Storing lumber, 65–75

horizontal storage, 68–69plywood, 69–70, 71–72in unheated spaces, 65–67vertical storage, 67–68

Strength of wood, 127–29Stressed, lumber, 10Sugar maple, 12, 83, 128, 274Sugar pine, 83, 128, 274Surfaced lumber, 59Sweetgum, 83, 128, 185Sycamore, 12, 19, 83, 128, 275

TTable saws

accessories for, 143–44crosscutting on, 155ripping on, 143, 151–52sheet goods on, 157, 165

Tabletops, 85, 101–102Tack rags, 261Tamo ash, 19Tangential surface, 6, 82–84, 193Tannic acid, 258Teak, 19, 21, 83, 163, 274Tearout, 163–67, 171–72Tenons, 105–106, 107–108,

119–20, 121, 124–25Terminology of lumber, 58–60Texture, 125–26Thickness of lumber, 59Thickness planing, 143, 149–50,

163–64, 215Torsion-box shelves, 130, 139Toxic wood, 169–70Trees, 3, 4–6, 15, 185

felling, 28–29, 35–36harvesting, 26, 28–29, 35–39height of, 26–27identifying, 11–14planting, 28, 39in winter, 11–13See also Wood

Turning, green wood, 123, 124Tyloses, 22

VVacuum-bag clamping, 190–92,

203–205, 247Varnish, 258, 259

Veneeron curves, 203cutting and joining, 160–61flattening, 162, 180–81gluing and clamping, 248–53hammering, 249–53inlays, 251–53storage of, 75

Vertical storage, 67–68

WWalnut

bending, 187black, 12, 17, 83, 128, 274vs. butternut, 22color of, 126, 274crotch, 126properties, 17, 19, 20, 83staining, 257, 262

Warp, 8Wax, 49Wedged through-tenon joints,

120Weighing lumber stacks, 74Wenge, 276Western hemlock, 128Western red cedar, 83, 128, 275Western white pine, 83Wetting wood, 172White aspen, 83White glue, 237, 238, 241White oak, 12, 21, 22, 83, 128,

185, 274White pine, 8, 12, 19, 83, 128, 274Wide planks, 31, 151–53Willow, black, 83Wiping cloths, 260Wood

cutting your own, 26–47difficult, 162–81identifying, 11–23toxic, 169–70understanding, 3–24See also Lumber

Wood conditioner, 256Woodstoves, 80Wrapping lumber, 56, 70, 75

YYellow birch, 83, 128Yellow cedar, 20, 21, 83, 275Yellow glue, 237, 238, 241Yellow pine, 16, 128, 129Yellow poplar, 12, 83, 126, 128,

274

ZZebrawood, 276

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Andy Rae worked with George Nakashima

and Frank Klausz before founding his own

woodworking business. He has been awarded

a New Jersey Council of the Arts Fellowship

for his furniture designs. A former editor of American

Woodworker, Rae is also the author of The Complete

Illustrated Guide to Furniture and Cabinet Construction (also

from The Taunton Press). He currently works in Asheville,

North Carolina, making furniture as well as teaching and

writing about woodworking.

The Taunton Press also publishesFine Woodworking magazine, thesingle best source of woodworkingideas and information anywhere.

$39.95 U.S.HIGHER IN CANADA

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THIS STEP-BY-STEP PICTORIAL REFERENCE

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How to select, season,and build with any kind of Wood

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