Working with Children Affected by War

Jan Stewart, Ph.D.

University of Winnipeg

www.janstewart.net

www.bookworksed.com

“When two elephants fight

it’s the grass that gets injured”(African Proverb)

“War violates every right of a child- the right to life to be with family and community, the right to health, the right to development of personality and the right to be nurtured and protected.” (Amnesty International)

In the past 10 years… 2 million children have been killed More than 6 million have been disabled 1 million have been orphaned 12 million left homeless It is estimated that presently there are

about 20 million children who have been uprooted from their homes

(Machel, 2001)

More than 10 million children have been psychologically scarred by the trauma of

abduction, detention, sexual assault and the brutal murder of

their family members.

(Canadian International Development Agency, 2005)

Casualties of War In recent decades, civilians made up about

5-10% of the casualties of war.

Today’s warfare targets children and their communities.

Children and civilians now make up over 90% of the casualties of war.

The Demographic Shift: Canada needs Immigrants

There are millions of displaced people in the world who are desperate to live in a democratic county where they are safe and free from persecution.

In March, 2007 Statistics Canada reported that by the year 2030, Immigration could become the only source for population growth as the peak of the baby boomers reach the end of their lifespan.

Put simply, Canada needs immigrants because the fertility rate is below replacement rate.

Manitoba Context

In 2005, over 8,000 immigrants settled in Manitoba – the highest recorded level in the last 15 years (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2005).

These figures represent a new cluster of children entering Canadian schools with very unique and challenging needs.

As social workers and social service departments have recognized, we need a long-term strategy to meet the needs of this group of people and a “piecemeal” approach will no longer suffice (Okitikpi & Aymer, 2003).

Where are Newcomers Coming From? (2011) Bhutan 189 Eritrea 183 Somalia 160 Ethiopia 125 DRC 76 Afghanistan 29 Burma 24 Colombia 20 Iraq 13 Pakistan 10 Additional 86 clients from other countries (total new clients 916)

September 2005 War-Affected Children Conference in Winnipeg

Key recommendation: The need to educate teachers and school

leaders on the issues of war-affected children and youth and to develop practical strategies for helping these students.

(Axworthy, 2005)

Lack of Appropriate and Specialized Programming for adolescent and young learners from war affected countries

This lack of programming often leads to ‘falling out’ of our school system and limits the long term educational and life opportunities of these learners. The stress and frustration that such learners experience because of inappropriate programming tends to accentuate the challenges they face in integrating into a new society and educational system, thereby contributing to the development of a sense of hopelessness.

(MacKay and Tavares, 2005)

Statement of Purpose

To examine the psychosocial needs and the educational challenges that children affected by war encounter while attending a Manitoba high school.

Overview of Conceptual Framework

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model

The person is influenced by the environment and the person also influences the environment.

The environment is not a single entity it is a compilation of several multi-level environments and interconnections between them.

Figure 1. Bioecological Model

THE INDIVIDUAL

(age, sex, health)

MESOSYSTEM

EXOSYSTEM

CHRONOSYSTEM changes to the person or the environment over time

teachers

place of worship

family peers

community members

relatives

social agencies

school board

legal services

refugee centres

extended family

mass media

health services

friends of family employment

centres

workplace

after school programs

Non-government organizations

MACROSYSTEM

MICROSYSTEM

Figure 2.3. Conceptual Framework

5. 4. 3. 2.

1.

5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

Chronosystem

Pattern of Adjustment into Canadian School Systems

Pre-Migration

1. Individual 2. Microsystem 3. Mesosystem 4. Exosystem 5. Macrosystem

Straight-Line Theory

Downward Spiral

Upward Mobility and Ethnic Solidarity

Trans-Migration Post-Migration

Chronosystem

Findings

Research Question 1:

What are the pre-migration, trans-migration, and post-migration experiences of war-

affected children who immigrate to Manitoba?

Pre-migration Intense periods of civil war Limited, disrupted, or no schooling Loss (8 out of 13 had one or both parent murdered, 3 were

not sure if parents were alive) 12 of 13 indicated that family members were separated All 13 students had witnessed high intensity violence (sexual

assault, amputation, killing of family member, friend, or schoolmate).

One student witnessed the shooting of her mother. Another student witnessed the rebels chopping arms off

children as a means to intimidate the observers, debilitate the victims, and to put a burden on the community.

Students continued to be affected by their pre-migration experiences.

Students have memories or they continue to be connected to people from home.

War is only a phone call away. School personnel only had “hints or

glimpses” into what students’ experiences had been.

Trans-migration Trans-migration might have been relatively short

or in excess of years (living in camps, travelling to neighbouring countries.)

The majority of students encountered years of displacement from camp to camp.

The four boys from Sudan lived, unaccompanied by parents, in various refugee camps for over 10 years.

Camps were “violent,” “unsafe,” “difficult.”

Post-migration: two phases

1. Initial excitement

2. Challenges and adjustments

What are the challenges or problems that confront war-affected children who attend high school in Manitoba?

Findings

Research Question 2:

Four main clusters of Challenges:

1. Educational

2. Psychosocial

3. Economic

4. Environmental

Racism and Discrimination School Culture (The Great Divide) Aboriginal students and Immigrant students Exclusion of White students Limited opportunity to interact cross-culturally with

exception of sports (Team UN) Perceived inequality and unfair treatment Gender Discrimination

School CultureSchool Culture

The conflict that surfaced The conflict that surfaced appeared to stem between appeared to stem between Aboriginal students and the Aboriginal students and the immigrant students. While some immigrant students. While some of the conflict is played out in the of the conflict is played out in the school, a considerable amount of school, a considerable amount of violence occurred in the violence occurred in the community, which ultimately community, which ultimately affected what happened in the affected what happened in the school. school.

In many cases, the racism and In many cases, the racism and discrimination was a result of two discrimination was a result of two marginalized groups clearly not marginalized groups clearly not

understanding each other. understanding each other.

Educational Challenges Adjusting to school Age issues Various levels of assistance from teachers Bullying Family expectations (to be the one) Little or no assistance from parents Academic literacy Difference between ability level and aspirations The school is alone Teachers’ attitudes

Psychosocial Challenges Breakdown of family structure No Support After Coming To Canada Breakdown of social structure Distrust Safety and protection issues Insecurity Loneliness Mental Health Issues Loss

We did a writing assignment in one of my classes. They were writing paragraphs about a safe and unsafe time of their lives. One of the girls wrote that an unsafe time of her life was when she was back in her country in Sierra Leone. She said that an unsafe time was when she remembers running from village to village as she watched her friends get their hands chopped off and people's houses being burned down with people inside them. And it was a paragraph, and that's often how it comes out. They usually tell me in their writing, and then I might ask them further.

(teacher)

Psychosocial Challenges

I just think people are crazy, because we are all the same blood, and you go and you kill your own sister and your own brother and that is strange. And I saw that thing when I was young I was 10 years old. And it's still coming back in my mind. Sometimes it comes in my dreaming. But I have to get up three or four times in the night.

(student)

I told her I'm listening to voices, and I try to hurt myself. And every time I go home, I can be so worried. It is so scary, to go home by myself living by myself with nobody around me to talk to. And I told her that every night I listen to the voices and I can be so scared to go to bed. Sometimes I just leave the lights on all night. Or I leave the music or the tv on, really loud all night. And then I go to bed.

(student)

Our life is not easy. It's just been three years. People don't know because to get here, you are having a good life if they see you looking fine and feeling a good life. They think that everything was fine in the past. And you don't have the chance to talk to them because they don't come and ask you. You don't have somebody to talk to and tell them your feelings. You can't get any help for your heart inside. Because nobody's talking to you. I feel that way.

(student)

So they aren't presenting in the school so there doesn't seem to be a large number of referrals for therapy or whatever the case may be, which is kind of puzzling to me because I would expect that there would be lots, particularly in light of the fact that the initial reception center for most of the government-sponsored refugees is located within the boundaries of this school division….So where are these children with this trauma and needs for therapy and all those kinds of things. I still haven't seen it. So it's presenting a very interesting situation.

(superintendent of schools)

Part II: Psychosocial Part II: Psychosocial IssuesIssues

One of the first issues to advance is the legitimate concern for the One of the first issues to advance is the legitimate concern for the students’ well-being and how difficult it is to provide assistance or students’ well-being and how difficult it is to provide assistance or support. Many of these issues can not be empirically measured, like a test support. Many of these issues can not be empirically measured, like a test of English or computational skills.of English or computational skills.

Many students do not readily Many students do not readily seek assistance for mental seek assistance for mental health issues. It could be a health issues. It could be a source of embarrassment for source of embarrassment for the students, or that they have the students, or that they have been told to keep personal been told to keep personal issues to themselves; that issues to themselves; that seeking help may be seen as a seeking help may be seen as a weakness.weakness.

Seeking HelpSeeking HelpIt is not enough to assume It is not enough to assume that just because that they that just because that they do not seek assistance, that do not seek assistance, that students are not struggling students are not struggling with issues. The biggest with issues. The biggest challenge is to address the challenge is to address the trauma that they may have trauma that they may have been through.been through.The two biggest issues are:The two biggest issues are:

1. People are not trained to know what to look 1. People are not trained to know what to look for in children.for in children.

2. When students do disclose personal 2. When students do disclose personal information, it is often to people who do not information, it is often to people who do not have the skills to respond to it.have the skills to respond to it.

Economic IssuesA major challenge is paying back the government loan to pay for their airfare to Canada.

This is also related to the need to find suitable housing: low This is also related to the need to find suitable housing: low levels of economic stability leads to poor choices of housing levels of economic stability leads to poor choices of housing for families.for families.

Economic Challenges Poverty Housing is all within the downtown area where

there are pre-existing issues related to marginalized groups of people already competing for resources

Being a teen in a material society and not having money to “be like the other kids.”

Easy money lure to criminal activity and gang involvement

Maybe the government could help. That way I could concentrate on my school. Then I wouldn't have to work as much. Maybe I would just work two days a week. Then I could concentrate on my studies the other days. There is a way. If I have help. But I just need to send money for my brothers. Because if I don't send money they don't eat. And they don't work back home.

I'm like… (pause)… their hope

Because every time I call them, they tell me I am their hope.

(student)

Economic Challenges

Environmental Experiences Altercations with police Racism and discrimination (from teachers, administrators,

students) Gang involvement (the lure of easy money and a sense of

belonging) Conflict with Aboriginal youth in community and in school Criminal Activity (drugs, trafficking) Sexism (gender issues) Financial Difficulties Poor Housing Navigating the Bureaucracy

Need for Protection It's just that if I'm not safe here….The police are

supposed to protect me. I had a problem and these people had a gun. Why don't the police protect me? You are supposed to protect me. And if they don't know how to help they should talk to their boss. They told me to go to victim services, but I don't know where to find victim services, and I have to go there on my own….Now I have to leave here and I should be living in Manitoba and now I had to move to Calgary… I don’t want to die in Canada.

I've had students tell me that they lived in a racist country before and now they have come to Canada, and they thought that Canada was going to be this total ideal place and then they realize that this place is just as bad to them. They thought that they would feel safe on the street and he wouldn't be persecuted for the color of their skin. And now they know that they're profiled by the police and profiled by the administration and by teachers and by other students who just see them as a nasty black man. And that I'm a gang member and I’m all of these things that I am not. So they feel that the promised land that they worked so hard to get into is not what they wanted it to be.

(teacher)

You know, why I came here because people were saying, like North America in the documentary is like heaven. And it is what I was thinking when I came to North America. I thought it would be different. It will not be like a refugee camp, but no it is not.

There is nothing here. Maybe there's clothes, the food that I eat the place that I sleep, but I'm still a refugee. I don't see anything change. The only thing that changes is the school, because I go to school everyday, but life is the same.

It is just the same I have to say. I will always be a refugee. I can't say that there are any changes. But we could work on that so that things can change.

Disappointment

Human Capacity

Hope and Resilience

Educational Challenges

Food

Shelter

Clothing

Safety

Belonging

Power

Economic Challenges

Psychosocial Challenges

Environmental Challenges

Findings

Research Question 3:

What systems, structures, or programs assist with the process of adjustment for war-affected children who now attend school in Manitoba?

Extending Bronfenbrenner’s Model

The emergence of a nanosystem

The nanosystem is a close interpersonal relationship or network that is integral to connecting the individual to the microsystem. The nanosystem is constructed by a significant person from the student’s inner most microsystem.

My hypothesis was that students who were a part of a nanosystem had an easier time adjusting to school in Canada.

Exosystem

Mesosystem

Microsystem

Nanosystems

A

B

C

player

player

player

player

player

coach

player

player

student

student

counsellor

parent student

teacher

student

Figure 6.1. The Microsystem, Mesosystem and Nanosystems

Human Capacity, Hope and Resilience are generated by the individual and his or her interactions with the people in the nanosystem(s) and the microsystem.

FindingsResearch Question 4:

To what extent do the various ecological systems interact with and influence the refugee student’s personal, social, and academic development?” In addition, the following subsidiary research questions will also be discussed (1) “How is the student affected by the various ecological systems?” (2) “How are the various ecological systems affected by the student?”

The Cost of Commitment Tired Tapped-out Crying easily Drained Scared Difficulty sleeping Burning out

Compassion Fatigue

Compassion FatigueVicarious Trauma

Vicarious Trauma

Right now, I feel like were really on our own. The only thing that makes me feel better about that is that I know that the kids feel like they are also on their own. So they appreciate any help that they get from us. But it's not fair to them or to us.

(teacher)

Exosystem

Exosystem

Exosystem

Exosystem

Community

School

Family

Peers

We need to get the community involved in to break down the barriers between the school and the community. We need to facilitate interaction between white, aboriginal, and African students in a meaningful way. That goes beyond what was your story, how did you get here and, oh that's cool. There are like kids in here that are very happy to go to a diverse school, but they really can't get beyond being in classes with different people. And they learn about their story, but there are no lasting friendship or relationships that form. They coexist. (teacher)

Every year at grad. When I look at those students I can barely make it through because they are just so proud and it's this rite of passage that has been so much harder for them than for anybody else and it really means something to them that it can't mean to anybody else. You know, that's when I think there's just so much injustice and there's so much crap in here. And they have learned not to ever seek justice because you usually won't get it-you get punishment. So they've learned not to do that and that should not be rewarded. I should be telling them no. You should stand on principle here because it matters. And we have this Constitution, and we have this protection of your rights, you shouldn't stand for it. Stand for your individuality. Schools are ostensibly democratic places and you should get experience with democracy here-first. Not fight your way through this first and then get to the real world. But they have this wisdom that comes from experience that says, I know what people are like. Just let them be like that. I'd be dead if I worried about those people who are like that. Every soldier that I ran from, every fight that I got through. So I see them graduate, and it's just such a good feeling. To see them face this world and to know that they're really going to kick ass. Like honestly, if you can get through this place not speaking English with teachers who think you're the biggest pain in the ass, with people calling you nigger when you're walking down the hallway. If you can get through this, hey they are going to do just fine. But it shouldn't be that way. It's not the way it should be. That's why I'm really happy when people like you come around and you're looking at the big picture, it makes me think that there is some hope.

And the only thing we have going for us is that they don't know that they're being treated like crap, because they're not physically under threat as much as they were. But they will figure it out.

(teacher)

The other teachers they think that everybody is the same as the white student, but we’re not, were different. We need more time to study. The language, you know. The teachers need to give more time, like Mr. B. He's a good teacher. And God will help him, you know. I take his classes. I just feel comfortable. And he knows my situation and he can understand me even though he doesn't know the language. Whenever I tell him I have a lot of assignments he helps me. And I have to go to work later he will let me hand in this assignment tomorrow. Then he can let me do all my assignments, but there are other teachers that no no no. You just do it. You don't say nothing, you just be quiet, because I'm scared to say anything because you know, he is a teacher. You know they didn't understand my situation, or my problem.

Right now, I feel like were really on our own. The only thing that makes me feel better about that is that I know that the kids feel like they are also on their own. So they appreciate any help that they get from us. But it's not fair to them or to us.

(teacher)

Responsibility To Protect “The ‘responsibility to protect’ is a key

component of Canada's human security agenda. The human security approach to foreign policy puts people - their rights, their safety and their lives – first” (Human Security, 2006, ¶1).

Protection, Prevention and Rebuilding

Part 1- Theory and Research Ch 1- The Impact of War on

ChildrenCh 2- Pre-migration, Trans-migration,

and Post-migration Experiences

Ch 3- Educational Issues and Challenges

Ch 4- Psychosocial and Environmental Challenges

Ch 5- Systems, Structures, and Programs that Assist with Adjustment

Ch 6- Interactions of Ecological Systems to Influence Development

Part 2- Praxis

Chapters 7 through 11

Core Curriculum

4 Main Clusters

42 Lessons

Five Targeted Demographic Groups in Winnipeg and Partners

International Partnership Pilot Study in northern Uganda Dec 2008 Initial Data collection and drafting of lessons Working over the year to collect strategies to create

lessons. Online consultation. MCIC Community Solidarity Grant for Teacher Training

and First Phase of Data Collection (Gulu and Kitgum) Summer Institute July 2010 Building Blocks of Hope

(Two Ugandan Faculty and Co-Investigator from USF) November 2010 Phase Two Data Collection in northern

Uganda (consultative workshops, focus groups and interviews)

April 2011 Phase Three Data Collection in Kampala and northern Uganda

INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS

Recommendations for School Leaders Collaborate with Families and Community

Members (welcome information, translation services, eliminating barriers for parents to become involved, mentoring and tutoring programs, community liaison workers, increase opportunities for sport, develop a school-based collaboration plan to support staff and decrease feelings of isolation.)

Know the needs of the community and collect data on student achievement and mental health needs.

Recommendations for School Leaders Promote justice and equality (advocate for

children, set an example for the staff and the community, promote fairness and respect.)

Develop and implement pedagogical practices that strengthen the school culture.

Understand and utilize the legal system to protect the rights of all students.

Recommendations for School Leaders Understand global issues that affect teaching and

learning. Be knowledgeable about issues concerning

refugee children and use this knowledge to influence policy makers at the federal, provincial and school division levels.

Facilitate learning for staff on the best practices for teaching English language learners.

Implement and support school and community programs that counteract racism and discrimination.

Recommendations for Federal and Provincial Government Departments The financial commitment from the Federal Government must

extend until the student completes secondary school. The repayment of the government loan to pay for airfare to come to

Canada must be waived for all refugees. Citizenship and Immigration Canada should develop and

implement an education program for all citizens to promote the benefits of receiving newcomers.

Anti-racism and sensitivity training across all government departments (child welfare, justice, education) as well as the general public and business sectors.

The existing conflict between Aboriginal students and immigrant students requires immediate attention.

Provide funding to support a locally-based centre for refugee studies.

Recommendations for Local School Divisions

Develop a team of experts who are knowledgeable on the issues related to refugee children.

Provide non-westernized models of psychosocial support. Each school should have a designated staff member who is the

case manager or support person for refugee children (agency link). Offer courses outside of the typical school day or week to

accommodate students and parents who work. The Federal Government should allocate funding to the Province

so that alternative education programs are more accessible to newcomers.

Provide psychosocial support to students, particularly for issues related to loss, the separation of family members, violence exposure, gang awareness, and trauma.

Recommendations for Community Agencies

A centralized reception centre for refugees must be able to provide long-term support to newcomers (e.g., legal assistance, psychosocial counselling, family mediation, personal health and nutrition counselling, advocacy assistance, parenting classes, English language support for parents and children, preschool programs, technology education, career development courses, and information on the rights and responsibilities of citizens in Canada.

Provide pre-migration and trans-migration education and counselling to help mediate feelings of disappointment.

The coordination of support services are urgently needed to facilitate the positive transition of newcomers to Canada.

Table 6.2. Initiatives to Address Educational and Environmental Challenges

Educational Challenges Environmental Challenges Provide opportunities for mentoring. Implement more community and school

partnerships. Provide academic and vocational tutoring. Provide more liaison workers. Coordinate a re-entry program to help bring students back to school after they have dropped out.

Designate specific teachers as case managers who provide link to the ecological systems.

Teach Pre-service courses in EAL strategies for all teachers and on refugee issues.

Designate a person who is able to advocate for the student.

Coordinate provincial and divisional policy development.

Implement multi-agency partnering on projects (justice and education, and non-government agencies, immigration).

Conduct leadership seminars on teaching in multi-ethnic cities and on utilizing community sources and resources.

Coordinate a sustained and intensive anti-racism and discrimination campaign in the school, community, private sector, and public services.

Acknowledge foreign-based professional programs.

Provide information for newcomers in video format in several languages.

Set up a school-based resource site that links to agencies.

Develop parent modules for helping children through school and for identifying signs of trouble.

Teach basic skills and social development. Provide more student-to-student assistance. Offer scholarships and bursaries to encourage involvement in sport.

Create and implement a culturally and linguistically appropriate assessment process.

Teach career development and awareness programs for all students.

Train immigrant and refugee students to be mediators and peer counsellors.

Provide training and education for refugee parents on issues related to discipline, personal safety, and adolescent development.

Table 6.3. Initiatives to Address Economic and Psychosocial Challenges Economic Challenges Psychosocial Challenges

Build in an incentive program for staying in school, so students do not have to work full-time.

Provide more preventative programming.

Prepare students for independent living. Provide group support programs to assist with the integration of the person with the community.

Provide more information on work skills and employee rights.

Implement initial screening and ongoing screening to identify psychosocial challenges

Provide volunteer placement programs for refugee students who transition into job placements.

Provide arts-based activities (film, play, theatre, videography, dance) in school and the community.

Teach EAL programs for parents outside of school hours.

Train clinical staff on issues related to refugees.

Utilize technology-based communication and support.

Implement language and literacy programs that include trained professionals who know how to recognize and respond to psychosocial issues.

Remove the government loan for the cost of airfare from country of origin.

Implement language and literacy programs that include trained professionals who know how to recognize and respond to psychosocial issues.

Train all students in conflict prevention. Provide integrated emotional, spiritual, and

health care.

If you could tell the teachers or the principal one thing that would better help the students who are from war-affected countries, what would you tell them?

Advice from Students

1. Don’t let students be rude.

2. Be like a family.

3. Improve communication.

4. Support with school work.

5. Listen, respect and show that you care.

6. Improve opportunities for sport.

7. Don’t give up.

Student Code Coverage % Student Code Coverage %

Mahad * Programs and Structures Needed 18.92 Anna Breakdown or Separation of Family 16.99Respect for Parents 12.2 Psychosocial needs in School 15.87Gang 9.87 Emotional Abuse 13.81Importance of Education 9.86 Financial Difficulty 12.9Insecurity 7.93 Violence Exposure 5.73

Levia * Racism and Discrimination 16.8 James * Breakdown or Separation of Family 29.41Faith 9.93 Importance of Education 25.91Importance of Community 9.93 Displacement 12.01Cultural Adjustments 8.11 Loss 12.01Importance of Education 7.43 Violence Exposure 11.89

Aran * Gang 12.61 Bango Violence Exposure 18.73Education Premigration 10.75 Loss 16.48Aspiration of Refugees 10.03 Trauma 15.28Lack of Resources 7.56 Distrust 13.91Violence Exposure 7.37 Insecurity 13.91

Banya * Respect for Parents 18.35 Akot Student Issues with Teachers 21.84Psychosocial Needs Emerging in School 11.84 Having to Work and Go to School 21.12Adjusting to School 11.21 Financial Difficulty 11.18Gender Issues 10.32 Racism and Discrimination 8.48Breakdown or Separation of Family 9.46 Separation of Family 5.74

Helen * Refugee Life 16.03 Imran * Gang 52.72Breakdown of Social Network 11.68 Safety 25.74Trauma 11.25 Loss 11.83Psychosocial Needs Emerging in School 10.99 Breakdown or Separation of Family 6.96Adult Roles 10.07 Lack of Food 6.24

Sokut * Importance of Education 12.16 Afem Altercations with Police 19.83Gang 11.26 Racism and Discrimination 17.82Safety 9.88 Cultural Adjustments 7.89Importance of Community 9.74 Refugee Life 5.1Racism and Discrimination 9.64 Lack of Documentation 5.1

Ugot Education Premigration 15.48Trouble Academically 8.51Personal Goals and Aspirations 8.01Isolation or Loneliness 5.28Violence Exposure 4.33

Note: Coverage refers to the percentage of the transcript that was allocated to the discussion of a particular theme. Only the top five percentages for each individual were noted in the above table.* Evidence of a Nanosystem (See Chapter 6)

Considered to be Adjusting Well Considered to be Having Difficulty Adjusting

Table 4.4. Summary of Themes from the Student Interviews Occurring More than Once in Table 4.3.

Code

Number of Occurrences in Top Five Code

Number of Occurrences in Top Five

Gang 3 Breakdown or Separation of Family 4Importance of Education 3 Violence Exposure 4Racism and Discrimination 2 Financial Difficulty 3Importance of Community 2 Loss 2Psychosocial Needs 2 Racism and Discrimination 2Respect for Parents 2 Refugee Life 2

Considered to Be Adjusting Well Considered to be Having Difficulty Adjusting

Table 4.5. Top Five Themes for Members of the Microsystem

Name Code Coverage % Name Code Coverage %Joanne Programs and Structures 24.57 Margaret Psychosocial Needs 55.6

Breakdown or Separation of Family 11.77 Programs and Structures 4.73Professional Changes 7.48 Counselling 3.47Having to Work and Go to School 6.34 Trouble Academically 2.03Racism and Discrimination 6.34 Interactions of Systems 1.02

Rassan Assistance from Teachers 16.92 Laurie Trauma 17.81Interactions of Systems 14.97 Breakdown or Separation of Family 17.55Trans-migration 12.67 Counselling 17.53Racism and Discrimination 11.21 Gender Issues 17.43Violence Exposure 10.94 Safety 15.26

Christine Psychosocial Needs 20.82 Teresa Racism and Discrimination 66.1Teacher Attitudes and Behaviours 19.81 Conflict with Different Cultures 47.13Leadership Issues 10.66 Advice 32.86Racism and Discrimination 10.46 Gang 8.36Programs and Structures 10.03 Involvement in Sport 5.35

Manley Interactions of Systems 27.02 Donna Interactions of Systems 11.28Parenting Assistance 14.13 Trauma 9.35Exclusion and Retention 9.2 Vicarious Trauma 7.3Gang 7.62 Conflict with Different Cultures 6.07Violence Exposure 7.57 Violence Exposure 5.79

Parsa Importance of Education 18.56 Vivienne Interactions of Systems 11.54Moving on with Life 16.7 Breakdown or Separation of Family 5.47Refugee Life 15.72 Disrupted or No Schooling 4.91Violence Exposure 14.28 Personal Changes 4.8Hope 11.62 Professional Changes 4.8

Taylor Exclusion and Retention 14.39 Scott Teacher Attitudes and Behaviours 29.71Conflict with Different Cultures 11.7 Overwhelmed and Stressed 11.36Interactions of Systems 11.16 Leadership Issues 11.28Trauma 8.59 Government Direction 9.83Refugee Life 8.42 Trouble Academically 7.35

Bev Trouble Academically 13.95 Bill Interactions of Systems 31.65Violence Exposure 11.28 Support from Community 18.28Disrupted or No Schooling 11.48 No Support after Coming to Canada 15.38Psychosocial Needs 11.03 Importance of Community 13.03Needs for Healing 8.78 Family Issues 12.34

Sandra Leadership Issues 18.98 Paul Interactions of Systems 14.45No Support after Coming to Canada 17.64 Media 12.45Disappointment 12.08 Conflict with Different Cultures 12.22Teacher Attitudes and Behaviours 11.46 Criminal Activity 12.22Racism and Discrimination 11.27 Gang 12.22

Note: Coverage refers to the percentage of the transcript that was allocated to the discussion of a particular theme. Only the top five percentages for each individual were noted in the above table.

Members of the Microsystem

Table 4.6. Comparison of Most Common Themes for All Students and The Participants in the Microsystem

StudentsNumber of

References MicrosystemNumber of

ReferencesBreakdown or Separation of Family 5 Interactions of Systems 8Violence Exposure 5 Racism and Discrimination 5Racism and Discrimination 4 Conflict with Different Cultures 4Importance of Education 4 Teacher Attitudes and Behaviours 3Gang 4 Trauma 3Financial Difficulty 3 Psychosocial Needs 3Refugee Life 3 Gang 3Psychosocial Needs 3 Leadership Issues 3Loss 3 Programs and Structures 3Importance of Community 2 Breakdown or Separation of Family 3

Top Ten Common Codes for Students and Participants from the Microsystem

Exosystem

Exosystem

Exosystem

Exosystem

Community

School

Family

Peers