winter 1992-1993 quarterly review - theological resources for ministry

8/9/2019 Winter 1992-1993 Quarterly Review - Theological Resources for Ministry

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Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w / F a l l 1 992 S 5 . 0 0A Joiirn.il ot Theological Resources for Ministry

* Frederick E. BhutierThe United M ethodist University

mid Am erican Political V aluesRonald f. Allen

Tlie Language of Color in the Seroiceof Justice

Charles R. FosterTeaching Authorih/ in Cultural

Perspective
http://joiirn.il/http://joiirn.il/http://joiirn.il/


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Edi t or ia l Boar dLloyd R. Bai ley

D u k e D i v i n i t y S c h o o lWi l f r e d B a i l e yC a s a V i e w U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c hD a l l a s , T e x a sP a m e l a D . C o u t u r eC a n d l e r S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g yE m o r y U n i v e r s i t yF r e d B . C r a d d o c kC a n d l e r S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g yE m o r y U n i v e r s i t yB r i t a G i l l - A u s t e r nA n d o v e r N e w t o n T h e o l o g i c a l S c h o o lJ a n i c e R i g g l e H u i eM a n c h a c a U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c hM a n c h a c a , T e x a sRog er VV. Ires on , Ch airG e n e r a l B o a r d o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o na n d M i n i s t r y

T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h

R o b e r t C . N e v i l l eB o s t o n U n i v e r s i t y S c h o o l o fT h e o l o g yJ u d i t h E . S m i t hG e n e r a l B o a r d o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o na n d M i n i s t r yT h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c hM a r j o r i e H e w i t t S u c h o c k iC l a r c m o n t S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g yJ o h n L . T o p o l e w s k iD i s t r i c t S u p e r i n t e n d e n tW y o m i n g C o n f e r e n c eD o n a l d H . T r e c s c

G e n e r a l B o a r d o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o na n d M i n i s t r yT h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c hF . T h o m a s T r o t t e rA l a s k a P a c i f i c U n i v e r s i t y

S h a r o n J . H e l s , E d i t o rN e i l M . A le x a n d e r , E d i t o r ia l D ir e c t o rJ . R ic h a r d P e c k , P r o d u c t io n E d i t o r

S h e i l a W . M c G c e , C o m p o s i t i o n E d i t o r


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Quarterly ReviewA Journal of Theological Resources for MinistryVolume 12, Num ber 3

A P u b l i c a t i o n of T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t P u b l i s h i n g H o u s ea n d the U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t B o a r d of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n and M i n i s t r y


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Qu ar ter ly R ev ie w (ISSN 0270-9287 ) provides continuing education resources for scholars,Christian educators, and lay and professional ministers in The United Methodist Church andother churches. QR intends to be a forum in which theological issues of significance toChristian ministry can be raised and debated.Editorial Offices; 1001 19th A venue, South, Box 871, Nashville , TN 37202. Manuscriptsshould be in English and typed double-spaced, including notes.QR is published four t imes ayea r, in March, June, September, and December, by the U nitedMethodist Board of Higher Education and Ministry and The United Methodist PublishingHouse. Second-class postage paid at Nashv ille , Ten nessee.Subscription rate: $16 for one year; $28 for two years; and $36 for three years. A llsubscription orders, single-copy orders, and change-of-address information must be sent inwrit ing to the Qu arte r ly R ev ie w Business M anager , Box 801, Nashvi l le , TN 37202. Ordersfor single copies mu st be accompanied with prepaym ent of $5.00.Postm aster: A ddress changes should be sent to The United Methodist Publishing Ho use,Box 801, Nashville , TN 37202.QR is printed on acid-free paper.Lections arc taken from Comm on Lectionary: Th e Lections Proposed by the Consultation onCommon Texts (New York: Church Hym nal Corporation, 1983) .Scripture quotations unless otherwise noted are from the New Revised Standard Version

Common Bible, copyrighted 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the NationalCouncil of Churches of Christ in the US, and are used by permission.Quarterly Review:

Fall, 1992

C o p y r i g h t O 1 9 9 2 b y T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t P u b l i s h i n g H o u s ea n d T h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t B o a r d o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d M i n i s t r y

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i!

VOL. 12, NO. 3 FA LL 1992 [i

|ContentsI n t r o d u c t io n I

Sharon J. Hels 1 ;

ArticlesT h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y a n d A m e r i c a n P o li t ic a l V a l u e s

Frederick E. Blumer 3Th e La n g u a g e o f C o lo r in t h e S e r v i c e o f J u s t i c e

Rona ld J. Allen 17T e a c h i n g A u t h o r i t y in C u l t u r a l P e r s p e c t i v e

Charles R. Foster 27S t r a t e g i e s o f C h r i s t i a n Ed u c a t io n in M u l t i - C u l t u r a l S i t u a t io n sTaylor and June McConnell 39A n A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n M e t h o d o f R e l i g i o u s E d u c a t i o n

Joseph V. Crocke tt. 51C u l t u r a l P l u r a l i s m a n d t h e T e a c h i n g O f fi ce : W h e r e D o W e G o F r o m H e r e ?

Linda J. Vogel 65 :T h e o l o g y , M e d i c i n e a n d H e a l t h \

E. Clinton Gardner 71 \T h e S a c r a m e n t o f C a r e

James E. Sargent 85

QR Lectionary StudyTh e P a r a b le s o f Lu k e !

Rosanna Panizo 91

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7/117

Introduction

o m e o n e o n c e s a id t h a t t h e p a s t i s a f o r e ig n c o u n t r y ; t h e y d ot h in g s d i f fe r e n t ly t h e r e . O u r p a s t a s A m e r ic a n s i s in d e e d f o r e ig nt o u s ; t h e s e d a y s , i t s e e m s a s if w e c a n b a r e ly m a k e o u t a p a s s in gr e s e m b la n c e b e t w e e n o u r s e lv e s a n d t h e k e y fig ur es o f o u r n a t io n a ls tory .

But i t i s one th ing to see the ir o f f ic ia l portra i t s and another to heart h e m s p e a k . A f e w y e a r s a g o , in K e n Bu r n s ' s P BS s e r i e s , " Th e C iv i lW a r ," a ct o r s r e a d t h e w o r d s o f s o ld i e r s , g e n e r a l s , a n d c i t i z e n s f r o mb o t h S o u t h a n d N o r t h , i n c l u d i n g F r e d e r i c k D o u g l a s s , M a r yC h e s t n u t , R o b e r t E . L e e , a n d m o s t m a j e s ti c a l ly o f a l l, A b r a h a mL i n c o l n . F o r a m o m e n t , t h e s e p e o p l e s e e m e d a l i v e , p o s s e s s i n g t h es a m e n e e d s a n d c a p a c i t ie s t h a t w e b r in g t o o u r w o r ld to d a y . Th e yw e r e c o n f u s e d , o p p r e s s e d , o r e n n o b le d b y t h e w a r g o in g o n a r o u n dthem, jus t as we are by the soc ia l cr ises o f our own day . I f h is tory i sg o in g t o h e lp u s f in d m e a n in g in o u r w o r ld - i f w e a r e e v e n g o in g t oh a v e a n a t io n a l h i s t o r y - i t m u s t f ir st o f a l l d i s c lo s e t o u s t h i s s e n s e o ft h e h u m a n i t y o f o u r n a t io n a l a n c e s t o r s .

I n t h e h e a d l in e a r t i c l e t h i s q u a r t e r , F r e d e r i c k B lu m e r r e a c h e s b a c kt o t h e A m e r ic a n p a s t t o d i s c o v e r h o w t h e id e a s o f r e l i g io u s lib e r t y a n dj u s t i c e h a v e in f lu e n c e d h ig h e r e d u c a t io n , a n d in p a r t i c u la r U n i t e dM e t h o d i s t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .

I w o n d e r if i t w o u ld h e lp u s t o im a g in e Th o m a s J e f f e r s o n in h i ss tudy , and to read h is words a loud: "Truth i s great and wi l l preva i l i fleft to herself, t h a t s h e i s t h e p r o p e r a n d s u f f i c ie n t a n t a g o n i s t t oerror , and has noth ing to fear from the conf l ic t . . . errors ceas ing to bed a n g e r o u s w h e n i t i s p e r m i t t e d f r e e ly t o c o n t r a d ic t t h e m ." Th i s i scarefu l ly worded conv ic t ion , not mere ly po l i t ica l oratory , from a manw h o r e fl e c t ed fa i t h f u l ly o n t h e n a t u r e o f f r e e d o m in h u m a n s o c i e t y .B lu m e r ' s a r t i c le g iv e s u s a s e n s e o f w h o w e a r e a s a n a t io n a n d ad e m o n i n a t i o n i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e h u m a n i t y o f o u r

INTRODUCTION 1


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l eaders , and the app l i ca t i on o f the i r hear t s and m i nds to ques t i ons o ft h e c o m m o n g o o d .

P as tors and theo l og i ans even tua l l y fi nd ou t w ha t po e t s a l readyk n o w a b o u t w o r d s : t h e i r p o w e r t o e v o k e s e n s a t i o n i s m a t c h e d b ythe i r pow er to com m uni ca te va l ues , e i ther pos i t i ve or nega t i ve . T heH e b r e w p r o p h e t s w e r e m a s t e r s o f t h i s l a n g u a g e g a m e , e s p e ci a ll y i nthe tac t i c o f u s i ng co l or to m easure w orth : " C om e now , l e t u s argue i tou t , says the L ord: th ou gh yo ur s i ns be l i ke s car l e t , th ey sha l l be l i kesnow ; though they are red l i ke cr i m son , they sha l l becom e l i ke w oo l "(Isa . 1:18 NRSV) Because i t i s so ef fect ive , th i s equat ion of co lor andw o r t h m u s t b e q u e s t i o n e d w h e n i t i s a p p l i e d t o h u m a n b e i n g s .R on a l d A l l en i nv i t e s u s to s ee the con seq ue nce s o f our i m pl i c i t va l ues y s t e m s in t h e s e l a n g u a g e s y s t e m s - n o t m e r e l y to l o s e o u r s e l v e s ins e m a n t i c c o r r e c t n e s s .

O ur ser i e s on p l ura l i sm an d t eac h i n g au thor i ty i n th e ch urchc o n t i n u e s w i t h a s l a t e of t h r e e a r t ic l e s b y p r o m i n e n t U n i t e dM etho d i s t C h r i s t i an educa tors . C ha r l e s F os ter , a t E m ory U ni vers i ty ,r e v i e w s t h e d i l e m m a f ac i n g p a s t o r s a n d e d u c a t o r s w h e n t h e y r e a li z et h a t " o u r w a y o f d o i n g t h i n g s " is s i m p l y n o t c o m p r e h e n d e d b y agrow i ng nu m be r o f C h r i s t i ans f rom d if f eren t cu l tura l backgrou nds .B u i l d i ng on th e i n s i gh t s o f th e h i s tor i an o f educa t i on , L a w re nceC rem i n , h i s tor i an B ernard B a i l yn and anthropo l og i s t C l i f ford G eer tz ,F o s t e r a r g u e s t h a t n o n - E n g l i s h c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s s h o u l d b ew e l c o m e d w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h , n o t o v e r l o o k e d o r c o n d e m n e d a su n o r t h o d o x . H i s m o d e l fo r t h i s is h o s p i ta l it y t o t h e s t r a n g e r - s o u n db i b li ca l adv i ce for, a s w e know , " so m e ha ve en ter ta i ned ang e l sw i t h o u t k n o w i n g i t ."

T a y l o r a n d J u n e M c C o n n e l l b r i n g t h e i r l o n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t hm ul t i - cu l tura l m i n i s t ry i n to focus i n the i r ar t i c l e . T he i r w ork w i ththe three m ajor cu l tura l groups i n N or th C entra l N ew M ex i co , theP u e b l o In d i a n s , t h e H i s p a n o s , a n d t h e A n g l o s i s k e y h e r e : t h e y a r ethe t eachers , the m entors , and gu i des to d i f f eren t express i ons o f theg o s p e l. F o r J o s e p h C r o c k e tt , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n sm ust be the s tar t i ng po i n t for C hr i s t i an educa t i on i n anA fr i can-A m er i can contex t ; th e end po i n t is t ran s form at i on o f s e l f andsoc i e ty . B o th ar t i c l e s br i ng us i n to the cen ter o f m i nor i tyc o m m u n i t i e s , e n c o u r a g i n g d i a l o g u e , m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n dp e r s o n a l g r o w t h b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c a m p s .

F a l l i s here ; m ay our no tebooks be f re sh , our penc i l po i n t s sharp ,and our m i nds a t tuned to a l l the l e s sons be fore us !

2 Q U A R T E RL Y R EV IE W/F A L L 1 99 2


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Frederick E. Blumer

The U ni ted Methodis t U nivers i tyan d A m er ican Po l it ica l V a lu es/ t i s no t o f t en tha t one can say tw o d i s t i nc t i ve th i ngs w i th a s i ng l ew o r d . T h e G e r m a n w o r d Geschichte, t r a n s l a t e d b o t h a s historya n d a s story, prov i des tha t oppor tun i ty . T he Geschichte o f A m e r i c a nU n i t e d M e t h o d i s t e d u c a t i o n w o u l d b e a t o n c e it s c o m p l e t e d h i s t o r yand i t s i n s t i tu t i ona l l if e s tory , st i ll in th e m a ki ng . A m e r i ca n U n i tedM e t h o d i s t e d u c a t i o n i s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d b y Geschichte, a hi s tor ica lnarra t i ve d i s t i ngu i shed no t on l y by W es l eyan t rad i t i ons but a l so byd i s ti n c t ly A m e r i c a n p e r c e p t i o n s o f f r e e d o m a n d j u s t i c e .N arra t i ves , l i ke ora l t rad i t i ons , are o f t en d i scounted by those w hodef i ne h i s tory a s a s i m pl e recon s truc t i on o f pas t c i rcum stan ces . T heyk n o w t h a t w i t h t i m e a c c o u n t s o f t h e p a s t a r e e m b e l l i s h e d a s t h e y a r ere to ld . If one a s s um es th a t h i s tory con s i s t s exc l us i ve l y o f th ee m p i r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o m p r i s i n g e v e n t s , t h e n a n y e m b e l l i s h m e n to f th e account w o u l d obv i ous l y d i s tor t i t s m ean i ng . B ut i f onea s s u m e s t h a t h i s t o r y d e r iv e s a l s o f r o m t h e o r g a n i z i n g id e a s a n dopera t i ng a s sum pt i ons un i t i ng event s i n to a l i f e s tory (Geschichte),then the h i s tor i an m ust i dent i fy the card i na l f ea tures (w hether fac t s ,i deas , or presuppos i t i ons ) tha t form and i n form the s tory . H i s tor i anso f th i s var i e ty apprec i a te ora l t rad i t i ons , ev en l egen ds and m yth s .T h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e m e a n i n g o f s o m e h is t o r ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t sm ay have been be t ter captured i n ep i c poe try than i n chron i c l e or

F r e d e r ic k E . B lu m e r i s M o l l C h a ir o f F a i t h a n d L i f e a t B a ld w in - Wa l la c e C o l l e g ein B e r e a , O h io . T h i s e s sa y w i l l a p p e a r in a c o l l e c t io n o f e s sa y s e n t i t l e d " C h u r c ha n d U n i v e r s i ty : A R e c o m m i t m e n t , " t o b e p u b l i s h e d b y t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s tB o a r d o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d M i n i s t r y .

A M E R IC A N PO L IT IC A L V AL U E S 3


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p h o t o g r a p h i c p r o s e . The e m b e l l i s h m e n t s of s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n sm ay reca l the s t a k e of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d the i s s u e s a d d r e s s e d int h e i r s to r y . T h e y m a y e v e n b e c o m e l e g i t i m a t e p a r t s of the t rue s tory .H i s t o r y t e a c h e s b e c a u s e we see the s i gn i f i cance of ear l i er event s ast h e y a r e fitted i n t o the fu l l er s tory . Geschichte, hi s tory , is fact andstory . Efforts to r e c a p t u r e the bare fac t s , if not fut i l e , are cer ta i n l y nom ore i m portant than e f for t s to u n d e r s t a n d the i deas and organ i z i nga s s u m p t i o n s s y n t h e s i z i n g t h o s e f a c t s i n t o a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e .

T h i n k i n g a b o u t A m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t e d u c a ti o n as s u c h as t o r y e n c o u r a g e s us to l ook for c a r d in a l fe a t u r e s m a k i n g t h i s c h u n k ofhi s tory i nde l i b l e w h i l e a l so expec t i ng new e l e m e n t s to b e c o m ei n d i s p e n s a b l e to the s tory .Freedom of ReligionT w o d i s ti n c t iv e i d e a s t h a t e m e r g e d in c o l on i a l A m e r i c a h a v e b e c o m ed i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s of A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n s h a p i n g t h e c h a r a c t e ro f c o n t e m p o r a r y a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s as w e l l as thes e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h o s e w h o l e a d t h e m . L i k e h i s t o r ic a lc h r o m o s o m e s , t h e s e d i s t i n c t ly A m e r i c a n i d e a s h a v e a l s o o r d e r e d anduni f i ed the l i fe s tor ies of A m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t i n s t i t u ti o n s .

O n e of t h e s e i d e a s is T h o m a s J e f f e r so n 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g ofrel ig ious l iberty . By f o u n d i n g t h e U n i v e r s i t y of V i rg i n i a , Je f f er sonprov i ded a m o d e l t h a t u n i t e s e d u c a t i o n and re l i g i ous l i ber ty . Byf o u n d i n g t h e U n i v e r s i t y of V i rg i n i a , Je f f er son prov i ded a m o d e l t h a tun i te s educa t i on and re l i g i ous l i ber ty . He b e l i e v e d f e r v e n t l y in thefecundity of f r e e d o m ; it is p r e g n a n t . F r e e d o m not on l y reproducesi t se lf bu t g i ve s b i r th to di scovery . T he ta sk of a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ,there fore , is n o t to certi fy the c l a i m s of re l i g i ous t rad i t i ons but tofac i l i ta te i n te l l ec tua l grow th . B ut the r e s u l t is not n e c e s s a r i l y as e c u l a r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to Je f fer son ' s m ode l , byprotec t i ng re l i g i ous li ber ty dur i n g the i r s earch for t ru t h , eve nre l i g i ous i n s t i tu t i ons can be l e g i t i m a t e p a r t n e r s in the a c a d e m i centerpr i se . To preserve re l i g i ous l i ber ty , how ever , the a c a d e m y m u s tm a i n t a i n a c l ear d i s t i nc t i on be tw een educa t i on and s e c t a r i a np a r t i s a n s h i p . E d u c a t i o n is an e x p r e s s i o n of re l i g i ous l i ber ty . In itself,h o w e v e r , e d u c a t i o n is the bi r th of f r e ed o m . A u t h e n t i c e d u c a t i o n ise m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m i g n o r a n c e , s u p e r s t i t io n , and e r r o r t h r o u g hvo l untary r i sk , the ri sk of t a k i n g the u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e r i o u s l y e n o u g hto a l l ow d i scovery . It is a f reedo m even t over aga i ns t s ec tar i anp a r t i s a n s h i p , w h i c h is a c r u s a d e for o r t h o d o x y .

T h i s r a di ca l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e d u c a t i o n as an e x p r e s s i o n ofre l i g i ous l i ber ty is roo ted in the A m e r i c a n R e v o lu t i o n . U n i t e d

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M e t h o d i s t s a re i n d e b t e d t o T h o m a s J e f f er s o n a n d J a m e s M a d i s o n f ort h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t. A s k a n y g r o u p of A m e r i c a n U n i t e dM e t h o d i s t S u n d a y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n w h y t h e c o l o n ie s f o u g h t t h er e v o lu t io n a n d t w o a n s w e r s a r e l ik e ly t o s u r f a c e s im u l t a n e o u s ly .R e m e m b e r i n g t h e s t o r y of t h e B o s t o n t e a p a rt y , s o m e m a y s a y t h er e v o lu t io n w a s f o u g h t t o e s c a p e o p p r e s s iv e t a x a t io n . O t h e r s ,preferr ing to ge t to the heart o f the s tory , wi l l report that ther e v o lu t io n w a s a f ig ht f o r f r e e d o m . If y o u t h e n a s k w h a t f r e e d o mm e a n s , s o m e o n e w i l l s u r e ly t e l l a s t o r y a b o u t h o w p i lg r im s c a m e t ot h e n e w w o r l d t o e sc a p e r e li g i ou s p e r s e c u t io n . T h e A m e r i c a n m o d e lf or f r e e d o m i s c o m m o n ly e x p r e s s e d in t h e t e r m s J e f f e r s o n a n dM a d i s o n u s e d t o e x p la in t h e n a t u r e o f r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y . Th e s ec h a m p i o n s o f t h e f ir s t a m e n d m e n t e v e n t u a l l y p r o v id e d t h e n o r m s n o to n ly f o r r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y b u t f o r u n d e r s t a n d in g a c a d e m ic f r e e d o m a n df r e e d o m in g e n e r a l .

O n t h e e v e of t h e r e v o lu t io n , J e f f e r s o n a n d M a d i s o n in t e r p r e t e dr e l i g io u s l ib e r t y m o r e r a d ic a l ly t h a n t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w h oc o n s id e r e d t h e i r p h r a s in g o f t h e f i r s t a m e n d m e n t a lm o s t t o om y s t e r io u s t o b e r e a d ily a c c e p t e d . C o lo n ia l A m e r ic a n s a s s u m e d t h a tr e l i g io n w a s r e q u ir e d f or s o c ia l s t a b i li t y a n d t h a t a n e s t a b l i s h e dc h u r c h w a s n e e d e d t o p r e s e r v e a n y n a t i o n . T h u s , J o h n A d a m sa r g u e d f o r e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n in M a s s a c h u s e t t s . M o s t c o lo n ia lA m e r i c a n s , t h e re f o r e , b e l i e v e d t h a t r e l i g io u s d i s s e n t u n d e r m i n e d t h es o c ia l o r d e r. To b e s u r e , b e c a u s e t h e y h a d l e a r n e d f r o m h a r s he x p e r i e n c e t h e d a n g e r s o f r e l i g io u s t y r a n n y , " s t a t e s m o v e d q u ic k ly t oc u r t a il En g l i s h e c c l e s ia s ti c a l p o w e r A l l d i s c la i m e d . . . r e l i g io u sp e r s e c u t io n ; a l l a f f ir m e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f t o l e r a t io n . A p a r t f r o m t h i su n a n im i t y , h o w e v e r , o n e f o u n d in t h e r e v o lu t io n a r y e r a a n d w e l la f t e r m u c h u n c e r t a in t y a b o u t t h e l im i t s o r im p l i c a t io n s o f f u l lr e l i g io u s l ib e r t y ." 1 P r i o r t o t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n , r e l i gi o u sf r e e d o m w a s p u r s u e d b u t it h a d n o t y e t b e e n u n i v e r s a l l y g u a r a n t e e d .I t s even tua l ro le in th e l i fe s tory o f A m eric an ed ucat io na l ins t i tu t ion sw a s y e t t o b e d e t e r m i n e d .

W i t h h in d s ig h t w e c a n d i s c e r n t h a t a c iv i l r e l i g io n w i t h au t i l i t a r ia n f l a v o r , n o u r i s h e d b y t h e En g l i s h En l ig h t e n m e n t a n db a la n c e d b y a g r o w in g a v e r s io n t o t h e v io l e n c e o f t h e F r e n c hR e v o l u t i o n , w a s i n t h e m a k i n g . W h a t U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s n e e d t ou n d e r s t a n d , I b e l i e v e , i s t h a t t h e d e c l in e o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n inc o lo n ia l A m e r ic a i s e s s e n t ia l t o t h e s t o r y o f A m e r ic a n M e t h o d i s te d u c a t io n . Th e d e c l in e o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n a n d t h e s e p a r a t io n o fc h u r c h a n d s t a t e , m a n i f e s t e d e v e n t u a l ly in t h e s e c u la r i z a t io n o fA m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n , ar e n o t d e v e l o p m e n t s i m p o r t a n t o n l y i n t h es t o r y of A m e r ic a n p u b l i c in s t i t u t io n s ; t h e d e c l in e o f e s t a b l i s h e d

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r e l i g io n w a s a l s o d e c i s iv e in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f U n i t e d M e t h o d i s te d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s - a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s t o r y o ft h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y .

Th e a p p e a l o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n d e c l in e d s lo w ly . J e f f e r s o n s t a n d sa l m o s t m i d w a y b e t w e e n J a m e s t o w n a n d W a t e r g a t e : t h a t i s , a l m o s t a sm u c h c o lo n ia l h i s t o r y o c c u r r e d p r io r t o t h e f r a m in g o f t h e F ir s tA m e n d m e n t t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a s n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y h a s o c c u r r e ds in c e . S im i la r ly , t h e g e s t a t io n p e r io d o f r e l i g io u s f r e e d o m in t h eA m e r ic a n c o lo n ie s w a s l o n g a n d i t s b i r t h p r o t r a c t e d . Th e s to r y o fA m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h a p p e a r s i n v o l u m e t w oo f t h e A m e r ic a n s a g a , i s a k in d o f a d v e n t n a r r a t iv e in w h i c h r e l i g io u sf r e e d o m f in a lly b e c o m e s in s t i t u t io n a l i z e d . O n e of t h e r e m a r k a b lef e a t u r e s o f t h e s t o r y o f M e t h o d i s m i s t h a t i t w a s in t r o d u c e d t oA m e r ic a a n d p r o s p e r e d d u r in g a t im e o f r e a c t io n a g a in s t e s t a b l i s h e dr e l ig io n . I a m c o n v in c e d t h a t i t s r e m a r k a b le g r o w t h u n d e r t h e s ec o n d i t io n s w a s n o t a c c id e n t a l .

H a d t h e a p p e t i t e f o r a n e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h n o t b e e n s o s t r o n ga m o n g m a n y in f lu e n t ia l c o lo n ia l s , s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e d a n g e r s o fr e l ig i o u s t y r a n n y m i g h t n e v e r h a v e b e c o m e s o a c u t e a m o n g t h o s ef r a m i n g t h e B i l l o f R i g h t s . T h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s m a y n o t h a v e b e e no p p r e s s i v e t h e o c r a c i e s , b u t n e i t h e r d i d t h e y c h a m p i o n r e l i g io u sl i b e rt y a s w e e x p e r i e n c e i t t o d a y . 2 T h e P u r i t a n s w e r e n o t n o t e d f o rr e l i g io u s t o l e r a t io n a n d t h e y r a r e ly d i s p la y e d t h e k in d o f im p a r t ia l i t yw e c o m m o n l y a s s o c ia t e w i t h t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t . R e l i g i o u s l i b er t y i nA m e r i c a d id n o t l a n d o n P l y m o u t h R o c k w i t h t h e M a y f lo w e r ! E d w i nG a u s t a d e v e n s u g g e s t s t h a t if R o g e r W i l l i a m s h a d n o t b e e n f o r c ib lye j e ct e d f r o m M a s s a c h u s e t t s i n 1 6 3 7 , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t h e w o u l d h a v eb e c o m e s u c h a d e t e r m i n e d v o i c e f or r e l i g io u s l i b e r t y - o r t h a t i n 1 6 6 3h e w o u l d h a v e s o u g h t a c h a r t e r fo r R h o d e I s la n d o f fe r in g " t h e m o s te x p l i c i t g u a r a n t e e o f r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y t h a t t h e N e w W o r ld h a d y e ts e e n . " 3

P e r h a p s t h e b e s t e x a m p le o f r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y in t h e c o lo n ie s w a sP e n n s y l v a n i a . B u t a s G a u s t a d s a y s , e v e n W i l l i a m P e n n c a n b e f u l lyu n d e r s t o o d o n ly in t h e l i g h t o f t h e p e r s e c u t io n o f Q u a k e r s in E n g la n da n d I re la n d d u r in g t h e m id d le d e c a d e s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t c r ie s f o r r e l ig i o u s l i b er t yh a d b e e n h e a r d f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y b e f o r e J e f f e r s o n a n d M a d i s o nf o rm u l a te d t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t . 4

R h o d e I s l a n d a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a w e r e e x c e p t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t h er u le . I t w a s n o t t h e c o lo n ia l c h u r c h e s w h o g a v e b i r t h t o r e l i g io u sl ib e r t y in t h e n e w n a t io n ; g e n u in e r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y w a n d e r e d a s a no r p h a n i n c o l on i a l A m e r i c a u n t i l e v e n t u a l l y i t w a s g u a r a n t e e d b y t h eBi l l o f R ig h t s . I t a c q u ir e d a p e r m a n e n t h o m e o n ly a ft e r i t w a s

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e m b r a c e d a n d a d o p t e d b y s p e ci fi c A m e r i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . R e l i g i o u sl i ber ty i s never secure unt i l i t i s i n s t i tu t i ona l i zed . T he gen i us o f theF i r s t A m e n d m e n t a n d o f A m e r i c a n M e t h o d i s m i s t h a t n e i t h e ra t t e m p t e d t o s e c u r e t h e i r f u t u r e s t h r o u g h established re l i g i on .R a t h e r , t h e n a t i o n w a s t o b e s e c u r e d b y g u a r a n t e e i n g r e l ig i o u sl ib e r t y a s i m m u n i t y fr o m r e l i g io u s o b li g a ti o n . A m e r i c a n M e t h o d i s msecured i t s ow n fu ture by e s tab l i sh i ng co l l eges tha t chose to em bodyre l i g i ous l i ber ty a s a d i s t i ng u i sh i ng c harac ter t ra i t .

I do no t m ean to sugges t tha t re l i g i ous l i ber ty w as m ere l y an a f t er t h o u g h t o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n . B u t n e i t h e r w a s t h e A m e r i c a nR evo l u t i on a re l i g i ous revo l t . (T he burrs under K i ng G eorge ' s sadd l eb l ank et w e re o f a d if f eren t sor t .) I am s i m p l y observ i ng th a tJe f f er son ' s form ul a for re l i g i ous f reedom evo l ved gradua l l y i n arevo l u t i onary c l i m a te a s a reac t i on to the i nh er i t ed d i spos i t i onco l on i a l s had for e s tab l i shed re l i g i on , tha t th e f ir st am en dm en t w a s ar e f i n e m e n t o f P e n n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e l i g io u s li b e rt y , a n d t h a th a v i n g m a t u r e d , t h i s d is t i n c tl y A m e r i c a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e li g i o u sf r e e d o m i n f e c t e d M e t h o d i s m a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n i t s a r r i v a l i nA m e r i c a . 5 H e nce f or th i t has becom e one o f th e d i s t inc t i ve f ea tu res o fA m e r i c a n M e t h o d i s t e d u c a ti o n .

J e f f e r s o n ' s a n d M a d i s o n ' s c o m m o n g o a l h a d b e e n t o g u a r a n t e efreedom o f re l i g i ous express i on by the au thor i ty o f governm ent .R e l i g i ous l i ber ty had to be an i n tegra l f ea ture o f the n ewg o v e r n m e n t . 0 T he ques t i on w as how re l i g i ous l i ber ty cou l d poss i b l ybe i n s t i tu t i ona l i zed , em bod i ed i n the s t ruc ture o f governance ,w i t h o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y g i v i n g o n e r e l i g i o n a d v a n t a g e o v e r a n o t h e ra n d t h e r e b y u n d e r m i n i n g t h e r e l i g io u s li b e r t y of d i s s e n t e r s . T o s o l v eth i s d i l em m a they chose these w ords : " A l l persons sha l l have fu l l andfree l iberty of re l ig ious opinion; nor shal l any be compel l ed tof r e q u e n t o r m a i n t a i n a n y r e l i g io u s i n s t i t u t i o n . " 7 F r e e d o m fo r rel ig ionm u s t h e n c e f o r t h b e g u a r a n t e e d b y f r e e d o m from rel ig ion!

W h a t is t r u l y d is t i n c ti v e a b o u t t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t g u a r a n t e e o fre l i g i ous l i ber ty i s no t tha t i t pro te c t s re l i g i ous exp ress i o n bu t tha t i tdoes so by prov i d i ng i m m uni ty to any re l i g i ous ob l i ga t i on w hatever .Je f f er son ' s gen i us w as i n captu r i ng w i th prec i s i on an i ns i gh t tha tW i l l i a m P e n n , R o g e r W i l l i a m s , a n d J a m e s M a d i s o n s h a r e d : t h epro tec t i on o f d i s sen t i ng op i n i on i s never guaranteed unt i l ob l i ga t i onsto express any re l i g i ous op i n i on w hatsoever are succes s fu l l y rem oved .T h e y w e r e o f o n e m i n d i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h ed i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o t e c t i o n t h r o u g h e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d p r o t e c t i o nt h r o u g h i m m u n i t y . A g u a r a n t e e o f f r e e r e li g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n b y t h eauthor i ty o f governm ent cannot be ach i eved by a f ford i ng re l i g i ousexpr ess i on s o f fi ci al s t a tus , tha t i s, by e s t ab l i sh i ng th i s or tha t

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re l i g ious op i n i on o f fi ci al ly by th e pow e r o f gov ern m ent . T he gran t i ngof of f i c ia l sanct ion to one express ion of re l ig ious opinion, they sawc l ear l y , i s s i m u l tan eou s l y a thre a t to th e re l i g i ous l i ber ty of a l l w h oespouse a d i s sen t i ng re l i g i ous op i n i on . T he on l y w ay to preserve ther e l ig i o u s l ib e r t y of e v e r y o n e i s t o g r a n t i m m u n i t y t o t h o s e w h o w o u l dnever e spouse re l i g i ous op i n i ons a t a l l !

I t i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y s o m e w i t h s l o w e r w i t , i rk e d b yJe f fer son ' s re fusa l to pro fe s s re l i g i on i n pub l i c , accu sed h i m o f be i n goppo sed to a l l r e l i g i on . B ut ra ther than re f l ec t i ng an avers i on tore l i g ion , Je f f er son ' s re fusa l to d i scu ss h i s re l i g i ous op i n i on s pu b l i c l yref l ects an acute sens i t iv i ty to the vulnerabi l i ty of re l ig ious l iberty . I ti s i nev i tab l e tha t an e s tab l i shed re l i g i on w i l l c rush d i s sen t . A zea l ousp u r s u i t o f o r t h o d o x y i n e v i t a b l y t h r e a t e n s r e l ig i o u s f r e e d o m b e c a u s e i tw i shes to be done w i th the re l i g i ous ques t for t ru th . I t s ee s no need toam end e s tab l i shed confes s i ons ; i t abhors reve l a t i on a s a continuings tory , and consequent l y has no appet i t e for surpr i s i ng , a l i en rec i pes .E s ta b l i sh re l i g i on and be done w i t h i t! H e ur i s t i c educa t i on , yo u see , i sn o t r e al ly n e e d e d . B u t A m e r i c a n M e t h o d i s t s q u i c k ly l e a r n e d b e t t e r .

T o m any , then and now , Je f f er son ' s rad i ca l so l u t i on seem s tothr ea te n i n s t i tu t i on a l i zed re l ig i on ra the r th an gua ran tee re l i g i ousl iberty . Rel ig ious freedom of indiv idual s i s f ine , they ins i s t , but i t i sm u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o p r e s e r v e t h e f u t u r e o f t h o s e r e l i g io u si n s t i t u t i o n s u p o n w h i c h i n d i v id u a l s d e p e n d f o r s u s t e n a n c e . A n d i fi n s t i tu t i ona l i zed re l i g i on i s to be guaranteed a fu ture , then the pow ero f g o v e r n m e n t m u s t b e d e p l o y e d o n i t s behalf. H ow i s f ree re l i g i ousexpress i on i n th i s i n s t i tu t i ona l form to be pro tec ted aga i ns t po l i t i ca ltyran ny i f i t i s no t e s tab l i shed i n perpe tu i ty? C an re l i g i ous f reedo me x i s t a p a r t f r o m t h e p o w e r o f g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t y u p h o l d i n gre l i g i ous i n s t i tu t i ons? D o no t f ree re l i g i ous i n s t i tu t i ons requ i repro tec t i on equa l to tha t en joyed by i nd i v i dua l s or endow m ents? O rsha l l the church be com pe l l ed forever to com pete for i t s fu ture and todepend upon each genera t i on to red i scover and perpe tua te the fa i th?A n d a p a r t f r o m t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f b e l i e f f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t ogenera t i on , how does re l i g i on surv i ve? D oes no t re l i g i ous l i ber tyde f i ned as i m m uni ty f rom re l i g i ous ob l i ga t i on doom i ns t i tu t i ona lre l i g i on to des truc t i on?

T h i s form ul a t i on o f th e d i l em m a i s on l y s l i gh t l y d i f f eren t f romargum ents for e s tab l i shed re l i g i on or appea l s for sanc t i ons pro tec t i ngr e l ig i o u s o r t h o d o x y . I t e c h o e s t h e d e m a n d s o f t h o s e w h o c o n s i d e r t h es t o r y a l r ea d y t o l d . A m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t e d u c a t i o n a li ns t i tu t i ons , how ever , have pursued the re l i g i ous s tory , contr i butedt o t h e s t o r y, w e l c o m e d d i s s e n t b e c a u s e i t o p e n s t h e s o u l t o c o n t i n u i n greve l a t i on and spurs the m i nd to d i scovery . R eason ra ther than

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p o w e r i s t h e p r o p e r c h a m p io n o f r e l i g io n . R e l ig io u s f a i t h d o e s n o ts i l e n c e d o u b t b y e s t a b l i s h in g o r t h o d o x y ; f a i t h m o v e s b e y o n d d o u b t b ya n e x e r c i s e o f f r e e d o m in t h e c o m p e t i t i o n o f c o n t e n d in g o p in io n s .W h e r e t h e r e a r e n o a d v e r s a r i e s , t h e r e i s n e i t h e r f a i t h n o r d o u b t , 8

American JusticeS a m I r w i n , w h o b e c a m e a n A m e r i c a n fo lk h e r o w h i l e s e r v i n g i n t h eS e n a t e , o n c e o b s e r v e d t h a t " l ib e r t y c a n n o t e x i s t e x c e p t u n d e r ag o v e r n m e n t o f l a w s , " e c h o i n g t h e w o r d s o f D a n i e l W e b s t e r :" W h a t e v e r g o v e r n m e n t i s n o t a g o v e r n m e n t o f l a w s is a d e s p o t i s m ,l e t it b e c a l l ed w h a t i t m a y ." Be c a u s e l a w c o n s t i t u t e s a m a j o r p o r t io nof th e lang uag e o f soc ia l ob l igat ion , law is c lear ly one o f th ep r e - r e q u i s i t e s o f j u s t i c e in a c o m p le x s o c i e t y a n d in t e r n a t io n a le c o n o m y . W e d e p e n d u p o n la w t o s e c u r e a n d p r e s e r v e j u s t i c e . I t i ss i m p l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e , a s I r w i n a n d W e b s t e r c l a im e d .

Bu t w h a t is t h e l a w , e s s e n t ia l l y ? A n d h o w d o d i f f e r e n tu n d e r s t a n d i n g s of l a w p e r se a f f e c t o u r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f j u s t i c e ?P r o f e s s o r W o l f g a n g M a r e s c h , f o r m e r R e c t o r o f t h e U n iv e r s i t y o fG r a z , A u s t r ia , a n d P r o f e s s o r o f F o r e n s i c M e d ic in e , f i rs t o p e n e d m ye y e s t o t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h i s b a s i c q u e s t io n . I n a c a s u a l y e t s e r io u sl u n c h e o n c o n v e r s a t i o n s h a r e d w i t h J o h n P . H u m e s , w h o w a s t h e ns e r v i n g a s A m b a s s a d o r f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o A u s t r i a , a n dA r t h u r P r i c e , h i s c u lt u r a l a t t a c h e , w e e x p lo r e d t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t io no f h o w t o c o n t r o l c r im e w h i l e p r e s e r v in g l ib e r t y . A s w e w r e s t l e d w i t ht h e s e p o t e n t ia l l y c o n t r a d ic t o r y o b j e c t iv e s , i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a tn o t h in g l e s s t h a n o u r a s s u m p t io n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f l a w i t s e l f w e r eat s take .

P u b l i c o u t r a g e in r e s p o n s e t o c r im e i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d a s a d e m a n dt o e n f o r c e t h e l a w . M a n y w h o v o i c e s u c h d e m a n d s t o e n f o r c e t h e l a wa s s u m e t h a t a n id e a l d e fin i t io n o f j u s t i c e u n d e r g ir d s t h e l a w a n d t h a tt h i s id e a l i s l o g i c a ll y p r io r t o h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e , in c lu d in g t h ec o m m is s io n o f c r im e s . It i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h i s id e a l e m b o d ie d in l a ws h o u ld g u id e h u m a n b e h a v io r in j u s t t h e w a y t h a t a P la t o n ic id e am ig h t . I f b e h a v io r c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h i s id e a l i z e d n o r m , i t i s c o n s id e r e dj u s t ; d e v ia t io n s f r o m i t a r e c o n d e m n e d . I t i s t h e r e s p o n s ib i l i t y o fg o v e r n m e n t t o s e c u r e c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e n o r m . Th e id e a l o f j u s t i c eb r in g s w i t h i t a n id e a l l a w ( a s d i s t in g u i s h e d f r o m s p e c i f i c l a w s , w h ic ha d m i t t e d ly m a y b e c a r v e d ) . Be c a u s e l a w per se i s a g iv e n , e x i s t e n t ia lq u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e d e f in i t i o n s o f l a w a n d i t s o p p o s i t e , c r im e , a r en e v e r s e r io u s ly e x p lo r e d o r e n t e r t a in e d . Th e o n ly p o s s ib l e r e a c t io n t ocr ime, therefore , i s outrage .



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P r o f e s s o r M a r e s c h a t t r ib u t e d t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e ofl a w t o t h e J u s t i n i a n C o d e ( 5 2 8 A.D.), s u g g e s t i n g t h a t m o s t E u r o p e a nn a t io n s h a v e d e v e lo p e d t h e i r o w n l e g a l t r a d i t i o n s b a s e d o n a ni n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f R o m a n l a w a n d i t s id e a l i ze d a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h en a t u r e o f j u s t i c e . En g l i s h c o m m o n la w , fo r e x a m p le , h e in s i s t e d , c a nb e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e N a p o le o n ic C o d e , s im p ly o n t h e b a s i s o f i t sa s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f j u s t i c e . T h e M a g n a C a r t a ( 1 2 1 5 A.D. )a s s u m e d t h a t j u s t i c e , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a n id e a l i z e d p r e - e x i s t e n tn o r m , i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t m u s t in c e s s a n t l y b e w o r k e d o u t b y h u m a nb e in g s . I t d o e s n o t e x i s t p r io r t o t h e i r d e l ib e r a t io n s a b o u t i t . I n s t ea d ,i t f l o w s l ik e a m ig h t y s t r e a m f r o m h u m a n m in d s e n g a g e d in d e b a t ea b o u t t h e ir m u t u a l a n d c o r p or a t e r e s p o n s i b i li t i es , t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t sa n d a s p ir a t io n s . J u s t i c e i s t h e p r o d u c t o f d o u b t (Ver-zwei-flung, t h ed iv i s io n of t h e m in d ) r e p e a t e d ly o v e r c o m e in c o u r t s t h a t r e ly u p o n a na d v e r s a r y s y s t e m , c a s e b y c a s e , t o f o r m u la t e d e f in i t i o n s o f j u s t i c e .T h e j u r y s y s t e m i s n o a f t e r t h o u g h t . T h e j u r y s y s t e m a n d t h ea d v e r s a r y s y s t e m u n d e r ly in g it a r e e s s e n t ia l b e c a u s e j u s t i c e i s n o tc o n f o r m i t y : j u s t i c e i s p lu r a l ! J u s t i c e a s t h e a p p l i c a t io n o f p r e c e d e n tm u s t a l s o b e t h e o c c a s io n o f l ib e r t y a n d a p p l i c a t io n o f f r e e d o m t o t h es p e c i f i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o n s t i t u t in g t h e c a s e s in q u e s t io n .

T h i s l u n c h e o n c o n v e r s a t i o n m a d e e v e n t h e V i e n n a t o r t e s e e mb la n d ( p l e a s e e x c u s e t h e p u n ) . It h e lp e d m e s e e t h a t p r e d e t e r m in e dd e f in i t i o n s o f j u s t i c e a r e b o t h n e e d e d a n d d a n g e r o u s . Th e y a r en e e d e d b e c a u s e n o m u l t i p li c i t y o f r u l i n g s o r p r o n o u n c e m e n t s c a n b ef a s h io n e d in t o a c o h e r e n t s y s t e m o f l a w u n t i l p r e c e d e n t i s t a k e ns e r io u s ly . P r io r o r d e r in s o m e s e n s e i s r e q u ir e d i f a n y a c t io n i s t oh a v e a s si g n a b l e m e a n i n g , d e p e n d a b l e o r a n t i c ip a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s ,a n d t h u s u t i l i ty . P r e d e t e r m in e d d e f in i t i o n s of j u s t i c e b e c o m ed a n g e r o u s w h e n w e a s s u m e t h a t p r e c e d e n t s su f fi c e. P r o f e s s o rM a r e s c h ' s p o in t w a s n o t t o d i s c o u n t t h e r o l e of p r e c e d e n t ; i t w a s t or e v e a l t h e r o l e a n d im p o r t a n c e o f f r e e d o m ( n o v e l t y ) in o u r d e f in i t i o n so f j u s t i c e . Th o s e w h o s t r iv e t o b e r e s p o n s ib l e in a c h a n g in g w o r ld ,t h o s e w h o a r e f a c e d w i t h u n p r e c e d e n t e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r n e wi s s u e s , c a n n o t a s s u m e t h a t p r e c e d e n t w i l l b e a d e q u a t e t o t h eo c c a s io n . Th o s e w h o r e c o g n iz e n o t o n ly t h e o b l ig a t io n s u n d e r g ir d in gt h e status quo b u t w h o a l s o a c k n o w le d g e t h e i r r e s p o n s ib i l i t y f o r t h ela w i t s e l f ( t h a t i t a lw a y s b e g o o d la w , n o w a s w e l l a s t h e n ) , w i l lc o n s e n t t o a p u b l ic d e b a t e a b o u t t h e d e m a n d s o f j u s t i c e a n d w i l lc e l e b r a t e t h e c o m b in e d w i s d o m o f c o u r t s , o f j u r i e s , o f c o n t e n d in gla w y e r s a n d o f d o u b t f u l m in d s . Th e p r o b le m i s n o t m e r e ly t h a tj u s t i c e i s o f te n h id d e n ; t h e m o r e d i ff ic u l t p r o b le m i s t h a t j u s t i c e i so f ten not ye t fu l ly def ined .

10 QUARTERLY REVIEW / FALL 191)2


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M ar t i n B ub er on ce to ld a H a s i d i c ta l e to i ll u s tra te tha t one o f therecurr i ng i ron i e s o f l if e i s tha t w e un der s tan d i m p orta nt t ru ths on l ya f ter they are revea l ed i n a fore i gn tongue by a s t ranger . 9 W h a t Ih e a r d in m y E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g m i n d w a s s u r e l y n o t e x a c t ly w h a tP r o f e s s o r M a r e s c h s a i d i n G e r m a n . D u r i n g t h e y e a r s t h a t h a v ei n tervene d , I hav e sure l y car i ca tured h i s i n s i gh t s or a t t r i buted to h i mi n v e n t i o n s o f m y o w n im a g i n a t i o n . B u t w h a t a w o n d e r f u l e x a m p l esuch accre t i ons are o f th e cruc ia l po i n t m ad e dur i ng th a tc o n v e r s a ti o n ! P e r h a p s s o m e t h i n g n e w o u g h t t o oc c u r! I f t h e p o i n t o ftha t conversa t i on w as tha t such de l i bera t i ons m ust cont i nue i f theyare to preserve the au th ent i c i ty o f the i r subjec t m a t ter ( jus t i ce ) , the nperhaps the conversa t i on w e had over l unch i n G raz can i t s e l f be am o d e l t o i l lu s t r a t e h o w j u s t i c e m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d - t h r o u g hd e l i b e r a t i o n - a n d w h y j u s t i c e is n e v e r fu l ly u n d e r s t o o d i f w e p o n d e ri t abstract ly or apply i t to ourse lves in s tat i c i so lat ion. Just i ce i ss h a r e d . I ts d e f i n it i o n s m u s t e x p a n d w i t h c o m m u n i t y e x p e r i e n c e .B e c a u s e t h e c o n v e r s a t io n I h a d w i t h P r o f es s o r M a r e s c h , A m b a s s a d o rH um e, and A r thu r P r i ce surpr i sed u s a l l, th e conversa t i on i s i t s e l f ap a r a d i g m o f t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h j u s t i c e o c c u r s a n d i se v e n t u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d .

T h at our de l i bera t i ons ab out jus t i ce shou l d ha ve y i e l deda g r e e m e n t i s r e m a r k a b l e . T h i n k i n g t h e t h o u g h t s o f o t h e r s a n dl earn i ng f rom them i s no t s i m pl e . E ven m ore rem arkab l e , how ever , i sthe fac t tha t su cces s fu l deliberations a l s o p r o d u c e u n p r e c e d e n t e dsurpr i se s . T h ey revea l the cha rac ter and na tu re o f ju s t i ce itself, n o ton l y by revea l i ng w ha t jus t i ce h as requ i red (pre cedent ) bu t bysurpr i s i ng us w i th w hat e l s e i t herew i th does and hence for th sha l li nvo l ve . B ut m os t re m ar kab l e o f a l l, th e d i scovery tha t jus t i ce re f lec t sthe i n s i gh t s o f divergent m i n d s a n d c a n b e d i s c o v e r e d a m i d t h edeliberation of adversaries i s the m os t en l i gh ten i ng i n s i gh t o f a l l .A m er i can jur i sp rud ence i s d i s t i nc t i ve by v i r tu e o f i t s refusa l toes tab l i sh jus t i ce a s an e so ter i c and i dea l i zed nor m . A m e r i canjur i spr ude nce i s d i s t i nc t i ve by v i r tue o f i t s de l ibera te and consc i ousi ns i s t en ce th a t jus t i ce , ra ther tha n m er e l y requ i r i ng th e enforcemento f t h e l a w , d e m a n d s t h e application o f l a w a s a m e c h a n i s m f o rde f i n i ng jus t i ce a s w e a t t em pt to shou l der re spon s i b i l ity i nc o m m u n i t y .

T h i s d i s t i nc t ion be tw ee n law as the em bo d i m en t of an i dea l i zedn o r m a n d l a w a s a m e c h a n i s m f o r s h o u l d e r i n g r e s p o n s i b i li t yi n f lu e n c e d A m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t e d u c a t i o n a s m u c h a s a n yfea ture of our theo l og i ca l t rad i t i on . A m er i ca n U n i ted M etho d i s teduca t i on i s d i s t i ngu i shed i n l arge par t by i t s dependence upon w hatP ro fes sor M are sch i dent i fi ed a s th e d i s t i nc t ive f ea ture o f A m e r i ca n



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j u r i s p r u d e n c e , n a m e l y its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f j u s t i c e as the occas i on ofl ib e r t y . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f j u s t i c e i m p l i e s t h a te d u c a t i o n m u s t r e c o n c i l e k n o w l e d g e ( p r e c e d e n t ) w i t h d i s c o v e r y (theu n p r e c e d e n t e d ) . It m u s t r e s i s t e s t a b l i s h e d o r t h o d o x y if it is tog u a r a n t e e its ow n fu ture and avo i d se l f -des truc t i on .S i m p l y p u t , we i n s u r e the i n tegr i ty of e d u c a t i o n in exac t l y thes a m e w a y t h a t we p e r p e tu a t e j u s t i c e - n o t m e r e l y by e n f o r c i n ge d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s but by e v o k i n g t h e p e r p e t u a l c o m m i t m e n t ofc o n t e n d i n g m i n d s to u s e w h a t is k n o w n as a m e c h a n i s m fors h o u l d e r i n g r e s p o n s i b i li t y for d i s c o v e r y o f w h a t is yet u n k n o w n . Wed o not of ten l earn f rom l i ke -m i nded tu tors . O n l y those w ho surpr i seu s , c h a l l e n g e our o p i n i o n s a n d i n s i s t t h a t we s h o u l d e r t h e b u r d e n ofproof for our convict ions of fer us an o p p o r t u n i t y for e d u c a t i o n .

Summary and Implications for EducationT he s tory of A m e r i c a n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t ed u c a t i o n as I i n t e r p r e t it isa d r a m a in w h i c h l e a d i n g r o l e s are a s s i g n e d to tw o d i s t i nc t l yA m e r i c a n v a l u e s : r e li g i o u s li b e r t y as J e f f e r s o n u n d e r s t o o d it a n dsocia l just i ce as our adversar i a l cour t sy s tem de f i nes it. R e l i g i o u sl i ber ty and soc i a l ju s t i ce are keys ton es of e d u c a t i o n and p r e r e q u i s i t e so f acad em i c i n tegr i ty . The c h a l l e n g e s of these po l i t i ca l va l ues energ i zethe academ i c en terpr i se , con tr i bute to the c h a r a c t e r of s c h o l a r s andi n s t i t u t i o n s , and protec t the i r i n tegr i ty . E ducat i on , in the f inala n a l y s i s , is a q u e s t for f r e e d o m a n d j u s t i c e .

T h e m a j o r p r e m i s e u n d e r g i r d i n g my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th i s s tory asa s tory about f reedom is tha t l i ber ty , a p r e r e q u i s i t e b o t h for fa i th ande d u c a t i o n , c a n n o t be p r e s e r v ed t h r o u g h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t ofo r t h o d o x y . F r e e d o m , w h e t h e r r e l i g i o u s or a c a d e m i c , r e q u i r e si m m u n i t y f r o m o b l i g a t i o n s to e s p o u s e specified op i n i ons , tha t i s , toe q u a t e t h e c l a i m s of o r t h o d o x y w i t h t r u t h a n d j u s t i c e . O t h e r w i s e , onecou l d never l eg i t i m ate l y en ter ta i n d i s sen t i ng op i n i ons , l earns o m e t h i n g n e w , or e v e n d e e p e n o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o m e t h i n g o l d .

T h e m i n o r p r e m i s e of my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th i s s tory as a s torya b o u t j u s t i c e is t h a t j u s t i c e is p r o p e r l y d e t e r m i n e d c a s e by case bya n t a g o n i s t s d e l ib e r a t i n g in an a d v e r s a r y s y s t e m . J u s t i c e u n d e r s t o o di n t h i s d is t in c t l y A m e r i c a n way d o e s not m e re l y to l era te d i f f erenceso f op i n i on ab out soc i a l r e spons i b i l i ty ; it cap i ta l i ze s on thec o n t r i b u t i o n s of di s sen t i ng op i n i on . Jus t i ce does no t br i ng order outof confl ict by ex trac t i ng conform i ty to s o m e p r e - e x i s t e n t i d e a l .N e i t h e r d o e s j u s t i c e h o m o g e n i z e ; it s y n t h e s i z e s . J u s t i c e is ad i a le c ti c al p r o c e s s t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s e m b e l l i s h m e n t s of t h e h u m a n

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s tory by expanding the hor izons o f respons ib i l i ty . Just ice i s ano c c a s io n of f r e e d o m w i t h in a n o r d e r ly y e t c h a n g in g w o r ld .

Th e g e n e r a l c o n c lu s io n t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e s e p r e m is e s i s t h a ta u t h e n t i c e d u c a t io n i s heuristic . I t i s e n d le s s d i s c o v e r y - b o t h f o rin d iv id u a l s w h o o p e n t h e m s e lv e s t o t h e u n k n o w n a n d f o r u n iv e r s i t i e sw h o in s t i t u t io n a l i z e d i s c o v e r y b y f a c i l it a t in g f r e e in q u ir y . L e a r n in gp r e s u p p o s e s r e s p e c t f o r t h e u n k n o w n a n d i s s u e s f r o m t h e e x p e c t a t io nt h a t w h a t h a s n o t y e t h a p p e n e d a n d i s n o t y e t u n d e r s t o o d m a ye n h a n c e w h a t i s a l r e a d y b e l i e v e d . I d e o lo g y a n d o r t h o d o x y e n c o u r a g ein t e l l e c t u a l s u i c id e . R a t h e r t h a n p r e s e r v in g i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y b yc e r ti f y in g o r t h o d o x y o r e x p o s in g t h e t r u t h , e d u c a t io n e a r n s i t s k e e pb y p e r p e t u a l ly s h o u ld e r in g t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f f o r i t s e x p a n d in gc la im s a n d c o n c lu s io n s .

The d i lemma Jef ferson faced in h is e f for t to preserve re l ig iousl ib e r ty a n d t h e d i l e m m a t h a t A m e r ic a n j u r i s p r u d e n c e f a c e s in i t se f for t to ach ie ve jus t ice i s th e sam e d i le m m a educ at ion faces in i t se f for ts to remain heur is t ic and thereby to o f fer deference to whateverth e fu ture revea ls . Re l ig ious l iberty , soc ia l jus t ice , and educat io n , a l lt h r e e , a r e p la c e d in j e o p a r d y b y t h e d e m a n d s o f m i s g u id e d c h a m p io n sw h o in s i s t u p o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t t o in s u r e t h e f u t u r e . Ea c h o f t h e t h r e em u s t p r e s e r v e s o m e t h i n g p r e c i o u s - l i b e r t y , e q u i t y , o rk n o w l e d g e - b u t w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g t h e f u t u r e b y i d ol i z in g t h e p a s t .A l l m u s t p r o te c t w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n a c h ie v e d b u t n o t a t t h ee x p e n s e o f f o r s a k in g w h a t i s y e t t o b e r e v e a l e d . A l l t h r e e m u s t a l l o wn o v e l t y , w h e t h e r in t h e g u i s e o f c r e a t iv i t y , u n p r e c e d e n t e drespons ib i l i ty , or d iscovery , i t s r ight fu l ro le in the on-go ing s tory .N o v e l t y a lo n e d i s t in g u i s h e s t h e f u t u r e f r o m t h e p a s t a n d k e e p s t h es tory a l ive . Ju st as Je f ferson u nde rsto od that w e cann ot pre server e l i g io u s l ib e r t y t h r o u g h e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n , a n d j u s t a s A m e r ic a nj u r i s t s u n d e r s t a n d t h a t j u s t i c e c a n n o t b e w e l l s e r v e d b y p r e c e d e n ta lo n e , e d u c a t io n m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a u t h e n t i c a c a d e m ic e n t e r p r i s emust shoulder the burden o f proof for i t s c la ims . In tegr i ty ine d u c a t io n c a n n o t b e p r e s e r v e d b y a t t e m p t in g t o b e d o n e w i t hd iscovery or by es ta b l i sh ing acade mi c orthod oxy onc e for a l l .

To in s i s t t h a t e v e r y o n e in c e s s a n t ly b e a r t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f fo ro n e ' s r e l i g io u s , l e g a l , m o r a l , a n d s c i e n t i f i c o p in io n s - e v e n t h o s ec o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d - i s i n s u l t i n g t o t h o s e w h o s e e t h e m s e l v e s a sp a r t i s a n s o f t r u t h . I t s e e m s t o t h e m a d i s h o n o r a b le b u r d e n , o n e t h a tq u e s t io n s t h e r e a l i ty of t r u t h a n d o n e t h a t c h a l l e n g e s r a t h e r t h a npreserves the ach ievements o f h is tory . I t i s iron ica l that re l ig iousl ib e r t y s h o u ld b e s e r v e d b y g r a n t in g im m u n i t y t o r e l i g io u s belief, t h a tj u s t i c e c a n b e s e r v e d b y a d v e r s a r i e s w h o s e d e l ib e r a t io n s g o b e y o n d

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p r e c e d e n t , o r t h a t e d u c a t io n s h o u ld p r e s e r v e i t s in t e g r i t y b ya c c e p t in g t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f e v e n f o r it s m o s t r e v e r e d a x io m s , b u tt h a t i s w h a t t h e A m e r ic a n p o l i t ic a l e x p e r i e n c e h a s t a u g h t u s . T h eU n i t e d M e t h o d i s t u n i v e r s i t y m u s t w e l c o m e t h e c h a ll e n g e o fd i s s e n t in g o p in io n , r e s i s t i t s a p p e t i t e fo r e s t a b l i s h e d t r u t h , a n d r e f u s eto become a part i san o f ideo logy . To remain free , to nour ish soc ia lj u s t i c e , a n d t o a d v a n c e k n o w le d g e , w e m u s t c o n s e n t t o b e advocatesr a t h e r t h a n a u t h o r i t i e s , w e m u s t o ff er r a t h e r t h a n im p o s e o u rin s ig h t s . W e m u s t v o lu n t a r i l y b e a r t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f f or o u r c la im sa n d c o n c lu s io n s .

Th e r e i s a r e m a r k a b le a f fin it y b e t w e e n t h e s e d i s t in c t ly A m e r ic a npol i t ica l idea ls and certa in theo log ica l conv ic t ions under ly ing theW e s le y a n f r e e - c h u r c h t r a d i t i o n . U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s , t r u e t o t h e i rW e s le y a n h e r i t a g e a s t h e y s t r iv e t o w a r d p e r f e c t io n , d o n o t p r o m o t ee s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g io n . O n e v i r t u e o f U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s i s t h a t t h e ys im p ly d o n o t k n o w h o w t o b r in g t h e o lo g y t o c lo s u r e . F r o m t h eb e g in n in g t h e y w e r e s k e p t i c a l o f f o r m a l t h e o lo g i c a l c o n f e s s io n s a n dsought to prov ide a fu ture for the church by organiz ing free co l legesa n d u n iv e r s i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n b y d e f e n d in g o r t h o d o x y . U n i t e dM e t h o d i s t e d u c a t io n , l ik e A m e r ic a n e d u c a t io n g e n e r a l ly , h a s b e c o m ed i s t in c t ly h e u r i s t ic . I t m a in t a in s a h e a l t h y u n c e r t a in t y a n d r e s p e c t sin q u ir y a s n e c e s s a r y in a n y c o n t in u in g s t o r y . I t b e l i e v e s w i t he n t h u s ia s m ; i t a d v o c a t e s w i t h c o n v ic t io n ; b u t i t d o e s n o t e v a d er e s p o n s ib i l i ty b y s h i f t in g t h e b u r d e n o f p ro o f t o d i s s e n t e r s . U n i t e dM e t h o d i s t s a r e a n e s c h a t o lo g i c a l p e o p le o f t h e H o ly S p ir i t. T h e ye x p e c t t o b e s u r p r i s e d b y G o d s p e a k in g t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o fs t r a n g e r s in a l i e n t o n g u e s a s t h e s t o r y o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h u n f o ld s .C o n s e q u e n t ly , t h e y v i e w e d u c a t io n a s t h e h e u r i s t i c e x e r c i s e o ff r e e d o m s t r iv in g t o b e c o m e r e s p o n s ib l e .

O b e d ie n c e t o t r u t h d o e s n o t r e q u ir e a c c e p t a n c e o f o r t h o d o x y .O b e d ie n c e r e q u ir e s d e f e r e n c e t o t h e g iv e n , d e f e r e n c e t o t h ee s c h a t o lo g ic a l v o i c e o f t h e f u t u r e e v e n w h e n d i s c e r n e d in a n e c h of r o m t h e p a s t . S u c h o b e d ie n c e h a r k e n s t o t h e Be y o n d , t o a w o r d t h a tf r e e s t h e e a r t h a n d a l l h u m a n i t y f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f w h a t i s .O b e d ie n c e t o t h e t r u t h , w h e t h e r e x p r e s s e d in r e l i g io u s f a i t h o rheur is t ic educat ion , i s an exerc ise in freedom, a dar ing response tot h e r i s k s a n d c h a l l e n g e s o f a n u n k n o w n f u t u r e , a v o lu n t a r y a n dperpetua l shoulder ing o f the burden o f proof in the face o f d iscovery .Th e s im p le t r u t h i s t h a t w e s e ld o m l e a r n a n y t h in g s ig n i f i c a n t e x c e p tf r o m s t r a n g e r s s p e a k in g in a f o r e ig n t o n g u e . W h o e l s e c o u ld g e t t h ea t t e n t io n o f a c a d e m ic s w i t h t e n u r e ? !

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Notes1. E d w in S . G a u s t a d , Faith of Our Fathers ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r a n d R o w ,1 9 8 7 ) , p. 6 . Sec a lso p . 4 .2 . Ibid. W h e n d e s c r i b i n g M a s s a c h u s e t t s a n d C o n n e c t i c u t a s c o l o n i e s t h a ta d v o c a t e d a n e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h , G a u s t a d r e p o r t s t h a t " A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m

theocracy c a n n o t p r o p e r l y b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s e t w o c o l o n i e s , t h e t e r mestablishment su r e ly c a n . T h e a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n c iv i l a n d e c c l e s ia s t i c a l f o r c e sw a s i n ti m a t e , m e a n i n g f u l a n d e n d u r i n g . . . .I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d i s s e n tm a d e so m e in r o a d s , b u t t o l e r a t io n . . . c a m e s lo w ly , r e lu c t a n t ly , a n d q u i t eu n e v e n ly , " p . 2 0 - 2 1 .

3 . Ibid., p . 2 3 a n d 2 4 . W i l l i a m s g u a r a n t e e d t h a t i n R h o d e I s l a n d n o o n e w o u l db e m o le s t e d o r p u n i sh e d f o r " a n y d i f f e r e n c e o f o p in io n in m a t t e r s o f r e l i g io n "a n d t h a t e v e r y p e r so n w o u ld " f r e e ly a n d f u l ly h a v e a n d e n j o y . . . t h e i r o w nj u d g m e n t s a n d c o n s c i e n c e s . " C f. S y d n e y V . J a m e s , Colonial Rhode Island ( N e wYork, 1975) , p . 70 .

4 . C o m p a r e t h e l a n g u a g e o f W i l l i a m P e n n i n The Great C ase of Liberty ofConscience ( 1 6 7 0 ) a n d in h i s fi r s t s e t o f l a w s f o r P e n n sy l v a n ia p u b l i sh e d in 1 6 8 2w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e J e f f e r s o n c h o s e t o s u p p o r t t h e f i rs t a m e n d m e n t . P e n n w r o t e" a l l p e r s o n s l i v i n g i n t h i s p r o v i n c e w h o c o n f e s s a n d a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m i g h t ya n d e t e r n a l G o d t o b e t h e c r e a t o r , u p h o ld e r , a n d r u le r o f t h e w o r ld , a n d t h a th o ld t h e m se lv e s o b l ig e d in c o n sc i e n c e t o l iv e p e a c e a b ly a n d j u s t ly in c ivi lso c i e t y , sh a l l in n o w a y s b e m o le s t e d o r p r e j u d ic e d f o r t h e i r r e l i g io u s p e r su a s io no r p r a c t i c e in m a t t e r s o f fa i t h a n d w o r sh ip , n o r sh a l l t h e y b e c o m p e l l e d a t a n yt im e t o f r e q u e n t o r m a in t a in a n y r e l ig io u s w o r sh ip , p la c e , o r m in i s t r yw h a t e v e r . " S e e J e a n R . S o d e r lu n d , e d . , William Penn and the Founding ofPennsylvania 1680-1684 ( P h i la d e lp h ia , 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 1 3 2 ; c f . G a u s t a d , p . 2 7 .

5 . " A m e r i c a n M e t h o d i s m w a s b o r n i n 1 7 8 4 , o n e y e a r a f te r t h e e n d o f t h eR e v o lu t io n a n d a m e r e fiv e y e a r s b e f o r e G e o r g e W a sh in g t o n a c c e p t e d t h en o m in a t io n f o r t h e p r e s id e n c y . . . . B y 1 8 0 0 M e t h o d i s t s , o n ly s ix t e e n y e a r s o lda s a n A m e r ic a n c h u r c h , n u m b e r e d a t l e a s t s ix t y -f iv e t h o u sa n d ; in a s in g led e c a d e t h a t n u m b e r m o r e t h a n d o u b le d , t h e n d o u b le d o n c e a g a in b y 1 8 3 0 ; b y1 8 5 0 t h e n e w n a t i o n f o u n d i t s e l f w i t h o v e r h a l f a m i l l i o n M e t h o d i s t s a n d w i t hf ar m o r e M e t h o d i s t c h u r c h e s t h a n t h o s e o f C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s t s , P r e s b y t e r i a n s ,E p i s c o p a l i a n s , a n d L u t h e r a n s c o m b i n e d . M e t h o d i s t s n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e dn u m e r ic a l ly , t h e y e x p lo d e d sp a t ia l ly . " S e e G a u s t a d , Ibid., p . 1 2 3 .6. Ibid., p . 3 8 .7. Ibid.8 . W i t h t h e s i m p l e p h r a s e " w h e r e a s A l m i g h t y G o d h a t h c r e a t e d t h e m i n df r e e , " T h o m a s J e f f e r so n e x p o se d t h e k e y s t o n e fo r r e l ig io u s l ib e r t y a n d r e l ig io u se d u c a t io n a l ik e . H e w a s c o n v in c e d t h a t " t r u t h i s g r e a t a n d w i l l p r e v a i l if l e f t t o

herself, t h a t sh e i s t h e p r o p e r a n d su f fi c i e n t a n t a g o n i s t t o e r r o r, a n d h a sn o t h in g t o f e a r f r o m t h e c o n f l i c t . . . e r r o r s c e a s in g t o b e d a n g e r o u s w h e n i t i sp e r m i t t e d f r e e ly t o c o n t r a d ic t t h e m . " S e c t i o n I I o f t h e s t a t u t e J e f f e r so np r o p o se d t o t h e V ir g in ia l e g i s la t u r e J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1 7 8 6 , e x p r e s se s t h e d i s t i l l e de s se n c e o f h i s u n d e r s t a n d in g o f r e l i g io u s l ib e r t y : " B e i t e n a c t e d b y t h e G e n e r a lA s se m b ly , T h a t n o m a n sh a l l b e c o m p e l l e d t o f r e q u e n t o r su p p o r t a n y r e l ig io u s



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w o r sh ip , p la c e , o r m in i s t r y w h a t so e v e r , n o r sh a l l b e e n f o r c e d , r e s t r a in e d ,m o le s t e d , o r b u r t h e n e d in h i s b o d y o r g o o d s , n o r sh a l l o t h e r w i se su ff e r o na c c o u n t o f h i s r e l i g io u s o p in io n s o r belief; but that a l l men shal l be free top r o f e s s , a n d b y a r g u m e n t t o m a in t a in , t h e i r o p in io n in m a t t e r s o f r e l i g io n , a n dt h a t t h e sa m e sh a l l in n o w i se d im in i sh , e n la r g e , o r a f f e c t t h e i r c iv il c a p a c i t i e s . "Ibid., p p s . 4 1 a n d 1 5 1 .9 . S e e W e n d y O ' F l a h e r t y , " T h e A i m s o f E d u c a t i o n A d d r e s s , " The Universityof Chicago Record, V o l u m e X X , N u m b e r 1 ( A p r il 1 0 , 1 9 8 6 ) . O ' F l a h e r t yr e c o u n t s t h i s H a s id ic t a l e a s i t w a s r e t o ld b y H e in r ic h Z im m e r . " . . . a R a b b i w h ol i v e d i n a g h e t t o i n C r a c o w . . . d r e a m t t h a t h e s h o u l d g o t o P r a g u e , w h e r e h ew o u l d d i s c o v e r a h i d d e n t r e a s u r e b u r i e d b e n e a t h t h e p r i n c i p a l b r i d g e l e a d i n gt o t h e c a s t le o f t h e B o h e m i a n k i n g s . H e w e n t t o P r a g u e a n d w a i t e d b y t h e b r i d g ef o r m a n y d a y s , u n t i l o n e n i g h t h e w a s q u e s t i o n e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c a p t a i n o ft h e g u a r d o n t h e b r id g e , a n d t h e R a b b i t o ld t h e c a p t a in a b o u t t h e d r e a m t h a th a d se n t h im t h e r e . T h e c a p t a in la u g h e d a n d sa id t h a t i t w a s f o o l i sh t o t r u s t ad r e a m , s i n c e h e h i m s e l f h a d b e e n c o m m a n d e d i n a d r e a m t o g o t o C r a c o w a n dt o s e a r c h f o r a g r e a t t r e a su r e b u r ie d in a d i r t y c o r n e r b e h in d t h e s t o v e o f aJ e w i s h R a b b i n a m e d I s a a c s o n o f J e k e l - c l e a r l y a l u d i c r o u s p r o p o s a l , s i n c e h a l ft h e m e n i n t h e g h e t t o w e r e c a l l e d I s a a c a n d t h e o t h e r h a l f J e k e l . T h e R a b b i ,w h o w a s I s a a c s o n o f J e k e l , s a i d n o t h i n g , b u t h u r r i e d h o m e a n d f o u n d i n h i sh o u s e , b e h i n d t h e s t o v e , t h e t r e a s u r e . A s Z i m m e r c o m m e n t s o n t h i s m y t h , ' N o wt h e r ea l t r e a su r e . . . i s n e v e r f a r a w a y ; i t i s n o t t o b e so u g h t in a n y d i s t a n t r e g io n ;i t l i e s b u r ie d in t h e in n e r m o s t r e c e s s o f o u r h o m e , t h a t i s t o sa y , o u r o w nb e in g . . . B u t t h e r e i s t h e o d d a n d p e r s i s t e n t f a c t . . . t h a t t h e o n ly o n e w h o r e v e a l st o u s t h e m e a n i n g o f o u r cr y p t i c i n n e r m e s s a g e m u s t b e a s t r a n g e r , o f a n o t h e rc r e e d a n d a f o r e ig n r a c e . " '

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Ronald J. Allen

The Language of Colorin the Service of Just ice/

n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 9 0 , 1 v i s i t e d t h e M i n d o l o E c u m e n i c a lF o u n d a t io n in Za m b ia ( a n a t io n in s o u t h c e n t r a l A f r ic a ) a n d

a t t e n d e d a c la s s s e s s io n . Th e s u b j e c t w a s i l l e g a l e c o n o m ic p r a c t i c e s ; at e a m o f s t u d e n t s g a v e a r e p o r t o n t h e b la c k m a r k e t in t h e d e v e lo p in gn a t io n s of A f r ic a , s t r e s s in g t h e e x p lo i t a t io n a n d in j u s t i c e in h e r e n t i ni t . Th e in s t r u c t o r a n d t h e s ix t y s t u d e n t s s e a t e d in a s e m ic i r c l e w e r eb lack .A t t h e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e r e p o r t , a p a r t i c ip a n t f r o m t h e R e p u b l i c o fS o u t h A f r ic a c o m p l im e n t e d t h e t e a m o n t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e r e p o r t a n dt h e n c o n t in u e d , " Bu t w h y d o y o u c a ll it a b la c k m a r k e t ? A f t e r a l l t h ey e a r s o f e x p lo i t a t io n a n d in j u s t i c e p r a c t i c ed b y w h i t e p e o p le in m yc o u n t r y , w e s h o u ld c a l l i t a w h i t e m a r k e t ." Th e c la s s b r o k e o u t int h u n d e r o u s l a u g h t e r .

A f t er t h e l a u g h t e r s u b s i d e d , a p a r t i c ip a n t f r o m G h a n a c o m m e n t e d ," W e 'r e l a u g h in g , b u t t h e r e i s a n im p o r t a n t s id e t o t h i s . W h y s h o u ldw e d o t o w h i t e p e o p le w h a t t h e y h a v e d o n e t o u s ? W e n e e d t o f in db e t t e r w a y s t o u s e t h e w o r d s w h i t e a n d b la c k ."

R o n a l d J . A l l e n is A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of P r e a c h i n g a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t ,C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y .

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T h e P r o b l e m of R a c i s t E n g l i s ha n d a S o l u t i o nTh e c la s s had put its f in g e r on an i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r t h a t has b e e nt a k e n s e r i o u s l y (at l e a s t a m o n g Caucasians) o n ly in the l a s t few y e a r s .T h e l a n g u a g e of color affects our s e l f - i m a g e s and s o c ia l b e h a v io r s .F u r t h e r m o r e , w h e n we s p e a k of l i g h t and dark , we of ten usee x p r e s s io n s w h ic h s ig n a l , s u b t ly but s ign i f icant ly , the w a y s in w h i c hw e v a lu e and t r e a t o t h e r s . We t r a n s f e r the v a l u e s t h a t we a s s o c ia t ew i t h l i g h t e r a n d d a r k e r c o lo r s to p e r s o n s of l i g h t e r and d a r k e r s k inh u e s .

A g r o w in g n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s t h u s l a m e n t t h a t m u c h o r d i n a r yE n g l i s h u s a g e is i t se l f co lor-b iased . We o f t e n t h in k of l ight co lors inp o s i ti v e w a y s and of dark co lors in n e g a t i v e w a y s . For i n s t a n c e , w h i t eof ten evokes a s e n s e of p u r i t y and g o o d n e s s w h e r e a s b l a c k e v o k e s as e n s e of u n c l e a n and e v i l . C a u c a s ia n s , in part icu lar , frequent ly re la tet h e s e a s s o c i a t io n s to the s u p e r io r i t y of l i g h t e r - c o lo r e d p e o p le s o v e rd a r k e r - c o lo r e d p e o p le s . En g l i s h in i t s e l f t h u s r e in f o r c e s r a c i s m andc o n t r i b u t e s to s e l f- h a t re d a m o n g p e o p l e s of co lor .

Of course , today few C h r i s t i a n s of a n y c o l or w o u l d a d m i t to b e i n grac ia l ly prejudiced . The o f f i c ia l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s of t h e l o n g -e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h e s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s and C a n a d a s t a n d a g a i n s tp r e j u d ic e , d i s c r im in a t io n , r a c i s m , and o p p r e s s i o n . But soc io log is t s te l lu s t h a t in the l a t e 1 9 8 0 s and e a r ly 1 9 9 0 s , the n u m b e r of raciallya n t a g o n i s t i c in c id e n t s is r is ing rap id ly each year in our s o c i e t y . Ev e nin the c h u r c h , we f ind ev idence that co lor barr iers s t i l l ex is t . Fori n s t a n c e , few l a r g el y E u r o - A m e r i c a n c o n g r e g a t i o n s c al lA f r ic a n -A m e r i ca n p a s t o r s and few l a r g e ly A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a nc o n g r e g a t io n s c a ll Eu r o - A m e r ic a n p a s t o r s . C o lo r - b ia s e d la n g u a g ec o n t i n u e s to h e lp e n f o r c e a co lor-b iased soc ia l wor ld .

Th e c o lo r p r e j u d ic e of o u r l a n g u a g e can be cr i t ic ized in the l i g h t oft h e g o s p e l . The g o s p e l is the n e w s t h a t G o d l o v e s e a c h and all w i t hg r a c io u s , im p a r t ia l l o v e and t h a t God w i l l s j u s t i c e for e a c h and all.E n g l i s h u s a g e w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s to r a c i s m (no m a t t e r howu n i n t e n t i o n a l l y on the p a r t of t h e u s e r ) m u s t be c o r r e c t e d . Thec o n t i n u e d use of t h e s t e r e o t y p e d p a t t e r n s of t h e l a n g u a g e of l i g h t andd a r k n e s s w i l l o n ly p r o lo n g d i s c r im in a t io n .

O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n of t h e c u r r e n t r e m e d i e s for l a n g u a g ep r e j u d ic e is to e x c i s e i m a g e s of l i g h t and dark and to r e p la c e t h e mw i t h o t h e r l a n g u a g e w h i c h s p e a k s of g o o d and evil but w i t h o u t c o l o rs t i g m a . For in s t a n c e , in s t e a d of d e s c r i b i n g s o m e t h i n g as black , it isd e s c r ib e d as s t a i n e d .

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I agree tha t m uc h o f our com m on E n g l i sh sp eech i s co lorpre jud i ced and tha t i t con tr i butes to rac i sm . Indeed , th i s i s t rue o fsom e o f our m os t be l oved i m ag es o f G od . H ow eve r , I be l i eve ther e i s abe t ter w ay to m a ke our us e o f th e l ang uag e o f co l or m o re l ov i ng andjus t than to w ash the co l or ou t o f our vocabu l ary . W e can recover theful l us e of th e co lors of l i gh t an d dark. W e can part i cu larly retr ieveneg l ec ted but pos i t i ve use s o f th e l angu age o f dar kne ss a s w e l l a sneg l ec ted bu t nega t i ve u se o f the l a ngu age o f l i gh t . In th i s w ay , o url ang uag e can be t ru l y inc l us i ve . I f i rs t rev i ew th es e us es an d re fer toreprese n ta t i ve exa m p l es . I th en o f fer s even pr i nc i p l e s w h i ch can h e l pus pu t the w h o l e l angu age o f co lor in to the serv i ce o f ju s t i ce .

R e s o u r c e s f o r a n I n c lu s i v e A p p r o a c hto the Language o f ColorE very day l angua ge d oes conta i n a s soc i a t i ons o f l i gh t co lors a s pos i t ivean d dark co l ors a s nega t i v e F o r i n s tan ce , w e th i nk o f w h i te and l i gh ti n connec t i on w i th c l ean l i nes s , goodness , hope , pur i ty , v i r tue . W hens o m e o n e m a k e s a n i m p o r t a n t d i sc o v e r y, w e s o m e t i m e s s a y , " T h el i gh t cam e o n . " D aw n i s a t i m e o f re l ie f and reb i r th . A sav i or f i gure i sa w h i te kn i ght . A nd w e do th i nk o f b l ack and dark i n connec t i on w i thunc l ean , ev i l , sadness . A person w ho i s th i nk i ng w rong l y i s " i n thed a r k ." W e h a v e m a n y n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h m a k e u s e of d ar kcolors: a b lack day, b lack magic , b lack l i s t , b lack Monday, b lackmai l ,b l ackba l l, dark age s , n i gh t o f despa i r . W e are pron e to f ear an d w o rryi n the n i gh t . Sha kesp eare spoke o f depr ess i on a s " tha t b l ack dog . " Ab l ack ho l e i n space i s a p lace w he re (accord i ng to popu l ar m yth o l ogy )m at ter d i sappears . T hese a s soc i a t i ons are no t l i m i ted toE u r o - A m e r i c a ; M i n d o l o p a r t i c ip a n t s t o l d u s t h a t s o m e A f r ic a nl a n g u a g e s m a n i f e s t s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a , s u c h a s p r o v e r b s a b o u t b la c k(bad) sheep .

B u t i n ev e r y d a y l a n g u a g e , w h i t e c a n h a v e n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n sand b l ack can have pos i t i ve o nes . F or i n s ta nce , a w h i l e f lag i s a s i gno f s u r r e n d e r . W e s p e a k o f w h i t e e l e p h a n t s a n d w h i t e t r a s h . A p e r s o nw h o i s w hi te as a sh ee t (or w hi te as a corpse) i s fearful or s i ck . Po et ss p e a k of t h e w h i t e n e s s o f d e a t h . W e w h i t e w a s h a p e r s o n w h o h a scom m i t te d a w r ong . ( I t w o u l d be a w h i te l i e to deny th i s . ) T he m o v i eThe Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman t e l l s the s tory o f an ex - s l ave(M i ss Jane ) i n w h i ch s he us es the phra se " w hi te dev i l" to curse ana l b in o h o r s e w h i c h k i l ls h e r h u s b a n d .

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The African-American community speaks of black as beautiful, ausage which is increasingly common among Euro-Americans. A blackbelt is the highest achievement in karate. A corporation which isfinancially successful is in the black. Night can be a time of positivemystery; we stare into the deep bucket of space and feel a sense ofawe and wonder. Night is a time of romance, of sexual union andecstasy. Is there a more secure feeling than cuddling under warmcovers on a chilly night? Indeed, the night is as much a time ofpositive mystery as it is of fear of the unknown. We labor and growweary in the day but rest at night. We think of dark soil as rich andfertile. Rain falls from dark skies. Coal is a source of energy. Thenovel Black Beauty provides a positive image of blackness for many.

Images of GodThe Bible repeatedly speaks of God as light, as dwelling in light or asbringing light (e.g. 2 Sam. 22:29; Pss. 4:6; 18:29; 27:1; 36:9; 89:15;104:2; Isa. 60:19; Micah 7:8; 1 John 1:5; Rev. 22:5). Light is a centralfigure for depicting God from the time of the early church to thepresent. Many hymns use the symbolism of light to describe God andthe effect of God's presence, as in "Sun of my soul, thou Savior near:it is not night if thou be near." Many visual representations depictGod as Caucasian, often as aged, bearded, and white-haired.Though the references are not as numerous, we also find that Godis positively associated with darkness. God dwells in thick darkness(e.g. Exod. 20:20-21) or in a cloud (e.g. Exod. 1 3 : 2 1 ; 24:16-27). Thepsalms speak of God's absolute autonomy by describing God assurrounded by clouds and darkness (e.g. Ps. 97:2). Hosea speaks ofGod's love as like a cloud (6:4). Darkness is a place of divine treasures(Isa. 45:3). God is as present in the dark as in the light (Ps. 139:12).Claus Westermann thus notes that Hebrew peoples "are aware of thedifferences between a darkness which protects existence and adarkness which threatens it, between darkness which is a part of thenatural order and the darkness of chaos." 2 Dionysius the MysticalAeropagite refers to God as the Divine Darkness. And peoples inother cultures frequently represent deity in dark tones. Somecongregations dim their sanctuary lights during prayer because thedarkness evokes a sense of God's closeness.

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Images o f Chr is tC h r i s t , t o o , i s o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h l i g h t , a s w h e n t h e J o h a n n in eJe su s says , "I am th e l ight o f th e wor ld" ( Jo hn 8 :12; cf. 1 :4 ; 1:9; 9 :5 ;1 2 : 4 6 ). Th e N i c e n e C r e e d e x p r e s s e s t h e e p i t o m e of t h i s c o n n e c t io nw h e n i t c o n f e s s e s t h a t C h r i s t i s " l i g h t o f l i g h t ." Th e C h r i s t i a n y e a rd r a w s h e a v i ly u p o n m o t i f s of l i g h t a n d d a r k n e s s , e s p e c ia l l y A d v e n t ,C h r i s t m a s , Ep ip h a n y , a n d Ea s t e r ) . M is s io n a r i e s in e a r l i e rg e n e r a t io n s c a r r i e d t h e l i g h t o f t h e g o s p e l t o g e n t i l e s a n d t o r e g io n sim a g in e d in d a r k n e s s . V i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n s o f C h r i s t inE u r o - A m e r i c a n c h u r c h e s fr e q u e n t l y s h o w C h r i s t a s aE u r o - A m e r i c a n , B u t t h e i n f l u en c e o f t h i s i m a g e p e r m e a t e s f arb e y o n d E u r o - A m e r i c a : a n A f r i c a n -A m e r i c a n p a s t o r o c c a s i o na l l yreports that h is or her congregat ion i s re luctant to g ive up i t sp a i n t i n g of a E

winter 1992-1993 quarterly review - theological resources for ministry

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