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Welcome and Good Morning!

(207) 878-1777e-mail: info@kaufmanpsychological.org

web: kaufmanpsychological.org

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The Neuropsychology of Writing & Best Practice Instructional Recommendations

From Brain to Pen toPaper . . .

Day 1

Myths to be exploded across these two days . .

‘Writing is just a written extension of oral language.’

‘If kids can speak well and use a pencil, they should be able to write well.’

‘Most kids who fail to write up to their potential lack motivation – they’re lazy.’

What’s at stake . .

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We’d need only to try and imagine the enormous changes in the cultural development of children that occur

as a result of mastery of written language and the ability to read –

and thus becoming aware of everything that human genius has created in the realm of the written

word.

-- Lev Vygotsky

What’s at stake . .

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According to a 2006 survey, 81 percent of employers describe recent high school

graduates as “deficient in written communications” such as

memo, letters, and technical reports (Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006). As a result, private companies are spending an estimated $3.1 billion per year—and state governments are investing another $200 million—to provide

writing instruction to their employees (National Commission on Writing, 2004; 2005).

What’s at stake . .

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The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, or “the Nation’s Report Card”) writing exam

was last given in 2002; it measured the writing skills of fourth, eighth, and

twelfth graders and translated their scores into three levels of proficiency: basic, proficient, and advanced.

Across the three grades, only 22–29 percent of students scored at the proficient level, and only 2 percent were found to write at the advanced level

(Persky et al., 2003). In other words, 70–75 percent of students were found to be writing

below grade level.

Two-Day AgendaDay 1 (March 21)

8:30 Welcome/Introduction 8:45 Why Writing Can Be So

Bloody Difficult and the Skill Components of Writing

10:00 (Morning Break) 10:15 The Neuropsychology of

Writing I (Attention/Executive Functioning & Memory Processing)

12:00 Lunch 1:00 Strategies & Implications

for Instruction I 2:00 (Afternoon Break) 2:15 More Strategies 3:00 General Discussion/Q & A

Day 2 (March 22)

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8:30 Quick Review of Yesterday . .

8:45 The Neuropsychology of Writing II (Dyslexia/Dysgraphia)

10:00 (Morning Break) 10:15 The Linguistic and Grapho-

Motor Elements of Writing 12:00 Lunch 1:00 Strategies & Implications

for Instruction II 2:00 (Afternoon Break) 2:15 More Strategies 3:00 General Discussion/Q & A 3:30 Adjourn

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Why writing can be so bloody difficult . .

Part 1

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Although many students acknowledge that writing is important and directly related to success in school and life, the thought of writing often evokes feelings of stress, anxiety, dread, and avoidance.L. M. Cleary

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Now try to remember . . .

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The enemy . . .

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“I love being a writer. What I can’t stand is the paperwork”

Peter De Vries

My writing speed is akin to head

stone carving . . .

Gloria Steinham

And from Gene Fowler

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Writing easy – All you do is sit staring at a blank sheet

of paper until drops of blood form on your

forehead . . .

Writing . .

From the early formation of letters to crafting an essay, writing involves perhaps more sub skills than

any other academic task. To write well requires combining multiple physical and mental processes in one concerted effort to communicate information and ideas. For instance, we must be able to move a pen or

press a key, precisely and fluidly to produce letters, remember the rules of grammar and syntax, place out

thoughts in an order that makes sense, and think ahead to what we want to write next. This

combination of tasks makes writing the highest form and more complex use of language. -- Mel Levine

Writing This combination of

tasks makes writing the highest form and more

complex use of language.

-- Mel Levine

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The simple truth: Writing, from a neurobehavioral perspective, is incredibly complex and hard!!

Involves the fluid and simultaneous (!!) coordination of the following core skill areas:

word knowledge, retrieval, and sequencing

working memory, sustained attention, planning, organization

spelling, punctuation, and grammar visual/spatial functioning fine-motor/grapho-motor functioning higher order reasoning/cognition

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Key Distinctions Between Spoken and Written Comprehension

Spoken:

Casual Makes use of common

slang and colloquialisms Supported by the

speaker (the speaker fills in any knowledge gaps the listener might have)

Can be understood in the absence of strategies

Written:

Often more formal/structured

Makes use of words and styles that are not common in the speech of children and teens

Written language does not gauge the reader’s comprehension and fill in gaps/resolve confusion

Comprehension of writing is often dependent on strategic processing.

Thus, written language is not ‘speech written down.’

Oakhill & Cain, 2007

Please . .

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. . list all the skill elements

(mechanical/conventional,

spontaneous/ideational/executive) of the writing

process.

Activity 1

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1. Become proficient in spelling, punctuation, and grammar;

2. They must learn to write in various styles and formats (depending on the particular situation/audience);

3. They must build strong vocabularies and deep reservoirs of background knowledge;

4. They must learn to cope with writer’s block and develop the stamina needed to get through long and difficult assignments (writers’ resiliency);

5. They must learn strategies (such as preparing outlines, soliciting feedback, and writing/revising multiple drafts that help them to organize their writing projects and complete them successfully.

To become competent writers, students must:

The Five Stages of the Writing Process

1. Prewriting (brainstorming, planning, sequencing/organizing, etc.)

2. Drafting (writing the initial draft)3. Revising (content-oriented

revision/correction)4. Editing (proofreading and mechanical

revision/correction)5. Publishing (preparation of the final

draft in its final form) 20

Vicki Spandel’s 6 + 1 Traits

1. Ideas/Content2. Organization3. Voice (personal tone/flavor; personality)4. Word Choice (specificity/exactness of

language)5. Sentence Fluency (rhythm/flow of language)6. Conventions (mechanics; e.g., spelling,

punctuation, capitalization)+ 1 Presentation (the visual/verbal presentation

of the final piece on paper)21

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Writing Ability & the Neurodevelopmental Functions:

WRITING

AttentionMaintaining concentration &

self-monitor work quality

Language ProductionUsing words and constructing

sentences correctly

Executive FunctioningGenerating ideas & taking a

stepwise approach to planning, organizing, and revising work

MemoryFluid recall of letters,

rules, and ideas; simultaneous holding of

all of this in working memory

Spatial-MotorComprehending the spatial relationships

involved in letter/word production; coordinating small muscles of

the fingers needed to form letters

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AttentionControls

Executive Skills Memory(LTM)

NeuromotorFunctions

Language

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Breakdowns in one or more of these processes can lead to . .Dysgraphia: A disorder of written

expression – there are ‘language-based’ and ‘non-language-based’ types of dysgraphia (4 – 17% of the population, Hooper et al., 1994)

A ‘shadow syndrome’ of a writing disorder: ‘Sub-clinical‘ elements of a writing disorder that make the writing process arduous/tedious (??% of the population – certainly LOTS of kids . .)

Please . .

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. . Pick a kid and complete the first part of the Personal Case Study

Form.

Activity 2

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Graham & Harris (2005) have found . . Most elementary teachers advocate

structure/routine in teaching the writing process (i.e., ‘Writer’s Workshop’ programs)

BUT, many teachers rely on informal (or incidental) teaching methods to teach planning, drafting, editing, and publishing

Bottom line: Many (most?) teachers fail to explicitly teach writing process strategies

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Another instructional problem Eclectic instructional

methodologies from class to class and grade to grade

Leads to a lack of continuity in writing process instruction

Leads to kids getting mixed writing messages

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Another key research finding

Younger kids and LD kids rely on ‘knowledge telling’ as a writing strategy.

This approach is limited to content generation (‘This is what I know about this topic’)

Involves little planning (kids are just ‘winging it’ or making it up as they go)

I think kids should choose their own pets, because whatever pet they want their mother can just get it for them.

Third grader with LD(Graham & Harris, 2005)

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BREAK TIME!!

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Brain Overview

Executive Functions, Memory, and Writing

Neuropsychology of Writing I:

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DA’ BRAIN: Its two hemispheres and four lobes

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Left versus Right Hemispheres

SequentialProcessing

Factual Processing

VerbalProcessing

Routine and‘Over-

Learned’Info

ProcessedHere!

Simultaneous

Processing

Synthetic Processing

EmotionalContent

NovelInfo

ProcessedHere!

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Input vs. Output Regions of the Cortex

Output&

Self-Direction

Input&

Sensory Processing& Storage

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Executive Functioning and Writing:A basic fact well-known to teachers . .

SO MANY KIDS WITH ATTENTION DEFICITS HATE TO WRITE!

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Executive Functioning

Refers to the ability to regulate and direct one’s emotions/behavior and to plan, initiate, attend to,

and organize tasksImpact on writing is huge

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Pre-Frontal Cortex: Site of Attention and Executive Function

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Frontal Lobe Specifics (Adapted from Hale & Fiorello, 2004)

Motor CortexPrefrontal Cortex(Dorsolateral)

PlanningStrategizing

Sustained AttentionFlexibility

Self-Monitoring-------------------------------

Orbital Prefrontal

Impulse Control(behavioral inhibition)Emotional Modulation

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Executive functioning and writing

No academic task requires more executive functioning efficiency than writing

Writing, after all, is all about self-direction and self-regulation of the product on the page

For younger children and older kids with limited grapho-motor skill, there are fewer cognitive resources left to the complex task of organizing and developing thoughts on paper.

Kids with EF weakness tend to struggle with identifying text structure when they read.

Difficulty identifying text structure (e.g,. somebody-wanted-but-so) also impacts the writing of kids with EF weakness!!!

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A Key Fact

Logical extrapolation

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Task Persistence and Frustration Tolerance

Two essential EF’s related to the writing process!!

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Recursive Writing Cycle (With Developmentally Appropriate Levels of

EF)

Writing Phase

Adequate EF (particularly WM) skill and mechanical automaticity allows:

• Fluent transfer of ideas to text• Simultaneous processing of ideational and mechanical aspects of writing• Revising and editing of text as it is produced (revising ‘on the fly’)• Persistence and motivation to continue

Pre-Writing Phase Adequate EF skill allows:

• Task Analysis• Schema/Prior Knowledge Activation

• Brainstorming• Thought Sequencing/Organization• Adequate writing confidence and

motivation to engage in writing

Revision/Editing PhaseAdequate EF skill allows:

• Deep processing of one’s writing (such that content revision is possible)• Awareness/recognition of one’s error patterns• Careful scrutiny of written work and correction of all (or at least most) errors• Persistence and motivation to continue

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Recursive Writing Cycle (As Impacted by Executive Dysfunction)

Writing Phase

EF weakness land a lack of mechanical skill Automaticity contribute to:

• WM easily overloaded by simultaneous ideational and mechanical writing demands• Minimal writing• Writing that includes numerous content and/or mechanical errors• Very limited ability to revise/edit ‘on the fly’• Limited persistence and frustration tolerance (desire to be done as soon as possible)

Pre-Writing Phase EF weakness contributes to:

• Poor task analysis (‘What are we supposed to again?’)• Little to know brainstorming or thought organization (just jumps into writing, using ‘knowledge telling’ approach)• Minimal writing confidence (desire to avoid writing)

Revision/Editing PhaseEF weakness contributes to:

• Superficial processing of one’s text• Disregard of mechanical and content

errors• Very limited motivation to revise and

extend writing• Limited persistence/frustration tolerance

(very limited willingness to revise/edit)

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Activity 21. Please take a moment to

consider and jot down one or a few of the key instructional implications of the impact of attention/EF weakness on the writing process.

2. Briefly share/discuss your thoughts with those seated around you.

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Memory and Writing

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The Three Primary Levels of Memory: Short-Term Memory (STM): The briefest of

memories – information is held for a few seconds before being discarded

Working Memory (WM): The ability to ‘hold’ several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or task – in a sense, it’s STM put to work.

Long-Term Memory (LTM): Information and experiences stored in the brain over longer periods of time (hours to forever)

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The Brain’s Memory Systems

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Directed Attention

Short-Term Memory

Auditory/Verbal Visual/Nonverbal

Working Memory(‘Cognitive Workspace’)

LEARNINGLong-Term Memory

Declarative Procedural

RetrievalAdapted fromCMS Manual

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Working Memory: Some kids have got ‘leaky buckets’

Levine: Some kids are blessed with large, ‘leak proof,’ working memories

Others are born with small WM’s that leak out info before it can be processed

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Activity 3

I am a small parasite. Add one letter and I am a thin piece of wood. Change one letter and I am a vertical heap. Change another letter and I am a roughly built hut. Change one final letter and I am a large fish. What was I and what did I become?

A Working Memory Brain Teaser!

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Writing definitely requires . .

Memory of the future!!

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How Large is the Child’s Working Memory Bucket?

Case 1: Rachel RecallsitallCase 2: Nicky Normal Case 3: Frankie Forgetaboutit

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Large working memory capacity allows for lots of simultaneous processing!

Simultaneous Processing

Sequential Processing

‘CognitiveBand Width’Lots

LittleSmallWM

LargeWM

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Free Recall versus Cued Recall of Information

Free recall of previously learning information occurs in the absence of explicit cueing

Cued recall occurs in the presence of explicit memory prompts

A Key Point:

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Many kids have a hard time searching their own memories for the language and other info they need when writing.

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Is it any wonder so many kids meltdown in writing contexts?

Not understanding their memory and executive functioning deficits, kids come to view themselves as “stupid,” and to view writing tasks as horribly frightening and arduous.

So the presentation of a writing prompt leads to ‘ka-boom!’

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LUNCH TIME!!!

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STRATEGIES & IMPLICATIONS

FOR INSTRUCTION I

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IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION

Best Practice Recommendations

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Activity 4

On your own, or, if you’d prefer, with your neighbor or in a small group, brainstorm what you consider the essential instructional implications of working memory and executive functioning challenges for developing writers at the grade level(s) you teach.

Seeing molehills as mountains

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Impossible!Annoying,but doable

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Core Strategy Principle 1:

THE EXPLICIT TEACHINGOF THE WRITING PROCESS IS GOOD.

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Explicit Teacher Modeling and Gradual Release of Responsibility

Teacher modeling of writing strategies in whole group settings makes the implicit explicit for all kids

Best to also model likely problems/mistakes and ways to cope with them!!

Gradual release (teacher models, small group practice, individual practice) can be very effective for kids with EF weakness

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Core Strategy Principle 2:

Acknowledge with students that writing can be hard (and then show them ways to make it easier!)

Self-Regulated Writing Instruction (SRSD) (Graham & Harris)

1. Develop background knowledge (teacher)

2. Discuss the strategy (teacher)3. Model the strategy (teacher)4. Memorize the strategy (students)5. Support the strategy (teacher)6. Independent performance

(students)(Harris et al., 2008) 65

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I always do the first line well, but have trouble with the others . .

-- Moliere.

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So, the overall ‘best practice’ writing recommendation is . .

EXPLICITLY TEACH THE WRITING PROCESS

• Elaborate and build on this in a consistent manner from grade to grade

• Younger kids and LD kids won’t plan on their own: they need lots of explicit modeling and practice

• Kids should always be required to do some bit of structured planning before they write (‘gather your thoughts’)

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Explicit Teacher Modeling and Gradual Release of Responsibility

Teacher modeling of writing strategies in whole group settings makes the implicit explicit for all kids

Best to also model likely problems/mistakes and ways to cope with them!!

Gradual release (teacher models, small group practice, individual practice) can be very effective for kids with EF weakness

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A Core Recommendation: Build Writing Fluency with Power Writing

A daily fluency building technique

Consists of brief timed writing events

In each one-minute interval, students are told to write as much as they can about a specified topic

The one-minute intervals are performed up to 3 times in a row

Usually kids are told to include one or more key words in their writing

Kids graph their progress (accuracy and length)

Fisher & Frey, 2007

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Recommendations for Students with

Attention/Executive Functioning Needs

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Key phrase to remember for ADHD/EFD Kids

‘SurrogateFrontal Lobe’

An essential EF-related writing fact:

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Picking, deciding,

choosing, and selecting are all executive skills!

And so . .

Remove the picking challenge! Decide for them (as practical) by

limiting choices Help kids develop possible writing

topics well in advance of the need to write (see attached ‘Like-Hate’ and ‘Usual-Unusual’ T Chart’ examples)

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Picking

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Helpful metaphor to teach pre-writing: Gather Your Thoughts

idea idea

idea

idea

ideaidea

Then Write

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Rubrics/Heuristics Rock!

P.O.W. C-S.P.A.C.E. Stop and L.I.S.T. B.O.T.E.C. Step Up To Writing Somebody Wanted . . But . . . So . . .

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Graphic Organizers: A double edged sword . . .

Great way to build previewing and planning skill (story webs, story maps, Venn diagrams, etc.)

But, they are often perceived by ADHD kids as “MORE WORK” (“I have to do that and then write?!”)

If these are used, consider allowing kids to hand them in as a completed product or give them lots of support in their use.

Consider using the Peggy McPhee approach instead, which relies on giving kids a series of specific prompts/questions to answer (eliminates the blank page phenomenon)

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P.O.W. (Graham & Harris)

Pick my idea

Organize my thoughts1. ___________2. ___________3. ___________

Write and say more 79

C-SPACE (Harris et al., 2008)

Characters Setting (time and place) Purpose (What the main character tries to

do . .) Action (What is done to achieve the goal) Conclusion (Results of the action) Emotions (The main characters’ reactions

and feelings)

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TREE (Harris et al., 2008)

Topic (topic sentence)

Reasons (at least 3)

Explain (each reason)

Ending (wrap it up)81

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STOP & LIST (Graham & Harris, 2005)(Goal setting, brainstorming, organization) Step 1: Stop (students should set goals

for their writing; e.g., writing a funny story to share during circle time)

Step 2: LIST (Brainstorm ideas and list them out)

Step 3: Sequence (Organize the ideas into a logical sequence and then number them)

Step 4: Write (‘By the number’s)

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Bashir and Singer’s EmPower approach

Evaluate Make a Plan Organize Work Evaluate Rework

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B.O.T.E.C.

Brainstorm Organize Topic Sentence Examples Conclusion

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STAR Organizer Strategy (Kaufman’s adaptation . .)

Who?

What?Why?

How?

Where?

When?

Main Idea

1. 2. 1. How does story start?

2. What happens next?

3. Then what happens?

4. Then what happens?

5. Then what happens?

6. How does story end?

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Somebody . . Wanted . . But . . So(Jane Kennedy)

Heuristic for . . .

Story analysis

Story writing

Introduction___ Title___ Author___ Character___ SettingProblem:___ Wanted___ But___ DetailSolution:___ So___ Detail___ In the end

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Consider Using the Step Up to Writing program (or something like

it)• Developed by Maureen

Auman

• Published by Sopris West

• Great way to help ADHD/EFD kids learn how to construct and organize paragraphs and essays

• Wonderfully concrete and explicit!

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GO!Write a topic sentence

Slow Down!

Give a reason, detail, or fact

Stop!

Explain – give an example

Go Back!

Remind the reader of your topic

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What Makes a Great Teacher?

A good teacher does two things. She makes the classroom nice. A good teacher has lots of books for us to look at and posters on the wall. A good teacher also teaches us new things. She lets us learn about other countries and experiments in science. Teachers are the most important part of school.

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Reasons for Learning to Swim

Learning to swim is an essential skill for all children. One reasonto learn to be a strong swimmer is safety. If you are in a dangerous situation, such as in a sinking raft or boat, you canswim to shore. If you are a good swimmer, you can also helpsave others who may be drowning. Being able to spend timewith others is another reason for learning to swim. Birthday and school year-end parties are often located around the pool. Many people plan their vacations for warmer climates so that happy hours may be spent splashing in the ocean. The heat of summer makes us all want to cool off by enjoying watersports, such as waterskiing, diving, and surfing. Learning to bea great swimmer can clearly make your life safer and moreenjoyable.

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STEP UP TO WRITING (IN ACTION!)

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Defeating the dreaded ‘blank page’ phenomenon: Providing kids with specific prompts/sentence starters

Original assignment:

Pick your favorite fairy tale and develop a ‘fractured’ version of it. Make sure you also make at least three illustrations and show in your writing how the main characters resolve an essential conflict

Modified assignment:

List the five main characters in Cinderella

Where does the story take place?

What was Cinderella’s main problem? What was she doing to cope with it?

What might be some funny ways to change the story?

How would one of those changes change the ending?

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Reading & Writing Sourcebooks (a strong, scaffolded, literacy skill development curriculum)

Wonderfully scaffolded (for both reading and writing)

Clearly links the writing process to the reading comp process

Focuses (concretely) on pre-writing (“Gathering Your Thoughts”)

Keeps writing anxiety low (assignments are limited in length, but have a clear instructional intent)(Houghton Mifflin)

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Reading & Writing Sourcebook in Action

GATHER YOUR THOUGHTSDirections:

1. Think about 4 special people who have had a positive impact on your life (write their names in the red boxes).

2. Then narrow your focus. Which one do you want to write about? Write that person’s name in the first green box.

3. Write three reasons why that person has been special to you (in the big green boxes).

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GATHER YOUR THOUGHTS

Person:

Person I will write about:

Person:

Person:

Person:

He/she is special because: He/she is special because: He/she is special because:

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A Really Special Person in My Life . . .

Directions:

1. Write a paragraph of at least 5 sentences describing the special person mentioned in your organizer. Be sure to say the person’s name in the first sentence and how you know them. Also make sure to include the 3 (or more) details from your organizer (the reasons that this person is special to you), and include an ending sentence that sums up how you feel about this person today.

2. When you’ve finished, use the Writer’s Checklist (C.O.P.S.) to help you revise.

Adapted from the Reading & Writing Sourcebook)

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The acronym editing strategies: S.C.O.P.E. and

C.O.P.S.COPS

Capitalization Organization (or

‘order’ or ‘appearance’)

Punctuation Spelling

SCOPE S – Spelling ok?

C – First words, proper names, and nouns capitalized?

O – Syntax (word order) correct?

P – Punctuation marks where needed?

E – Do all the sentences express a complete thought?

Concern: Are these rubrics too focused on surface features of text?

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More Accommodations/By-Pass Strategies for EFD Kids

Let ‘em dictate first drafts of longer pieces

Assist the student with organizing/ordering brain stormed ideas

Break assignments down into smaller chunks

Lots of check in’s an attentional prompts

Allow the student to work on a keyboarding device

                                         

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