The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Method1) _______________ & _______________2) Interpret _______________ (with reason of course)3) _______________ scientific _______________ using _______________

Copernicus• Poland• Argued against a _______________ model of the _______________• Said earth was not _______________, but _______________ on its axis once a

___________• Argued for a _______________ model of the _______________• Did not have enough _______________ to convince the majority of _______________,

but did affect how science is _______________ practiced (use of _______________ to back up new _______________)

Tycho Brahe

• Denmark• Carefully _______________ what he saw from his _______________• Credited with the most _______________ and _______________

recordings of his time

Johannes Kepler

• Germany• Believed in Copernicus’ _______________

model• Used Brahe’s observations to help

_______ the _______________ model of the universe

• Argued that _______________ move in an _______________

Galileo• Italy• Used a _______________ to prove

by _______________ what Kepler proved in _______________

• Moon was not _______________ but _______________

• Jupiter had _____ moons• Sun had _______

Newton• Proved _______________ some of

_______________ observations• Invented _______________• Law of _______________

• The apple!• Saw the universe as a well run

_______________ that followed a specific set of _______________.– Laws of _______________

The Fallout of Free Thought

• Why would these ideas be hard for people to accept?

• Why would the church be troubled by this?

The Enlightenment18 th Century Thinking

The power of hanging out

• Salon– Middle Class– Discussion

Background to the Enlightenment

• Reformation and the wars that followed religious divisions• Absolutism• Scientific Revolution and the scientific method

Words associated with the Enlightenment:

• Progress• Critical• Reason• Logic• Insight• Discussion• Rejection• Maturity• Progress• Critical• Reason• Logic• Insight• Discussion• Rejection• Maturity

Scientific Revolution Leads to Enlightenment

• 1500-1700: European _______________ using _______________ to discover ___________ of nature– Very _______________: _______________ movements, _______________,

_______________ for smallpox, etc.• Early 1700’s: If people used _______________ to find laws that governed the

_______________ world, why not use _______________ to discover _______________ laws?– Laws that _______________ _______________ nature– _______________ begin studying human nature and _______________ problems

Rene Descartes• “Cogito ergo sum”

– I _______________, therefore I _______– Descartes applies the _______________ reasoning to the _______________

(senses) world – Wax argument: How can I know this is still wax?

• This leads to _______________, how can I know anything?• I think, so therefore I know that I exist. This is his foundation for

_______________ _______________.– Used reasoning to _______________ “things” out

Major Enlightenment Ideas

• Every social, political, and economic problem could be solved through the use of reason

• Governments are created to secure an orderly society• Separation of powers is the best way to protect human liberties• All men are created “free and equal”• A free market should be allowed to regulate trade

• Deism: A belief in a God that created this world but has backed off and lets the world run according to the natural laws set in place by God.

The Enlightenment Thinkers• The Enlightenment was a broad _______________ and _______________ movement. • The methods of _______________ _______________ could and should be used to

_______________ and _______________ all aspects of _______________.– This does not mean arriving at the same _______________!

Political Thought During the Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes• Humans are naturally _______________, _______________, and

_______________.• To escape this “brutish” life people entered into a _______________

contract.• People “_______________” to give up their _______________ to a ruler

who guaranteed _______________ & _______________.• Only a _____________ government could ensure an orderly

_________.• Believed only an _______________ monarchy could

keep a society completely orderly.• Written during a _______________ in England

John Locke• Humans are naturally ____________, ___________ and ______________• Humans have natural _______________: _______________,

_______________, and _______________• People form _______________ to _______________ natural rights• Best government was one with _______________ power• Government _______________ at the _______________ of the people

• If a government _______________ people’s natural _______________, people have the right to _______________ government

Think about it…

• Why would John Locke’s ideas scare absolute monarchies?

• What could Locke’s ideas lead to?

• Any guess where Locke’s ideas became very popular?

John Locke

Baron de Montesquieu

Voltaire

The Philosophes

• Many expanded on Locke’s idea of ______________ rights, these people became known as the ______________.

• Confident that the use of ______________ and ______________ would lead to a continued human ______________.

Enlightenment and the Economy

• ______________ rejected ______________ in favor of a policy called ___________________.

– Wanted natural laws for ______________

• Laissez-Faire: allowing ______________ to operate with little or no ______________ interference

• Adam Smith: ___________________ should be allowed to ____________ business activity

– ______________, ______________, ______________, ______________ and economic ______________ are all linked to the market forces of ______________ and ______________

– Where there is ______________, suppliers will seek to meet it because there are ______________ and economic ______________ to be had

– Smith supported laissez faire, but also believed that a government had a duty to _____________ society, administer _____________, and provide ______________.

Supply and Demand

Major Enlightenment Ideas for Society

• ______________ the slave trade and ______________

• ______________ religious ______________

• ______________ freedom of ______________

• ______________ ______________________ theory

• ______________ ______________ for all

• ______________ unequal distribution of ______________

• ______________ governments should be freely _________

Essential Enlightenment Expressions:

Read each of the following expressions. Below each, note how the expression applies to your life today.

• "I disapprove of what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it"  (Voltaire)

• "Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains"  (The Social Contract - Jean-Jacques Rousseau)

• "The individual who persecutes another because he is not of the same opinion is nothing less than a monster"  (Voltaire)

Enlightenment Changes Society

• ______________: Women were not ______________ and were ______________ for attempting to ______________ equality

• ______________: Men and women gather in ______________ to discuss Enlightenment ______________ (chat rooms)

• ______________: ______________ and ______________ become popular (Bach, Handel, Mozart)

• ______________: ______________ gives way to ______________ art (simple, elegant and charming)

• ______________: ______________ become popular (Robinson Crusoe)

Here are a variety of words often associated with the Enlightenment. Please note that not all Enlightenment thinkers can be associated with every word here:

Deism•Rational•Scientific•Middle-class•Optimistic•Confident•Equality•Toleration•Progress•Critical•Reason•Self-Aware•Freedom of thought•Discussion•Rejection•Maturity

We will each be reading an excerpt from an enlightenment thinker. You will be given one thinker and will have to share your information with a small group.

1) Which enlightenment thinker are you reading?__________________________________________

2) Read the document. Write down two questions you have about the thinker or about the document.

a. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3) Which words from above do you think that the document is talking about? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4) Looking at the words you have chosen, what do you think the enlightenment thinker was talking about? Summarize their ideas in 3-5 sentences.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5) Do you agree or disagree with the enlightenment thinker? Why or why not? Make sure to explain your answer._____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6) Now share your understanding (and if you agree or disagree with the thinker) in a group. As you share make sure you fill in the chart on the backside.

Nam

eSummarize his main ideas:

One thing you find interesting:

One question you have:

Do you see these ideas in today’s society? Where?

Document 1

Enlightenment is man's leaving his self-caused immaturity. Immaturity is the incapacity to use one's intelligence without the guidance of another. Such immaturity is self-caused if it is not caused by lack of intelligence, but by lack of determination and courage to use one's intelligence without being guided by another. Have the courage to use your own intelligence! is therefore the motto of the enlightenment.

Through laziness and cowardice a large part of mankind, even after nature has freed them from alien guidance, gladly remain immature. It is because of laziness and cowardice that it is so easy for others to usurp the role of guardians. It is so comfortable to be a minor! If I have a book which provides meaning for me, a pastor who has conscience for me, a doctor who will judge my diet for me and so on, then I do not need to exert myself. I do not have any need to think; if I can pay, others will take over the tedious job for me. The guardians who have kindly undertaken the supervision will see to it that by far the largest part of mankind should consider the step into maturity, not only as difficult but as very dangerous. . . .

But it is more nearly possible for a public to enlighten itself: this is even inescapable if only the public is given its freedom. . . .

All that is required for this enlightenment is freedom; and particularly the least harmful of all that may be called freedom, namely, the freedom for man to make public use of his reason in all matters. . . .

SOURCE: Immanuel Kant, “What is Enlightenment?”, 1784.

Document 2

As several of my colleagues, and others of my fellow-citizens of France, have given me the example of making their voluntary and individual profession of faith, I also will make mine; and I do this with all that sincerity and frankness with which the mind of man communicates with itself.

I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond this life.I believe the equality of man, and I believe that religious duties consist in doing justice, loving mercy, and endeavoring to make our fellow-creatures happy.

But, lest it should be supposed that I believe many other things in addition to these, I shall, in the progress of this work, declare the things I do not believe, and my reasons for not believing them.

I do not believe in the creed professed by the Protestant church, by the Roman church, by the Greek church, by the Turkish church, by the Jewish church, nor by any church that I know of. My own mind is my own church.

All national institutions of churches. Whether Jewish, Christian, or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit.

I do not mean by this declaration to condemn those who believe otherwise; they have the same right to their belief as I have to mine. But it is necessary to the happiness of man, that he be mentally faithful to himself.

Soon after I had published the pamphlet Common Sense, in America, I saw the exceeding probability that a revolution in the system of government would be followed by a revolution in the system of religion. The adulterous connection of church and state, wherever it had taken place, whether Jewish, Christian, or Turkish, had so effectually prohibited, by pains and penalties, every discussion upon established creeds, and upon first principles of religion, that until the system of government should be changed, those subjects could not be brought fairly and openly before the world; but that whenever this should be done, a revolution in the system of religion would follow. Human inventions and priest-craft would be detected; and man would return to the pure, unmixed, and unadulterated belief of one God, and no more.

SOURCE: Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason, 1794.

Document 3

Wherever there is a settled society, religion is necessary; the laws cover manifest crimes, and religion covers secret crimes.

But whenever human faith comes to embrace a pure and holy religion, superstition not only becomes useless, but very dangerous. We should not seek to nourish ourselves on acorns when God gives us bread.

Superstition is to religion what astrology is to astronomy: the foolish daughter of a very wise mother. These two daughters, superstition and astrology, have subjugated the world for a long time....It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?

But these people despise us; they treat us as idolaters! Very well! I will tell them that they are grievously wrong. It seems to me that I would at least astonish the proud, dogmatic Islam imam or Buddhist priest, if I spoke to them as follows:

"This little globe, which is but a point, rolls through space, as do many other globes; we are lost in the immensity of the universe. Man, only five feet high, is assuredly only a small thing in creation. One of these imperceptible beings says to another one of his neighbors, in Arabia or South Africa: 'Listen to me, because God of all these worlds has enlightened me: there are nine hundred million little ants like us on the earth, but my ant-hole is the only one dear to God; all the other are cast off by Him for eternity; mine alone will be happy, and all the others will be eternally damned."

Not only is it extremely cruel to persecute in this brief life those who do not think the way we do, but I do not know if it might be too presumptuous to declare their eternal damnation. It seems to me that it does not pertain to the atoms of the moment; such as we are, to anticipate the decrees of the Creator.

SOURCE: Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration, 1763.

Document 4

. . . . Political liberty is to be found only in moderate governments; and even in these it is not always found. It is there only when there is no abuse of power: but constant experience shows us that every man who is given power is likely to abuse it. . . .

To prevent this abuse, it is necessary, from the very nature of things, that power should be a check to power. . . . We shall presently examine the principles on which this liberty is founded: if they are sound, liberty will appear in its highest perfection.To discover political liberty in a constitution, no great labor is required. If we are capable of seeing where it exists, it is soon found, and we need not go far in search of it. . . . In every government there are three sorts of power; the legislative; the executive . . . and the . . . civil law [i.e., judicial].

The political liberty of the subject is a tranquility of mind arising from an opinion each person has of his own safety. In order to have this liberty, it is necessary that the government be so constituted that one man need not be afraid of another.

When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of officials, there can be no liberty; because fears may arise, that the same monarch or senate will enact unjust laws and carry them out in a tyrannical manner.

Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislative and executive. If it is joined to the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be the legislator as well. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with violence and oppression.

There would be an end of everything if the same man or the same body were . . . to exercise those three powers: that of enacting laws, of carrying them out, and of trying individual cases.

Here then is the fundamental constitution of the government we are considering. The legislative body being composed of two parts, they check one another by the mutual privilege of rejecting. They are both restrained by the executive power, as the executive is by the legislative. . . .

As the executive power has no part in the legislative other than the privilege of vetoing, it can have no share in the public debates. It is not even necessary that it should propose laws; because, as it may always disapprove the laws that are passed. . . .

SOURCE: The Baronde Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 1748.

Document 5:

 Contending for the rights of woman, my main argument is built on this simple principle, that if she be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its influence on general practice. And how can woman be expected to co-operate unless she knows why she ought to be virtuous? Unless freedom strengthens her reason till she comprehend her duty, and see in what manner it is connected with her real good? If children are to be educated to understand the true principle of patriotism, their mother must be a patriot; and the love of mankind, from which an orderly train of virtues spring, can only be produced by considering the moral and civil interest of mankind; but the education and situation of woman, at present, shuts her out from such investigations.

In this work I have produced many arguments, which to me were conclusive, to prove that the prevailing notion respecting a sexual character was subversive of morality, and I have contended, that to render the human body and mind more perfect, chastity must more universally prevail, and that chastity will never be respected in the male world till the person of a woman is not, as it were, idolized, when little virtue or sense embellish it with the grand traces of mental beauty, or the interesting simplicity of affection.

Consider, Sir, dispassionately, these observations—for a glimpse of this truth seemed to open before you when you observed, 'that to see one half of the human race excluded by the other from all participation of government, was a political phenomenon that, according to abstract principles, it was impossible to explain.' If so, on what does your constitution rest? If the abstract rights of man will bear discussion and explanation, those of woman, by a parity of reasoning, will not shrink from the same test: though a different opinion prevails in this country, built on the very arguments which you use to justify the oppression of woman—prescription.7   Consider, I address you as a legislator, whether, when men contend for their freedom, and to be allowed to judge for themselves respecting their own happiness, it be not inconsistent and unjust to subjugate women, even though you firmly believe that you are acting in the manner best calculated to promote their happiness? Who made man the exclusive judge, if woman partake with him of the gift of reason?

SOURCE: Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792

Document 6:

The general industry of the society never can exceed what the capital of the society can employ. As the number of workmen that can be kept in employment by any particular person must bear a certain proportion to his capital, so the number of those that can be continually employed by all the members of a great society must bear a certain proportion to the whole capital of that society, and never can exceed that proportion. No regulation of commerce can increase the quantity of industry in any society beyond what its capital can maintain. It can only divert a part of it into a direction into which it might not otherwise have gone; and it is by no means certain that this artificial direction is likely to be more advantageous to the society than that into which it would have gone of its own accord.

Every individual is continually exerting himself to find out the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can command. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the society, which he has in view. But the study of his own advantage naturally, or rather necessarily, leads him to prefer that employment which is most advantageous to the society.

First, every individual endeavors to employ his capital as near home as he can, and consequently as much as he can in the support of domestic industry; provided always that he can thereby obtain the ordinary, or not a great deal less than the ordinary profits of stock…

Secondly, every individual who employs his capital in the support of domestic industry necessarily endeavors so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest possible value…He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.

SOURCE: Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776

Document 7:

The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, by substituting justice for instinct in his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they had formerly lacked. Then only, when the voice of duty takes the place of physical impulses and right of appetite, does man, who so far had considered only himself, find that he is forced to act on different principles, and to consult his reason before listening to his inclinations. Although, in this state, he deprives himself of some advantages which he got from nature, he gains in return others so great, his faculties are so stimulated and developed, his ideas so extended, his feelings so ennobled, and his whole soul so uplifted, that, did not the abuses of this new condition often degrade him below that which he left, he would be bound to bless continually the happy moment which took him from it for ever, and, instead of a stupid and unimaginative animal, made him an intelligent being and a man.

Let us draw up the whole account in terms easily commensurable. What man loses by the social contract is his natural liberty and an unlimited right to everything he tries to get and succeeds in getting; what he gains is civil liberty and the proprietorship of all he possesses. If we are to avoid mistake in weighing one against the other, we must clearly distinguish natural liberty, which is bounded only by the strength of the individual, from civil liberty, which is limited by the general will; and possession, which is merely the effect of force or the right of the first occupier, from property, which can be founded only on a positive title. We might, over and above all this, add, to what man acquires in the civil state, moral liberty, which alone makes him truly master of himself; for the mere impulse of appetite is slavery, while obedience to a law which we prescribe to ourselves is liberty. But I have already said too much on this head, and the philosophical meaning of the word liberty does not now concern us.

SOURCE: Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762.