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BAHAN AJAR MATA KULIAH : SPEAKING 2

Oleh:

MEZIA KEMALA SARI, S.S., M.A.NIDN: 1028098601

PRODI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH SUMATERA BARAT

BAB ITeaching Speaking Skills

A. Goals and Techniques for Teaching Speaking

The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.

To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output.

Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin producing language themselves.

Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.

Content-oriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather report or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-oriented input may also include descriptions of learning strategies and examples of their use.

Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from the teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (linguistic competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts (discourse competence); expectations for rate of speech, pause length, turn-taking, and other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic competence); and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair miscommunication (strategic competence).

In the presentation part of a lesson, an instructor combines content-oriented and form-oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language depends on students' listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at lower levels, or in situations where a quick explanation on a grammar topic is needed, an explanation in English may be more appropriate than one in the target language.

Structured output focuses on correct form. In structured output, students may have options for responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific form or structure that the teacher has just introduced.

Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced, sometimes in combination with previously learned items. Instructors often use structured output exercises as a transition between the presentation stage and the practice stage of a lesson plan. textbook exercises also often make good structured output practice activities.

In communicative output, the learners' main purpose is to complete a task, such as obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a video. To complete the task, they may use the language that the instructor has just presented, but they also may draw on any other vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that they know. In communicative output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.

In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is some sort of information gap between the participants. Communicative output activities involve a similar real information gap. In order to complete the task, students must reduce or eliminate the information gap. In these activities, language is a tool, not an end in itself.

In a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different categories of input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels, including beginners, benefit from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective language learning.

B. Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process. Effective instructors teach students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language -- that they can use to help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it. These instructors help students learn to speak so that the students can use speaking to learn.

1. Using minimal responses

Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such responses can be especially useful for beginners.

Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.

2. Recognizing scripts

Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.

Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say in response. Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.

3. Using language to talk about language

Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them. Instructors can help students overcome this reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction, whatever the participants' language skill levels. Instructors can also give students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.

By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the various communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

C. Developing Speaking Activities

Traditional classroom speaking practice often takes the form of drills in which one person asks a question and another gives an answer. The question and the answer are structured and predictable, and often there is only one correct, predetermined answer. The purpose of asking and answering the question is to demonstrate the ability to ask and answer the question.

In contrast, the purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as conveying a telephone message, obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In real communication, participants must manage uncertainty about what the other person will say. Authentic communication involves an information gap; each participant has information that the other does not have. In addition, to achieve their purpose, participants may have to clarify their meaning or ask for confirmation of their own understanding.

To create classroom speaking activities that will develop communicative competence, instructors need to incorporate a purpose and an information gap and allow for multiple forms

of expression. However, quantity alone will not necessarily produce competent speakers. Instructors need to combine structured output activities, which allow for error correction and increased accuracy, with communicative output activities that give students opportunities to practice language use more freely.

D. Structured Output Activities

Two common kinds of structured output activities are information gap and jigsaw activities. In both these types of activities, students complete a task by obtaining missing information, a feature the activities have in common with real communication. However, information gap and jigsaw activities also set up practice on specific items of language. In this respect they are more like drills than like communication.

Information Gap Activities

Filling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline timetable with some of the arrival and departure times missing. Partner B has the same timetable but with different blank spaces. The two partners are not permitted to see each other's timetables and must fill in the blanks by asking each other appropriate questions. The features of language that are practiced would include questions beginning with "when" or "at what time." Answers would be limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the evening."

Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with different missing details, and they cooperate to find all the missing details. In another variation, no items are missing, but similar items differ in appearance. For example, in one picture, a man walking along the street may be wearing an overcoat, while in the other the man is wearing a jacket. The features of grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are determined by the content of the pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the activities depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number, size, and shape lead to adjective practice. Differing locations would probably be described with prepositional phrases.

These activities may be set up so that the partners must practice more than just grammatical and lexical features. For example, the timetable activity gains a social dimension when one partner assumes the role of a student trying to make an appointment with a partner who takes the role of a professor. Each partner has pages from an appointment book in which certain dates and times are already filled in and other times are still available for an appointment. Of course, the open times don't match exactly, so there must be some polite negotiation to arrive at a mutually convenient time for a meeting or a conference.

Jigsaw Activities

Jigsaw activities are more elaborate information gap activities that can be done with several partners. In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the

partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same conversation.

In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each student in the group receives one panel from a comic strip. Partners may not show each other their panels. Together the four panels present this narrative: a man takes a container of ice cream from the freezer; he serves himself several scoops of ice cream; he sits in front of the TV eating his ice cream; he returns with the empty bowl to the kitchen and finds that he left the container of ice cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a clear narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate sequencing. You can make the task more demanding, however, by using pictures that lend themselves to alternative sequences, so that the partners have to negotiate among themselves to agree on a satisfactory sequence.

More elaborate jigsaws may proceed in two stages. Students first work in input groups (groups A, B, C, and D) to receive information. Each group receives a different part of the total information for the task. Students then reorganize into groups of four with one student each from A, B, C, and D, and use the information they received to complete the task. Such an organization could be used, for example, when the input is given in the form of a tape recording. Groups A, B, C, and D each hear a different recording of a short news bulletin. The four recordings all contain the same general information, but each has one or more details that the others do not. In the second stage, students reconstruct the complete story by comparing the four versions.

With information gap and jigsaw activities, instructors need to be conscious of the language demands they place on their students. If an activity calls for language your students have not already practiced, you can brainstorm with them when setting up the activity to preview the language they will need, eliciting what they already know and supplementing what they are able to produce themselves.

Structured output activities can form an effective bridge between instructor modeling and communicative output because they are partly authentic and partly artificial. Like authentic communication, they feature information gaps that must be bridged for successful completion of the task. However, where authentic communication allows speakers to use all of the language they know, structured output activities lead students to practice specific features of language and to practice only in brief sentences, not in extended discourse. Also, structured output situations are contrived and more like games than real communication, and the participants' social roles are irrelevant to the performance of the activity. This structure controls the number of variables that students must deal with when they are first exposed to new material. As they become comfortable, they can move on to true communicative output activities.

E. Communicative Output Activities

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role plays and discussions .

In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation and to the characters.

Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:

Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and making sure that all of the students understand it

Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of the role play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some other product

Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be played. For lower-level students, the cards can include words or expressions that that person might use.

Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.

Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate if they do not have to compete with many voices.

Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their ideas and the language they will need to express them.

Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to answer students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar unless they specifically ask you about it.

Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual language skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to contribute equally to the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their role plays.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets out of the way. To succeed with discussions:

Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language forms) so that they will have something to say and the language with which to say it.

Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from several options. Discussion does not always have to be about serious issues. Students are likely to be more motivated to participate if the topic is television programs, plans for a vacation, or news about mutual friends. Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and place heavy demands on students' linguistic competence.

Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the editor, or individual reports on the views of others in the group.

Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make participation difficult.

Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to say.

Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute equally to the conversation.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their discussion.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and discussions, you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the language, and create a supportive atmosphere that allows them to make mistakes without fear of embarrassment. This will contribute to their self-confidence as speakers and to their motivation to learn more.

F. Planning a Lesson Set Lesson Goals

Lesson goals are most usefully stated in terms of what students will have done or accomplished at the end of the lesson. Stating goals in this way allows both teacher and learners to know when the goals have been reached.

To set lesson goals:

1. Identify a topic for the lesson. The topic is not a goal, but it will help you develop your goals. The topic may be determined largely by your curriculum and textbook, and may be part of a larger thematic unit such as Travel or Leisure Activities. If you have some flexibility in choice of topic, consider your students’ interests and the availability of authentic materials at the appropriate level.

2. Identify specific linguistic content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or language use, to be introduced or reviewed. These are usually prescribed by the course textbook or course curriculum. If they are not, select points that are connected in some significant way with the topic of the lesson.

3. Identify specific communication tasks to be completed by students. To be authentic, the tasks should allow, but not require, students to use the vocabulary, grammar, and strategies presented in the lesson. The focus of the tasks should be topical, not grammatical. This means that it may be possible for some students to complete the task without using either the grammar point or the strategy presented in the first part of the lesson.

4. Identify specific learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection with the lesson.

5. Create goal statements for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and learning strategies that state what you will do and what students will do during the lesson.

Structure the Lesson

A language lesson should include a variety of activities that combine different types of language input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels benefit from such variety; research has shown that it is more motivating and is more likely to result in effective language learning.

The five parts of a lesson may all take place in one class session or may extend over multiple sessions, depending on the nature of the topic and the activities.

The lesson plan should outline who will do what in each part of the lesson. The time allotted for preparation, presentation, and evaluation activities should be no more than 8-10 minutes each. Communication practice activities may run a little longer.

1. Preparation

As the class begins, give students a broad outline of the day’s goals and activities so they know what to expect. Help them focus by eliciting their existing knowledge of the day’s topics.

Use discussion or homework review to elicit knowledge related to the grammar and language use points to be covered

Use comparison with the native language to elicit strategies that students may already be using

Use discussion of what students do and/or like to do to elicit their knowledge of the topic they will address in communication activities

2. Presentation/Modeling

Move from preparation into presentation of the linguistic and topical content of the lesson and relevant learning strategies. Present the strategy first if it will help students absorb the lesson content.

Presentation provides the language input that gives students the foundation for their knowledge of the language. Input comes from the instructor and from course textbooks. Language textbooks designed for students in U.S. universities usually provide input only in the form of examples; explanations and instructions are written in English. To increase the amount of input that students receive in the target language, instructors should use it as much as possible for all classroom communication purposes.

An important part of the presentation is structured output, in which students practice the form that the instructor has presented. In structured output, accuracy of performance is important. Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced.

Structured output is a type of communication that is found only in language classrooms. Because production is limited to preselected items, structured output is not truly communicative.

3. Practice

In this part of the lesson, the focus shifts from the instructor as presenter to the students as completers of a designated task. Students work in pairs or small groups on a topic-based task with a specific outcome. Completion of the task may require the bridging of an information gap. The instructor observes the groups an acts as a resource when students have questions that they cannot resolve themselves.

In their work together, students move from structured output to communicative output, in which the main purpose is to complete the communication task. Language becomes a tool, rather than an end in itself. Learners have to use any or all of the language that they know along with varied communication strategies. The criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.

Activities for the practice segment of the lesson may come from a textbook or be designed by the instructor.

4. Evaluation

When all students have completed the communication practice task, reconvene the class as a group to recap the lesson. Ask students to give examples of how they used the

linguistic content and learning or communication strategies to carry out the communication task.

Evaluation is useful for four reasons:

It reinforces the material that was presented earlier in the lesson It provides an opportunity for students to raise questions of usage and style It enables the instructor to monitor individual student comprehension and learning It provides closure to the lesson

5. Expansion

Expansion activities allow students to apply the knowledge they have gained in the classroom to situations outside it. Expansion activities include out-of-class observation assignments, in which the instructor asks students to find examples of something or to use a strategy and then report back.

Identify Materials and Activities

The materials for a specific lesson will fall into two categories: those that are required, such as course textbooks and lab materials, and authentic materials that the teacher incorporates into classroom activities.

For required materials, determine what information must be presented in class and decide which exercise(s) to use in class and which for out-of-class work. For teacher-provided materials, use materials that are genuinely related to realistic communication activities. Don’t be tempted to try to create a communication task around something just because it’s a really cool video or a beautiful brochure.

Truly authentic communication tasks have several features:

They involve solving a true problem or discussing a topic of interest They require using language to accomplish a goal, not using language merely to use

language They allow students to use all of the language skills they have, rather than specific

forms or vocabulary, and to self-correct when they realize they need to The criterion of success is clear: completion of a defined task

BAB IIMonolog Speaking and Practice

FAMILY

You will have to speak about the topic above for 2 minutes. Please answer some of the questions.

How many people are there in your family? Is it a big family? Who is the oldest member of your family? Are you and only child or do you have any brothers and sisters? Are you first born, middle child or last born? Who do you get on best in your family? What hobbies do your family have? What does the family do at the weekend? What do they do in their

holidays? Is there a family pet?

You have three minutes to prepare what you are going to say.

Flatmates


Have you ever shared a flat with anybody? If so, when, how long etc. Do you think it is easy to decide who to share a flat with? What are the advantages of sharing a flat with somebody? Describe your perfect flatmate.

You have three minutes to prepare what you are going to say

FRIENDS


Who is your best friend? What does he/she look like? When did you meet? Why is she/he your best friend? Do you get on well? Do you ever argue? How often do you see each other? Ho do you keep in touch?


TALKING ABOUT YOURSELF


Where were you born? What do you do? What do you like doing in your free time? What do you like doing in the summer? What are you going to do in the future?


MUSIC


What kind of music do you listen to/like to dance? When do you like listening to music? What’s your favourite decade for pop music/ your favorite singer/your

favourite song? Do you often buy CDs? Which was the last CD you bought? Do you ever go to concerts?


HOLIDAYS


When did you last go on holiday? Where? Who with? Where did you stay? What did you do there? What is your favourite kind of holiday? What do you like doing when you are on holiday?


A PERSON YOU KNOW WELL


Name, age …..? Job/studies? Where does he/she live? What does he/she look like? (appearance) What is he/she like? (personality) What does him/her like doing in her/his free time?


YOUR FAVOURITE PHOTO


Do you like taking photos? When do you usually take photos? Do you have a photo you really like? Who took it? / Where was it taken? /what was happening? Do you like being in photos?


ENGLISH- BASIC LEVEL- SPEAKING- MONOLOGUE EOI UTEBO LEARNING LANGUAGES


Do you think it is important to learn languages? Why? Why are you learning English? Do you think English is a difficult language to learn? What do you do to improve your English? Are you happy with your progress? Would you like to learn another language?


BAB IIIGiving Opinion

Below are five statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1 - 7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

7 - Strongly agree

6 - Agree 5 - Slightly agree 4 - Neither agree nor disagree 3 - Slightly disagree 2 - Disagree 1 - Strongly disagree

____ In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

____ The conditions of my life are excellent.

____ I am satisfied with my life.

____ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

____ If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

31 - 35 Extremely satisfied 26 - 30 Satisfied 21 - 25 Slightly satisfied 20 Neutral 15 - 19 Slightly dissatisfied 10 - 14 Dissatisfied 5 - 9 Extremely dissatisfied

Exercise- Try to give your own opinion and grade it according to your assumption about social phenomenon today.-Then, discuss it with friend and if there is difference between your friend, please argue it politely.

BAB IVBasic Public Speaking

Public Speaking

Course Purpose: Regardless of who you are or what you do, being able to communicate in a public setting is a necessary skill to have. People need to be able to express themselves effectively in order to succeed in school, in the workplace, and in life.

Course Description: This is an introductory course to public speaking, which addresses the importance of effective oral communication. It will teach students useful skills for speaking in public through an explanation of informative, persuasive, and narrative speeches. Students will be required to present a two-minute "elevator speech" to highlight skills learned.

Course Outline:

Meeting 1: Speaking Skills Meeting 2: Types of speeches Meeting 3: Elevator Speeches

Meeting 1: Speaking Skills – Characteristics of effective oral communication

Instructor – "This course is intended to teach you the skills necessary to communicate effectively. Public speaking is something that we all have to do, whether it is in school or in the workplace. I'm now going to present a speech to you, and I'd like everyone to observe and think about why this speech is ineffective."

Instructor to present a poor quality speech. Things to do: Use staller words, such as "like" or "ummm…" Make little eye contact / stare down at feet. Do not project / use quiet tone of voice.

Following the speech, prompt students to discuss what they have observed: "Was that a good speech? Why not?" "What did I do wrong? Can you cite some examples?" "Why is that bad?" "If I answered questions like this in a job interview, would I get hired?"

Next, the instructor should demonstrate qualities of an effective speech: Body Language: Standing / sitting up straight, making eye contact, appropriate facial

expressions. Speaking in a clear, strong tone of voice. Avoiding using filler words. Displaying confidence / knowing what you're taking about. Be clear to ensure that the audience understands what you’re taking about.

– Show Abbott & Costello video “Who’s on First” to illustrate what can happen if the speaker is not clear. Prompt discussion about what happened in the video.

"Now, let's observe some effective communicators in action." Show one or two videos from CD (Martin Luther King, Jr. & John F. Kennedy,

depending on time constraints)- Prompt students to discuss why these are effective speeches.

Other speaking tips: Know who your audience is:

- Use appropriate language – for example, you should speak differently to a group of children than to a group of adults.- In-class exercise: ask the group to think about how they would describe a

digital camera to a group of first graders vs. a group of teachers from their school – what features would you highlight? Why would you describe them differently?

- Be aware of the difference between "nice to know" and "need to know" information – prompt student discussion about what this means.

- Don't make assumptions about your audience – for example, don't assume that your audience has prior knowledge of the subject matter.- In class exercise: ask the group to pretend that the instructor has just arrived in

the United States from Russia and describe for him/her a cheese steak.

Hook your audience – immediately engage your listeners:- Start with a short anecdote, starting statistic, or quotation, for example:

- "Ken Olson, president, chairman, and founder of Digital Equipment Corporation once said, 'There is no reason anyone would want a computer in their home.'"

- "90 percent of people are uncomfortable introducing themselves to strangers."- Explain why your speech is of relevance to your audience:

- A salesman may start out a presentation to a customer by saying, "Today I will be telling you how my product will help your business succeed."

- Ask the audience a question:- "How many of you have ever gone skydiving?"

Meeting 2: Types of speeches – Informative, persuasive, narrative

Informative Speeches: Purpose: the presentation of unique or useful information to an audience – the speaker

acts as a "teacher" to the audience. Uses:

- Explaining a process ("how-to") – ask for a volunteer to give an informative speech on how to tie your shoe, make a paper airplane, do a lay-up, etc.- In the workplace, an informative speech may be used to explain to co-workers

how to use a new computer system.- In school, an informative speech may be used to explain how to do research.

- Explaining an object (a thing, a place, a person, a product, etc.) – ask for a volunteer to give an informative speech about a place he has visited.- Ask the group to offer examples of where informative speeches about objects

would be useful in the classroom or at work.- Explaining an event – for example, the Presidential Election, World War II,

Independence Day, etc.

Persuasive Speeches: Purpose: the presentation of an argument on a debatable issue

- Ask the group to give examples of what they believe to be "debatable issues." Uses: to persuade your audience to accept your view or to convince your audience to

take a particular course of action.- Examples

- 1. Try to convince your audience that the death penalty is appropriate- 2. Try to convince your audience to live healthier lives (eating healthy,

exercising, etc.) because obesity puts people at greater risk for health problems (high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, etc.)

- Ask the students to suggest possible arguments for these two examples.- Persuasive speeches can be structured in two ways:

- Point-by-point: the speaker presents, one by one, the opposition's arguments and refutes them immediately (The opposition says __, but in reality, it's __. The opposition also says __, but in truth, it's __.)

- Specific point: the speaker presents his thesis, followed by the overall view of the opposition, leading into his overall argument and conclusion.)

Narrative Speeches: Purpose: to tell a story Uses: speaking about yourself and your experiences, in the first person, or about

someone else, in the third person- Examples:

- 1. Speaking about an influential person in your life- 2. Tell your family story

- Ask the students to discuss times when a narrative speech would be useful in the business world (example: in a job interview)

Assignment: Give an elevator speech to the class (to be assigned at the end of Meeting 2 – to be presented at Meeting 3)

What is an elevator speech? A short description of what you do, or the point you want to make, presented in the time it takes an elevator to go from the top floor to the first floor or vice versa. The term was probably coined from the idea that we sometimes meet the important people in our lives in elevators. The odd situation we encounter in most elevators is that nobody speaks to or looks at anyone else, and yet we have a captive audience for that short period of time. Very few people are ready to interact in case someone does speak. The idea of an “elevator speech” is to have a prepared presentation that grabs attention and says a lot in a few words. By telling your core message, you will be marketing yourself, but in a way that rather than putting people off will make them want to know more about you.

An elevator speech can be used when someone you meet asks you what you do or who you are and is a combination of the three types of speech discussed earlier (informative, persuasive, and narrative).

Everyone has a story. Think about what makes you unique, and craft a two to three minute elevator speech that you will present to your peers.

Meeting 3: Elevator Speeches

Each student should present his/her elevator speech to the class.

After each person speaks, prompt the class to discuss what they learned about the individual from his/her speech. Ask them to provide one another with constructive feedback.

BAB VActivities to Promote Speaking in a Second Language

IntroductionSpeaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p. 13). Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. In order to teach second language learners how to speak in the best way possible, some speaking activities are provided below, that can be applied to ESL and EFL classroom settings, together with suggestions for teachers who teach oral language.

What Is "Teaching Speaking"?What is meant by "teaching speaking" is to teach ESL learners to:

Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second

language. Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting,

audience, situation and subject matter. Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence. Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments. Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called

as fluency. (Nunan, 2003)

How To Teach SpeakingNow many linguistics and ESL teachers agree on that students learn to speak in the second language by "interacting". Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve best for this aim. Communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. By using this method in ESL classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating with each other in the target language. In brief, ESL teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. This can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task.

Activities To Promote Speaking

Role PlayOne other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)

SimulationsSimulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students, because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.

Information GapIn this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language.

BrainstormingOn a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.

StorytellingStudents can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students’ speaking ability, but also get the attention of the class.

InterviewsStudents can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a chance to practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class.

Story CompletionThis is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.

ReportingBefore coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before class.

Playing CardsIn this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. For instance:

Diamonds: Earning money Hearts: Love and relationships Spades: An unforgettable memory Clubs: Best teacher

Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5 questions about that topic to ask the other people in the group. For example:

If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:

Is money important in your life? Why? What is the easiest way of earning money? What do you think about lottery? Etc.

However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete sentences.

Picture NarratingThis activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating.

Picture DescribingAnother way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students just one picture and having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity students can form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, then a spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.

Find the DifferenceFor this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures.

Discussions/DebatesAfter a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like “people learn best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel”. Then each group works on their topic for a given time period, and presents their opinions to the class. It is essential that the speaking should be equally divided among group members. At the end, the class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best way. This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group discussions, it is always better not to form large groups, because quiet students may avoid contributing in large groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or the students may determine it by themselves, but groups should be rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work with various people and learn to be open to different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase ideas, express support, check for clarification, and so on.

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together

to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role plays and discussions.

In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation and to the characters.

Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:

Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and making sure that all of the students understand it

Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of the role play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some other product

Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be played. For lower-level students, the cards can include words or expressions that that person might use.

Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.

Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate if they do not have to compete with many voices.

Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their ideas and the language they will need to express them.

Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to answer students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar unless they specifically ask you about it.

Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual language skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to contribute equally to the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their role plays.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets out of the way. To succeed with discussions:

Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language forms) so that they will have something to say and the language with which to say it.

Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from several options. Discussion does not always have to be about serious issues. Students are likely to be more motivated to participate if the topic is television programs, plans for a vacation, or news about mutual friends. Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and place heavy demands on students' linguistic competence.

Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the editor, or individual reports on the views of others in the group.

Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make participation difficult.

Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to say.

Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute equally to the conversation.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their discussion.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and discussions, you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the language, and create a supportive atmosphere that allows them to make mistakes without fear of embarrassment. This will contribute to their self-confidence as speakers and to their motivation to learn more.

Planning a Lesson - Set Lesson Goals

Lesson goals are most usefully stated in terms of what students will have done or accomplished at the end of the lesson. Stating goals in this way allows both teacher and learners to know when the goals have been reached.

To set lesson goals:

1. Identify a topic for the lesson. The topic is not a goal, but it will help you develop your goals. The topic may be determined largely by your curriculum and textbook, and may be part of a larger thematic unit such as Travel or Leisure Activities. If you have some flexibility in choice of topic, consider your students’ interests and the availability of authentic materials at the appropriate level.

2. Identify specific linguistic content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or language use, to be introduced or reviewed. These are usually prescribed by the course textbook or course curriculum. If they are not, select points that are connected in some significant way with the topic of the lesson.

3. Identify specific communication tasks to be completed by students. To be authentic, the tasks should allow, but not require, students to use the vocabulary, grammar, and strategies presented in the lesson. The focus of the tasks should be topical, not grammatical. This means that it may be possible for some students to complete the task without using either the grammar point or the strategy presented in the first part of the lesson.

4. Identify specific learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection with the lesson.

5. Create goal statements for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and learning strategies that state what you will do and what students will do during the lesson.

Identify Materials and Activities

The materials for a specific lesson will fall into two categories: those that are required, such as course textbooks and lab materials, and authentic materials that the teacher incorporates into classroom activities.

For required materials, determine what information must be presented in class and decide which exercise(s) to use in class and which for out-of-class work. For teacher-provided materials, use materials that are genuinely related to realistic communication activities. Don’t be tempted to try to create a communication task around something just because it’s a really cool video or a beautiful brochure.

Truly authentic communication tasks have several features:

They involve solving a true problem or discussing a topic of interest They require using language to accomplish a goal, not using language merely to use

language They allow students to use all of the language skills they have, rather than specific

forms or vocabulary, and to self-correct when they realize they need to The criterion of success is clear: completion of a defined task

Suggestions For Teachers in Teaching SpeakingHere are some suggestions for English language teachers while teaching oral language:

Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing a rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared knowledge.

Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different ways of student participation.

Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe students.

Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.

Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more.

Provide written feedback like "Your presentation was really great. It was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice…"

Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.

Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class; contact parents and other people who can help.

Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.

Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities. Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in

the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.

Topics for Discussion/Debate

ConclusionTeaching speaking is a very important part of second language learning. The ability to communicate in a second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the learner in school and success later in every phase of life. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers pay great attention to teaching speaking. Rather than leading students to pure memorization, providing a rich environment where meaningful communication takes place is desired. With this aim, various speaking activities such as those listed above can contribute a great deal to students in developing basic interactive skills necessary for life. These activities make students more active in the learning process and at the same time make their learning more meaningful and fun for them.

BAB VISpeaking in Practice

Exercise 1

“The Million Dollar Pyramid”

Introduction: This is a fun speaking activity based on the TV game show “The Million Dollar Pyramid”. The object of the game is to get your team mates to guess a short list of words from a category previously prepared by the teacher.

You will need: A set of game cards, a timer or stop watch, white board.

Procedure: Before class: You will need to prepare the game cards beforehand. You may wish to

laminate them so they can be used several times. Each card consists of a list of 5 to 7 words from a category such as “things found in the fridge”, “things that come in pairs” or “things that are typically American” (See Fig 1 below). Make sure to choose words suitable for the vocabulary level of your students.

In class: On the BB draw a big “pyramid” or triangle and divide it into 6 sections. (See Fig 2 below) Write in each section a suggestive title to the category, for example, for the category of “Things typically American” you could put “Born in the USA” or for “Things that come in pairs” you could put “Pair work” etc. This way the students will only have a vague idea as to what the category is.

Playing the game: Divide the class into two teams. Team A chooses a category from the pyramid. One player from this team comes to the front of the class and receives the card with the name of the category and the list of 5 to 7 words. S/He has 60 to 90 seconds (depending on level and fluency) to get her/his team mates to guess the words on the list. The team scores one point for each word guessed. The player giving the clues cannot use his/her hands or any part of the word in their clues, (for example “teach” if the word being guessed is “teacher”). The team with the most points after all the categories have been used is the winner.

I always prepare at least 12 category cards which is enough to play two rounds. Once you get the hang of it, it’s easy to think up new categories and words that go with them. Below is a list of some of the categories and the suggestive titles I write on the pyramid so the students don’t know exactly what the category is.

Category Suggestive Title

1. Things found in the fridge. “Chillin’ Out”2. Food you eat with a spoon. “Spoon Feeding”3. Things that have numbers. “I’ve Got Your Number”4. Professions “All in a Day’s Work”5. Things typically American. “Born in the USA”6. Things in a .99 cent store. “ For the Price of a Dollar”7. Airports & air travel . “Up, Up and Away”8. Words beginning with Sh. “Shhh! The Baby’s Sleeping.”

Things found in the fridge

milkmeateggsvegetablesbeerbutterketchup

9. Things that come in pairs. “Pair Work”10. Things people are afraid of. “Scared stiff”11. Things children like. “Kid stuff”

12. Words related to school. “Teacher’s pet”13. Typical Spanish. “The rain in Spain…”14. Things you can do on a sofa. “Couch potatoes”15. Words related to tennis. “What a racket!”16. Words related to cinema. “Lights, camera, action!”17. Things made of paper. “Paper Moon” 18. Words related to computers. “Computer Geek”19. Things you do on the beach. “Life’s a Beach!”20. Words beginning with “T”. “T-totaller”21. Things found in the kitchen. “Too Many Cooks”22. Words related to football. “Get Your Kicks”23. Things people are proud of. “Beaming with Pride”24. Things people have in pockets. “Pocket Pool”

Fig. 1 A sample category card: “Chillin’ Out”

Fig. 2 Sample “pyramid” to draw on white board

Exercise 2

40 New Practice Topics for iBT TOEFL Speaking Part 1Here is a list of 40 new topics that you might find useful if you are preparing for Part 1 of the iBT TOEFL Speaking section. These are all Independent topics of the "open choice" / personal experience or opinion type.

1. Who is your best friend? Describe this person and say why he/she is your best friend.

2. What is your favorite place to visit on weekends? Describe it and explain why it is your favorite place to go.

3. What is your happiest childhood memory? Describe it and give reasons to explain why it is your happiest memory.

4. What is your most important possession? Describe it and say why it is so important.

5. Talk about a person in your life who has inspired you. Describe the person and explain why you found him/her inspirational.

6. Where do most like to go to eat out? Describe this place and say why you like it most.

7. Talk about an important national holiday in your home country. Describe it and explain why it is important.

8. What is your favorite book or movie? Describe it and say why it is your favorite.

9. Who do you feel close to in your family (or extended family)? Describe this person and say why you feel close to him/her.

10. Where is a good place to have fun in your city or town? Describe this place and explain why it is fun.

11. Talk about an experience in your life that made you feel embarrassed. Describe it and say why it was embarrassing.

12. What was your favorite subject at school? Describe it and explain why this subject was your favorite one.

13. Who is an important person in your country? Describe this person and explain why he/she is important.

14. Talk about an interesting tourist attraction you have been to. Describe it and say why it was interesting.

15. Talk about a time when you experienced success. Describe the experience and say why it was a success for you.

16. What is your favorite style of clothing? Describe it and explain why it is your favorite.

17. Name a person whom you truly admire. Describe the person and say why you admire him/her.

18. Think of a place that makes you feel relaxed and peaceful. Describe it and explain why it is relaxing and peaceful for you.

19. Talk about a difficulty you have overcome in your life. Describe the experience and say why it was difficult to overcome.

20. What is your most useful study aid? Describe it and explain why it is useful in helping you to study.

21. Talk about a teacher who had a positive influence on you. Describe this person and explain why he/she was so influential to you.

22. Where is your favorite place to study? Describe this place and say why it is a good place for you to study.

23. Talk about a positive experience with learning or using English. Describe the experience and say why it was a positive one.

24. What is your favorite kind of food? Describe it and explain why it is your favorite.

25. Name a famous or influential figure who has inspired you. Describe this person and say why he/she has been inspirational to you.

26. Which place has fond memories for you? Describe this place and explain why it is memorable to you.

27. When have you been happily surprised by something? Describe the experience and say why the surprise was a happy one for you.

28. Describe a resource that helped you to do something better than before. Describe it and explain why it was helpful to you.

29. Describe a person from your country’s history. Why do you think this person was important?

30. Where would you like to go to spend a vacation? Describe this place and say why you would like to holiday there.

31. Talk about something you and your family enjoy doing together. Describe it and explain why you all enjoy it.

32. What is your favorite recreational activity? Describe it and say why you enjoy doing it.

33. Who is the most intelligent person you know? Describe the person and say why you think he/she is intelligent.

34. Where would you most like to live? Describe this place and explain why you would like to live there.

35. What is your favorite season of the year? Describe the season and explain why you like it so much.

36. What custom from your home country are you most fond of? Describe the custom and explain why you are fond of it.

37. Which person are you most likely to go to with a personal problem? Describe this person and say why you would go to him/her in particular.

38. Name a place in your country you would recommend others to visit. Describe this place and explain why you would recommend it.

39. Talk about an event from the past that you would like to relive. Describe the original event and say why you would like to relive it.

40. What is your favorite way of getting around? Describe it and explain why it is your favorite means of transportation.

Exercise 3

Unit 8, IELTS Speaking test model, part 2: Recording script(CD 1, Track 22)

The Examiner will introduce part 2 by saying:

Examiner: Now, I’m going to give you a topic and I’d like you to talk about it for one to two minutes. Before you talk, you’ll have one minute to think about what you’re going to say. You can make some notes if you wish. Do you understand?

Candidate: Yes, I do.

Then the Examiner will give you some paper and a pencil for making notes, and read the topic to you.

Examiner: I’d like you to describe a minor accident that you had in the past.

After your one minute preparation time, you will give your talk.

Candidate: When I was about seven, I was very ill after school and I was sent home from school and I was lying on the sofa feeling sorry for myself, watching TV, and I got bored and decided to go and ask my mum if she could go and find a game for me or a book or something else to do, and when I went into the kitchen, my mother was cooking. And so, as I sort of went behind her, I had no shoes on and she didn’t hear me coming, and she was making boiled potatoes, and as I got behind her she turned around with the boiled potatoes in the saucepan to take them to the sink and I was right behind her, so she hit me round the head with the saucepan of boiling water and it all spilled down onto my shoulder and splattered my face and went all over my shoulder and burnt me. But because she didn’t let go of the saucepan, she still had it in her hand, she didn’t realise that I was crying because I was burnt, she thought I was crying because she’d hit me and bumped my head, so she didn’t respond quickly enough, which made the whole thing worse. At the time, my dad was a plumber and of course that was before mobile phones were invented, so dad was out at work and mum didn’t drive, so I had to wait about seven hours on the sofa with a dressing on my shoulder for my dad to come home from work so that he could take me to hospital. My poor mum, bless her heart, must have been very worried and not known what to do, with not being able to drive, but I guess there wasn’t anything else she could do, she did as much as she could, bathed it in cold water, put a dry dressing on…

Examiner: Thank you. Now, we’ve been talking about…

BAB VII

Some Principles Of Communication

In the last chapter, we described the process of communication and the factors which have an influence on it. An understanding of this process helps us to derive some general principles which are useful as guidelines for all kinds of communication.

Principle 1 Be aware of the importance of communication.

Communication is like breathing. Life would become impossible if we stopped breathing, yet we pay little attention to this activity, taking it entirely for granted. It is only occasionally (e.g. when we are drowning) that we are forced to realize just how important breathing is for us !

Communication is equally vital for life, although most of us take it for granted. However, the need for communication is so great in the modern world that we can no longer afford to take it for granted. ‘Communication Education’ has become as necessary as Health Education, since the health of a society is, to a great extent, dependent on the quality of communication among its members.

Many people think that the ability to communicate is an inborn talent. However, it is possible to develop the skills of communication through effort and understanding of the principles involved.

Principle 2 Be aware of the complexity of communication.

Most people have rather simplistic notions of what “good communication” is. For some, effective communication is the ability to handle language well -- to make a witty remark, to use a colourful adjective or to speak eloquently. For others, good communication is the ability to mingle with crowds and ‘socialize’ easily. These ‘accomplishments’ are undoubtedly useful ; but communication goes beyond such outward forms of behaviour.

Effective communication results from a combination of insights (knowledge), skills and values. Several different kinds of insight are required :

i. psychological insights into human nature and behaviour : an understanding of how people behave in different circumstances and how behaviour can be influenced through interaction ;

ii. sociological insights into patterns of social organization : an understanding of how societies are constituted and how social circumstances influence behaviour ;

iii linguistic insights : an understanding of language works to aid communication ;

iv cultural insights : a sympathetic understanding of the prevailing culture in a society

However, it is not enough to possess these kinds of knowledge : they have to be developed into practical skills by participating actively in different kinds of communication.

But neither knowledge nor skills will enable us to become effective communicators unless we have the right attitudes and values. Effective communication requires a positive attitude to social relationships as well as respect for other human beings -- the conviction that communication is desirable in itself, regardless of the ‘practical’ ends and purposes that it can serve.

Principle 3. Communication is driven mainly by an awareness of “Purpose’ and ‘Audience’.

Purpose

Essentially, people communicate with each other in order to express and satisfy their physical, emotional and psychological needs. All communication is, or should be, ‘purposeful’.

The purpose of communication is decided, initially, by the Sender. If the act of communicating is not linked to the Sender’s needs and interests, he/she will not take the trouble to communicate. However, the purpose of communication is often decided by negotiation between the Sender and the Receiver(s).

The effectiveness of communication depends, to a large extent, on its purposefulness. Communication which lacks a clear purpose is ‘rambling’ and difficult to follow. It is necessary for both the Sender and the Receiver to be sharply focused on the purpose of communication. The purpose of communication is generally to

i informii instructiii motivateiv entertain Most examples of communication reflect one or more of the above purposes.

The quality of communication often improves if the purpose is made explicit ; but in some cases, it may be wiser not to make the purpose too obvious. The degree to which the purpose is made explicit depends on the cultural context. In some cultures, people prefer to ‘lay their cards on the table’, making everything transparent ; while in some other cultures, people may prefer to ‘keep their cards close to their chests’.

Exercise

1. How would you describe the purpose of communication in the following examples ?

i. I read in an article in the ‘London Times’ that the national dish of people in Britain is ‘chicken butter masala’. Can you imagine that ? All of us thought the British ate nothing but fish and chips !

ii. When you’re in Kolkata, don’t forget to visit the Birla planetarium.

iii. Our state, Jharkhand, is the most rapidly developing region in the country. During the last year, its per capita income has risen by 31 percent. The future is bright.

iv. The Reserve Bank of India has announced an increase in its ‘repo’ rate.

(Answers : i. to entertain; ii. to instruct ; iii. to motivate ; iv. to inform

2 What role does ‘purpose’ play in the following examples of communication ?

a. “I need a taxi to go to the airport. Could you please call one for me ?” “It’s difficult to get a taxi at this time. Why don’t you take an auto instead ?” “ An auto ? But I have a lot of luggage.” “ Oh, it can be squeezed into the space behind the passenger seat.” “ Very well then. I’ll take an auto. Thanks.”

b. “ Have you seen the new Bangalore airport ?” “ Yes, I was invited to the inauguration. Looks very modern.”

“ Quite. But it’s too far away from the city ! I had to fly from Bangalore to Mumbai last week and it took me three hours to get to the new airport. I almost missed my flight.”

“ Yes, I know. You should have started at least four hours ahead of time. The roads are so crowded !” “ Really, this city gets worse every year.” “Yeah, but it’s not as bad as Delhi.” “ Maybe.”

(Suggested answers : In Example (a), the purpose is negotiated between the Sender and the Receiver. Communication is forceful and effective as the purpose is made clear. But in (b) there seems to be no clear purpose behind the communication. (How would you describe the purpose ?)

c. What do you think the relation between the Sender and the Receiver could be, in the two examples given above?

d. Can you re-write Conversation (b) so as to give it a clear purpose? Keep the first two lines but re-write the rest of the conversation.

(Imagine that this is a conversation between two businessmen. The first speaker wants to set up a hotel near the new Bangalore airport and is trying to persuade the second speaker to invest some money in his project. This is how the conversation begins :

“ Have you seen the new Bangalore airport ?”“ Oh yes, I was invited to the inauguration. Looks very modern.

(Continue the dialogue as suggested.)

3. What do the following examples tell you about the role of ‘purpose’ in communication?

(i)

Rajendran Morning, Ranjeeta.Ranjeeta Good morning, Rajendran. You know Vijaya, my cousin who lives

in Hyderabad, don’t you ?Rajendran No, unfortunately. What about her ?Ranjeeta Oh, she’s got a job in New York and will be flying there next week.Rajendran That’s wonderful !Ranjeeta Lucky girl ! Her boy-friend will be joining her too. He works for

Infosys. They’ve known each other since they were in school.Rajendran Look, Ranjeeta, I have to make some urgent telephone calls. Do

you mind ? I’ll catch up with you next week. Bye now !

(ii)

Raghav Meera, a funny thing happened at the office today. The boss … Meera Raghav, could you help Atul with his Maths homework ? He has a

test tomorrow.Raghav Sure. But let me tell you what happened … It was so comical !Meera Please, Raghav. Atul has been waiting for you to return from the

office so that you can help him.Raghav Oh, all right. Where’s Atul ?

(iii)

Ramesh Sunil, could you lend me five hundred rupees ? I’ll return the money to you next month.

Sunil I’m terribly sorry, Ramesh, but I’m rather short of cash this month. I had to buy new school uniforms for the children, you know.

(In Example (i), there seems to be no purpose. In (ii), the purpose identified by Meera prevails over Raghav’s purpose. In (iii) Ramesh makes the mistake of declaring his purpose too soon.)

Audience

As the ‘human factor’ is most important in communication, all communication should be ‘people-oriented’.

In most cases, the Sender begins the process of communication with the aim of securing the attention, sympathy, support, help etc. of the Receiver(s). Whatever the Sender’s purpose may be, communication will fail if the Receiver is not receptive to the message. In order to capture the Receiver’s attention, the Sender must focus prominently on the Receiver. It is necessary for the Sender to give due prominence to the Receiver and to see things from the Receiver’s point of view.

Compare the two sentences below:

i. “I want to marry you.”ii. “If you agree to become my wife, you will make me the happiest man in the world.”

In Sentence (i), the focus is predominantly on the Sender, whereas in Sentence (ii) the focus is mainly on the Receiver.

Exercise

1. Compare the two versions (given below) of an election speech given by a politician.

a. “ Ladies and gentlemen,As you know, I am contesting the elections from this city as a candidate of the

Jai Jawan Party. I was a student of the Janata College in this city and was the President of the Students’ Union. I have served the people of this city in many ways and hope to continue serving them for many years. I request you, therefore, to cast your vote in my favour.”

b. “ Friends,

Isn’t it sad that even 60 years after independence, the people of this city are unable to get proper health care ? There is no hospital here and when one of us falls sick, he or she has to be taken to the capital, 100 kilometres away, for treatment. I have grown up in this city, like most of you, and I know the problems that you face. I promise you that if I am elected, I shall try my best to see that these problems are solved.”

Which of these two versions is likely to be more effective, and why ?

2. Read through the advertisement given below and comment on its effectiveness.

Know and respect your audience.

Effective communication depends, to a large extent, on the ability of the Sender to see things from the Receiver’s point of view. But to be able to do this, the Sender must first have adequate information about the Receiver’s interests, tastes, preferences etc. It is difficult to identify with someone that one knows nothing about !

Successful communicators try to find out, in advance, as much about the audience which they are going to address as possible, often conducting formal or informal ‘audience research’. If this is not feasible, the speaker or writer can try to create a mental profile of the person or persons who may be expected to constitute the audience : their age, level of education, familiarity with the subject or topic that will be spoken or written about, their anticipated response etc. Communication does not take place in a vacuum ; it is always addressed to someone, real or hypothetical. The Sender should be able to feel that he/she is actually addressing an audience when planning what to say or write.

It is important not only to know your audience but also to approach it / them with a feeling of respect. A good communicator never ‘talks down’ to the audience, no matter how wide the ‘gap’ may be between the speaker (or writer) and the audience.

Exercise

1 Comment on the following exchange between a doctor and a group of mothers.

Doctor (speaking to a group of mothers) Your children are not getting enough nutrition. You must give them plenty of milk and fruits, and an egg every day.

First Mother Milk and fruits ! I can’t even buy rice for my child !

(Poor understanding of the audience’s needs.)

2 Comment on the following conversation.

Mr Thakre That was a very interesting talk on ‘Global Warming’ which you gave us this evening, Prof Madgulkar. I really learnt a lot from it.

Prof Madgulkar Thank you, Mr Thakre. I’ll send you a copy of my new book on the subject. I hope it will be of help to you when you are setting up your new refrigerator plant in Aurangabad.

Mr Thakre (surprised) How did you come to know about my project, Professor ? It is still at the planning stage !

Prof Madgulkar Well, when I was told I would be talking to a group of industrialists, I decided to find out as much about them as I could !

Mr Thakre That’s good thinking, Professor ! No wonder we found your talk so interesting as well as useful !

3 Imagine the following situation. You are a publisher, planning to launch a new fortnightly magazine in English and have hired a firm of consultants to conduct an audience survey on your behalf. The consultants report that most of your readers are likely to be graduate housewives in the age-group 35-40, having one or two school-going children, whose husbands have an average monthly income of 25,000 rupees.

Use this information to draft an advertisement to promote the new magazine. (Choose a suitable name for the magazine.)

Principle 4 Communication should have long-term as well as short-term goals.

Communication is generally undertaken to fulfill immediate needs, but it can also serve long-term goals. In the business world, where communication becomes particularly important, people are trained to adopt a long-term view of communication, as a means of building lasting relationships and creating greater understanding. A salesperson in a company, for example, may or may not be able to ‘talk’ a prospective client into buying a product, but if he/she has been able to communicate effectively, he/she should have won a friend for the company. Every business organization considers it important to project an image of itself as being honest and dependable as well as friendly and efficient, and makes huge investments in setting up communication networks through which such an image can be projected.

Principle 5 Communication should be positive.

The basic function of all communication is to build bridges between people. Communication should therefore be a ‘positive’ activity. Although we are sometimes obliged to communicate messages to each other which are unpleasant or painful, we should try to communicate them in as painless a manner as possible, showing respect for the feelings of the Receiver.

Principle 6 Communication should be a collaborative activity between Sender and Receiver.

Communication can succeed only if the Sender and the Receiver contribute jointly to its success. One might think that the Sender (Speaker or Writer) is alone responsible for ‘getting the message across’, but the Receiver should also want and try to maintain the communication link. Communication rests on the principle of co-operation between Sender and Receiver and each should be aware of his/her responsibility.

Principle 7 Be aware of the ‘barriers’ to communication and be prepared to take ‘positive’ action to overcome them.

In Chapter 1, we described some of the ‘barriers’ which are present in all situations in which communication takes place and can potentially bring about a breakdown of communication. Both the Sender and the Receiver must be aware of these barriers and co-operate in trying to overcome them.

The most pervasive barrier to communication is the reluctance on the part of most people to accept that there can be more than one way of looking at any issue. We usually enter into communication feeling convinced that we are right and anyone who disagrees with us is wrong. A good communicator must have an open mind and must be a willing listener (or reader). Although it is necessary to have clear views and opinions of one’s own, these views and opinions must be ‘permeable’ – that is, open to change.

The other barriers to communication which we described in Chapter 1 are cultural as well as linguistic. We tend to think of our own language and culture as being superior to others and to resist other cultures. Some people find it difficult to learn other languages mainly because they are not ‘open’ to these languages. Effective communication requires recognition of the fact that all languages and all cultures are equally valuable.

Principle 8 Communication should be ‘strategized’ and not left to chance.

Many kinds of communication can be planned in advance : for example, if you are responding to a letter, you can plan your reply ; or, if you are invited to deliver a speech at a function, you can write out your speech in advance. However, there are many other situations which give you no time to plan ahead : for example, if you enter into a conversation with someone, you cannot plan what you will say as you cannot predict how the conversation will develop.

A good communicator, however, is seldom caught unprepared. The situations in which we are required to communicate with others are, to some extent, predictable -- at least in broad outline, if not in their details, depending on the profession or occupation in which we

are involved, the kinds of people we have to meet, the kinds of questions they are likely to ask etc. For example, a computer salesman can make fairly reliable predictions about the kinds of people whom he/she will meet professionally or socially, the kinds of questions they may ask etc. Not all his/her interactions will be predictable, but a large number of them will follow a pattern. Through experience, one can discover the best ‘strategy’ to deal with a variety of situations. A good chess player usually ‘thinks out’ his/ her ‘moves’ ahead : he/ she has thought of an appropriate response to a move that his/her opponent may make.

To become an effective communicator, you should be able to ‘think on your feet’, reading every change in a situation intelligently and sensitively. As we said earlier, this requires a good understanding of human behaviour and of social situations. Good communication does not ‘happen’ ; it is made to happen.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Celce-Murcia. M. 2001. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed). USA: Heinle&Heinle.

Chaney, A.L., and T.L. Burk. 1998. Teaching Oral Communication in Grades K-8. Boston: Allyn&Bacon.

Baruah, T.C. 1991. The English Teacher's Handbook. Delhi: Sterling Publishing House.

Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Harmer, J. 1984. The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman.

McDonough, J. and C. Shaw. 2003. Materials and Methods in ELT: a teacher’s guide. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell.

Nunan, D., 2003. Practical English Language Teaching. NY:McGraw-Hill.

Staab, C. 1992. Oral language for today's classroom. Markham, ON: Pippin Publishing.

Triastuti, Anita. 2006. A Path to Public Speaking: a Handout for Speaking IV Class

Anderson, Kenneth and Joan Maclean. 2006. Study Speaking. Cambridge U.P

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