linguistic for non linguistic

8/14/2019 Linguistic for non linguistic

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Final assignment, linguistic

LINGUISTIC

CREATED BY

Name : Erson Efendi

NPM : A1B007019

ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND

EDUCATION

UNIVERSITAS OF BENGKULU

20010

Created by Erson efendi


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Preface

Linguistic is a study of language theory or a science of

language. There some aspect of linguistic that are;

Phonetics, the study of the sounds of human language.

o Phonology (or phonemics), the study of patterns of a language's basic

sounds.

Morphology, the study of the internal structure of words

o Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical

sentences.

Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical

semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology),

and how these combine to form the meanings of

sentences.

Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally,

figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts.

Discourse analysis, the study of sentences organized into texts.

Intersecting with those specialty domains above are

fields arranged around the kind of external factors that

are considered.

Language acquisition, the study of how language is acquired

Historical linguistics or Diachronic linguistics, the study of

languages whose historical relations are recognizable

through similarities in vocabulary, word formation, andsyntax

Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and

representations underlying language use



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Sociolinguistics, the study of social patterns of linguistic

variability

Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the

area of Speech-Language Pathology

Neuro-Linguistics, the study of the brain networks that

underlay grammar and communication.

Chapter 6

PHONOLOGY

Introduction

Phonology is a system of speech sounds employed bynative employed by native speakers of English. As we approach

our study of English phonology, we must bear in mind that

language itself is ORAL it lives on the lip and in the ears of its

users and writing is visual symbolization of language itself.

A. The Speech Producing Mechanism

Speech sounds are sound waves crated in a moving stream

of air. They are disturbances of the medium such as you would

observe if you were to drop a stone on quiet surface of a pool.

The air is expelled from the lung, passes between the two vocal

cord larynx ( Adams apple), and proceeds upward.

B. Phonemes

The amazing discovery is that people systematically ignore

certain properties of sounds. They perceive two different sounds

as the same sound. We call the stored versions of speech sounds

phonemes. Thus phonemes are the phonetic alphabet of the

mind. That is, phonemes are how we mentally represent speech;

how we store the sounds of words in our memory.



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a. Minimal pair

A minimal pair is a pair of words that have different

meanings and which differ in only one sound. For example, if we

compare the sounds of sin and sing, we find only difference

between them: sin, ends in alveolar nasal /n/ and sing; in velar

nasal/1j/.

b. Allophones

Allophones are enclosed in brackets with the occasional addition

of diacritical marks to indicate the exact pronunciation.

Phonemes are enclosed in slant.). For example, in words play

and sled, whether it pronounce in certain words with a voiceless

or voiced, the meaning remain unchanged; such variations of

phonemes are called allophones.

C. The English phonemic system : Vowels

1. Vowels are oral sound. In some dialects and in certain

contexts vowel may become partially nasal, but normally

they are orals, not nasals.

2. Vowels are voiced.

3. Vowels are characterized by a free flow of air through the

oral cavity.

4. The distinguishing features of the different vowels are

determined largely by tongue position.

English may be said to have twelve vowels five front, four

back and three central vowels-which shall now take upsystematically.

The following is a chart of vowels and its position



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Vowels

PHONEMIC SYMBOL Example

/i/ seat

/I/ sit

/e/ say

// said// sad

/ (unstressed =// suds(sofa)

/a/ sod

/u/ suit

/ / soot

/o/ sewed

/ / sought/aI/ sight

/a / south

/ I/ soy



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Front vowels

If we pronounce the final sound of be, symbolized by /i/,

and hold the/ i/, you will find that the tongue front and middle

are humped high in the mouth, leaving a narrow passage for the

flow of air between the hard palate and the surface of the

tongue. The tongue position of /i/ is the top one diagram.

Back vowel

Pronounce the final sound of too, symbolized by /u/. For

this vowel, /u/, the tips are rounded and the back of tongue is

raised to a position-near the velum, leaving little space for the

air.

Central vowels

English has three central vowels. The first one is mid-

central vowel symbolized by /r/. The second central vowel

symbolized by // like upside down e and the last central vowels

is the sound symbol /a/ like in the word father

The syllable

A syllable is a sound or a short sequence of sound that

contains one speaks of sonority. This peak is usually a vowel, and

the vowel is said to be the nucleus of syllable. Example;

One syllable : be /bi/

Two syllable : believe /bliv/

Three syllables: believing /blivI/

Four syllables : unbelieving /nblivi/

Five syllables : unbelievingly /nblivily/



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Diphthongs

A diphthong consist of a vowel plus a glide that occur in

the syllable, the tongue moving smoothly from one position to

the other without hiatus, as sight, /say/, sow (female pig), /saw/,

and soy, /s0y.

D. The English Phonemic System: Consonants

For each consonant phoneme in the following table, there

are three examples: one each for the occurrence of the phoneme

in world-initial, word-medial, and word-final position. A blank

indicates that the phoneme does not occur in that position in

English.

P / pat, zipper, cap

B / bat, fibber, cab

T / tab, catty, cat

d / dab, caddy, cad

k / cap, dicker, tack

g / gap, digger, tag

f / fat, safer, belief v / vat, saver, believe

/ thin, ether, breath

/ then, either, breathe

S / sue, lacy, peace

Z / zoo, lazy, peas

/ shoe, thresher, rush

/ ----, treasure, rouge

h / ham, ahead, -----

/ chain, sketch, beseech

/ jane, edgy, besiege



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m / mitt, simmer, seem

n / knit, sinner, seen

/ ----, singer, sing

I / light, teller, coalr / right, terror, core

w / wet, lower, -----

y / yet, layer, ------

Fricatives

English contains nine consonants that are produced by

obstruction of the air stream causing audible friction. These nine

fricatives are;

/f, v, , , s, z, , h/.

Affricates

English has two affricates-the voiceless/ /, as in chill, and

the voiced //, as inJill.

Nasals

The three nasals-/m/, /n/, //.

Literal

Literal /I/, as in louse, is made by placing the tongue tip on

the alveolar ridge and the vocal cord as the air passes out on one

or both sides of tongue.

Glides

The three glides, /y/, /r/, and /w/. are signalized by a

moving, not a stationary, tongue position.



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Phonetic processes

a. Assimilation

Assimilation can be defined as the phonetic process by

which one speech sound comes to resemble or become identical

wit a neighboring sound between words or within word. Voice

assimilation plays a role in the formation of English plural. In

spelling, the plural consist of the addition of an s or es, singular

form of noun.

b. Metathesis

Metathesis is the transportation of speech sound. The

person who says tradegy for tragedy or revelant for relevant is

metatheszng

c. Epenthesis

Epenthesis is the insertion of an extra consonant within word,

such as the/ /p/ you may hear in something or the /t/ in sense.

d. Epenthesis

Epenthesis is the edition of an extra consonant to the end of

word. It occurs after a final /n/ or /s/.



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Chapter 7

LANGUAGE VARIATION

A. INTRODUCTION

In the past few decades, linguistics- the systematic study

of language has expanded dramatically. Its findings are now of

interest to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers,

anthropologists, teachers, speech therapists and many others

who have realized that language is of crucial importance in their

life and work. A branch of linguistics which studies properties of

language and languages which require reference to social,

including contextual, factors in their explanation is called

Sociolinguistics. One of such properties is variation (Downes,

1998: 9, 16). The study of language variation and change is thecore of the sociolinguistics enterprise (Chamber, et.al., 2004)

Variation is recognized as we have many different ways of

speaking the same language (ibid.: 16). We recognize speakers

with different dialects or accents. Sometimes we find variation



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within the same community. Speech is always uttered by

individuals who are members of social groups which are both

separated from and related to other social groups in space and

time (ibid.: 18).

A variety is a neutral term which simply means any

particular way of speaking. Thus, when we observe an

utterance it is always in a particular language, in a particular

dialect of that language, and pronounced with a particular

accent. A dialect varies from other dialects of the same language

simultaneously on all three linguistic levels: phonologically,

grammatically, and in terms of its vocabulary or lexically (ibid.:

17).

Language Variation

Language variation is the study of those features of a language

that differ systematically as we compare different groups of

speakers or the same 1 in different situations.

LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS, LANGUAGES,

DIALECTS AND IDIOLECTS

The study of linguistics can be divided into a different set of

domain, depending on what group of speakers we are looking at.

One such domain is language universals, those properties

(categories and rules) that all human languages, past and

present, have in common. Another domain concerns the

properties of a particular language. Still another domain is a

dialect, a systematic variety of, a language specific to a

particular region or social class (e.g., American English, British

English, Southern American English, Black English Vernacular,

and so on). The reason that most linguists are not especially



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interested in, is that individual variations from speaker to

speaker are thought. to be idiosyncratic rather than systematic.

Figure 7-1 summaries relationship among these different

domains

One useful rule of thumb is that different languages are not

mutually intelligible. So for example, if you are a monolingual

speaker of English and

One point that must be made at the outset of our

discussion is that a dialect is an abstraction, a theoretical

construct hypothesized by linguists to account for subsystems ofregularities within a particular language.

Lets now take a look at three types of variation within a

language:. regional variation (or regional dialects) social

variation (or social. dialectstypically referred to as standard or

nonstandard & dialects) stylistic variation.



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REGIONAL VARIATION

The study of regional varieties of a language, at least in

the modern Western tradition, began in 19th. century Europe. By

the early 2 cannot the last volume of Joseph Wrights English

Dialect Dictionary had been published, and regional dialect

atlases bad been begun or completed for Germany, France, and

Italy by investigators working largely independent end of one

another. A dialect atlas Is essentially a series of maps on which

the geographical distribution of particular linguistic features Is

plotted.

Regional Lexical Variation

The following are some of the more prominent regional lexical

(i.e. vocabulary) differences in North American English ; along

with a rough geographical distribution for each one: pail (North),

bag (north) ( bucket (north), / ( .sack (South); faucet (North),

spigot (South): quarter 0f four quarter till four ( ,win ( dived

( chaste ( sofa States) serviette (Canada), napkin (United States):

and eh ( huh ( States). Frederic Cassidy, In his research for the

dictionary of American Regional! English, found thousands of

examples of more exotic regionalism . For Instance caseworm

earthworm (Rhode Island); democrat bug box-elder bug

Kansas and Iowa. Republican strongholds!); snooze snuff

(Wisconsin and Minnesota); hoof tie hippie, (Pennsylvania from

hoofs hip in German); black Christmas without snow (Alaska);( and peach-limb tea ,a whipping administered to a child

(Arkansas).

Regional Phonological Variations



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The following are classic examples of regional phonological

variation. Linking [r] This feature, which Is associated with

eastern New England and New York City, refers to a phenomenon

whereby a vowel-vowel s between words Inked with an [r]. For

example. Consider a phrase like That idea is crazy. Note that

Idea ends with a vowel, and the following word is [iz] begins with

a vowel. For a speaker whose dialect contains the Linking [r]

feature, this phrase would be pronounced u if idea ended in an

[r] (ideas). Speakers of this dialect presumably have a rule in

their phonological systems which insert an [r] between a word

ending in a vowel and another word beginning with a vowel, as

follow.

In contrast, this rule predicts that the linking En would

not appear in. the phrase That Idea sound crazy. since there are

no vowel-vowel sequences between words (ends in a vowel, but

sounds begins with a consonant)

Other Regional Phonological Feature . There are many

examples of phonological variation too numerous to discuss in

detail here. The following, however, constitute a representative

sample: greasy [s] (North),[z] (south); root [u] (south); bottle

(New York City wash [wars] (Washington, D.C. area); cot and out

(a] ( (Canada); and out Lao] (Canada, eastern Virginia. and South

Carolina).

Several additional points should be made before leaving

this section on regional variation. Fins regional dialects, at least

in North America, differ primarily in terms of vocabulary and

pronunciation (La., lexically and phonological. Second many of

the regional dialect differences detected by fieldworkers in the

1930s and 1940s are not as clear-cut as they once were. As a

result you may have noticed that some of the dialect features



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ascent Dad to your particular area of the country does not match

the way you speak. Third as we discussed earlier, a dialect is a

Theoretical. Construct devised by linguists to account for certain

linguistic patterns That is, a dialect boundary exists solely by

virtue of the fact that the limits of a number of different dialect

features coincide there

SOCIAL VARIATION

In the preceding section we discussed data drawn from

studies In regional dialectology. While many researchers still

maintain an interest in this field. Much research in language

variation has shifted, over the past 25 years. or so, to a field

known as sociolinguistics. Among the get concern to this field is

the interrelationship between the socioeconomic status of a

group of speakers and the characteristics of the dialect speak.

For example, working class New Yorkers drop their rs (delete

post-vocalic [r] in words like forty-four more often than middle

class New Yorkers do. It would be misleading, however, to saythat regional dialectology and sociolinguistics are mutually

exclusive fields of study. On the contrary, researchers in regional

dialectology often include socioeconomic information about their

informants (e.g., age and education). Likewise, researchers In

sociolinguistics must often take into account regional influences

on the social dialects they are studying.

It is important to understand that identifying a dialect asstandard or nonstandard is a sociological judgment, not a

linguistic judgment. If we my that Dialect X Is nonstandard we

are saying that the educated members of the society In which Is

spoken judge the speakers of X inferior In some way, based on

certain linguistic characteristics of X. We are not, however,



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saying that X is inferior linguistically In the sense that it is cruder.

less well developed, and so forth than the standard. All dialects

of all natural languages are absolutely rule governed systematic.

None is more or less developed than another all are equally

complex.

Lets look at a concrete example of the difference between

a sociological and a linguistic judgment. Consider the reflexive

pronouns

in the following sentences.

(7a) John fed himself

(7b) John fed his self

(7c) John fed he self.

First of all, observe that (la) and (7b) are used by speakers of

English, but (isnt. In other words (7a) and (7b) are part of

English, but (isnt. This is a linguistic fact. Second, the

pronominal forms in (and (are used by different groups of

speakers. That is, they belong to different dialects. This, too, is a

linguistic fact. Third, the utterance of sentence ( goes unnoticed

by educated speakers of the language; it draws negative

attention to the speaker it Is unremarkable. On the other hand,

the utterance of (does not go unnoticed; it does draw negative

attention to the speaker: it is. in fact, remarkable. These and the

judgments that follow from them (e.g., (7a) Is standard, (7b) is

nonstandard are sociological fact

Nonstandard Phonological Variation

-As we have seen, not all phonological variation carries social

weight. For example. A speaker who pronounces caught as



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would probably not form any negative social judgments about a

speaker who pronounces the same word as (k at least not on the

basis of this one form. Similarly, a speaker from New England

whose dialect contains the Linking [Rule would probably not form

a social judgment about a speaker whose dialect lacks this

feature

Nonstandard morphological variation

Morphological variation refers to differences in word

formation, especially those related to the inflection of nouns and

verb. Morphological variation is more socially marked in speech

than is phonological variation. Nonstandard morphological forms

often reflect more regular treatments of the noun and verb

system of English than their standard counterparts do.

Reflective Pronouns

Some nonstandard dialects of English use the following system of

reflective pronouns.

Singular Plural1st person myself ourselves

2nd person yourself your selves

3rd person herself/hisself theirselves

Omission of final s on verbs

The obvious question that arises is: why is this morpheme

omitted in some nonstandard dialects? To see why, lets look at

the Standard English system for the inflection of present tenseverbs.

Singular Plural

1st person I walk we walk

2nd person you walk you walk



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3rd person he/she walk they walk

Most present tense verbs have no overt manifestation of

{PRES}. If we substitute the nonstandard form (He/she walk) for

the corresponding standard forms, we come out with a perfectly

regular system.

Other nonstandard morphological features

One feature is the use of nonstandard past tense and past

participial verb forms: for example, see, seed, or seen for saw;

come for came; and rid for rode. Another feature is the is the

omission of s on plural nouns and possessive NPs. The omission

of s is morphological rather than phonological. If it were

phonological, all three morphemes would be omitted with equal

frequency, since they are phonological identical.

Another nonstandard morphological feature is the

generalization of one inflected form of be to all forms.

Nonstandard syntactic variation

Syntactic variations tend to be more socially marked than

phonological variations, some of which are regional as well as

social.

Inversion in wh-interrogatives

Let us assume that, in the underlying structure of this

interrogative, we have a sequence of elements like the following:

It - is - what

Note that this underlying structure differs from the surface formin two ways:

First, the subject NP (it) is in initial position in the

underlying structure, but follows the verb (is) on the surface.

Second, the wh-word (what) is in final position in the

underlying structure, but in initial position in the surface form.



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Double negatives

From a historical perspective, then, it is difficult to say that

the double negative construction was either socially or

linguistically marked in earlier forms of English.

Other nonstandard syntactic features

Many other socially marked syntactic construction too

numerous to detail here. The following, however, constitute a

representative sample. One such feature is the deletion of an

inflected form of be. Socially marked grammatical variations are

often highly systematic from a linguistic perspective. They often

reflect predictable variations of standard English forms and are

by no means illogical or incorrect from the standpoint of how

language actually works.

Stylistic variation

Systematic variation in the language of any one speaker,

depending upon the occasion and the language of any one

speaker, depending upon the occasion and the participants in

the interchange. Different styles or registers range from

extremely formal to quite informal. An analogy can be drawn

between stylistic variation in language and variation in dress.

A similar set of observations can be made about stylisticvariation in language. First of all, linguistic style is a matter of

what is appropriate.

Stylistic lexical variation



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One rather obvious stylistic dimension that speakers vary

from one situation to another is vocabulary. When speaking or

writing in a more formal register, our word choice may lean

toward polysyllabic word rather than their shorter equivalents.

Stylistic phonological variation

Neutralization rules tend to be suppressed in formal styles

of speaking. Two points worth emphasizing:

First, pronunciations characterized by phonological

neutralization do not reflect careless speech; on the contrary,

they reflect a style of speech appropriate for informal registers.

Second, it is easy to make the mistake of thinking that

informal styles are appropriate only for informal occasions, but

those formal styles are appropriate for all occasions.

Stylistic morphological variation

The formation of words can also exhibit stylistic variation.

One of the features most commonly associated with most

commonly associated with more informal registers is contraction.

Another morphological characteristic of informal registers is theuse of shortened forms.

Stylistic syntactic variation

Changes in syntax may also occur as a function of changes

in register. Another syntactic characteristic of informal styles

deletion in interrogatives.

Bilingualism and Multilingualism

It is widely accepted norm that most of western people are

able to use a single language in their communication at home,

school, or in other public places. Such ability is termed as



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monolinguals and the person who acquires this ability is called

monolingual. However, it is also possible to find out that a single

language has two or more varieties or dialects associated with

the region where the people live; that is what is named as

regional variation.

In many countries, regional variation is not simply a matter of

two dialects of a single language, but a matter of two or more

quite distinct and different languages. For example, Indonesia

as archipelagoes countries with different tribes has hundreds of

regional languages (vernacular) as their first languages used in

every day communication. Therefore, Indonesian people are not

monolingual but bilingual who are capable of using their first

language and the national language Bahasa Indonesia as their

second language. Some of them are multilingual who are

proficient to use three or even more languages: their first

language, national language and other regional language or

international language. The ability to use two languages

distinctively is termed as bilingualism; while the ability to use

three or more languages refers to multilingualism.In multilingual countries, like Indonesia, it is very possible to

appear a situation in which two languages are spoken

distinctively. This situation is named as diglossia or diglossic

situation. According to Wardhaugh, a diglossic situation exists

in a society when it has two codes which show clear functional

separation; that is one is employed in one set of circumstances

and the other in an entirely differentset (1986: 87).

Ferguson (Word 15: 336)defines diglossia as follows:

Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which, in

addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may

include a standard or regional standards), there is a very

divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more



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complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and

respected body of written literature, either of

an earlier period or in another speech community , which

is learned largely by formal education and is used for most

written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any

sector of the community for ordinary conversation.

Diglossia as explained above can be understood in terms of

narrow and broad sense. In the narrow sense, diglossia means

situation that exists in a society when it has two varieties: high

variety and low variety which show clear functional separation.

Such a diglossia has three crucial features:

Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in

the community, with one regarded as a high (H) variety

and the other a low (L) variety;

Each variety is used for quite distinct functions: H and L

complement each other.

No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation

(Holmes, 2001: 27).

In more detailed explanation, Wardhaugh (1986: 88-9) proposes

six features to define diglossia:

Two varieties are kept quite apart functionally.

One is used in one set of circumstances and the other

in entirely different set.

One does not use an H variety in circumstances

calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor

does one usually use an L variety when an H is called for,

e.g., for writing a serious work.

The H variety is the prestige var iety; the L variety

lack prestige.

A considerable body of literature is found to exist



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in H variety and almost none in the other.

The L variety often shows a tendency to borrow

learned words from H variety, particularly when

speakers try to use the L variety in more formal ways.

All children learn the L variety.

Based on the features above, diglossia exists in the

Central and East Java as there are at least two varieties of

Javanese language. Its high variety called Krama Inggil is mostly

used by the people with higher social status; while its low variety

called Ngoko is mostly used by the people with lower social

status. Krama Inggil is also in very formal situation, such as

religion ceremonial and literature; while Ngoko is used in

everyday communication.

In the broad sense, diglossia means situation that exists in

a society when it has two languages: national and regional

language which show clear functional separation. There are

features to define that diglossia:

Two distinct languages are used in the community , with

one regarded as a national (NL) and regional language (RL).

Each variety is used for quite distinct functions: NL and RL

complement each other.

One does not use the NL in circumstances calling for the RL,

e.g., for addressing a servant; nor does one usually use the RL

variety when an H is called for, e.g., for writing research.

The NL is the prestige language; the RL v lacks prestige.

Literary works are mostly found to exist in the NL and almost

none in the other.

The RL often shows a tendency to borrow learned words from

the NL, particularlywhen speakers try to use the RL variety in



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are no longer possible. For example, the subject can follow the

verb, as in ferde he (he traveled), and the object can be placed

before the verb, as he hine geseah (he saw him), or at the

beginning of the sentence him man ne sea!de (no man gave

(any) to him).

The most obvious way in which Modern English differs lexically

from Old English is in the number of borrowed words,

particularly words of Latin and Greek origin, which have come into

the language since the Old English period. Less obvious ly,

many words have ceased to be used. A common Old English

term for man was were which is no longer in general use, but

within the domain of horror films, it has survived in the

compound form, werewo!f. Perhaps more interesting are the

two processes of broadening and narrowing of meaning. An

example of broadening of meaning is the modern use of the word

dog which refers to all breeds, but in its older form it was only

used for one particular breed. An example of narrowing is the

word mete, once used for any kind of food, which has in its

modern form, meat, becomes restricted to only some specific types

(Yule, 1985: 172-78).

Conclusion

It is clear that studying a language may cover not only its

micro-aspects, such asphoneme, morpheme, and syntax; but

also its macro-aspects, especially how it is used by its

community. This makes language study more interesting as itdeals with social phenomena that happen in a society. They,

mostly, concernwith language varieties, standard and dialects,

bilingualism, multilingualism, and language changes.



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Chapter 8

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Introduction

Human brain are so constructed that one brain respond in

much the same way to given trigger as does another brain, all

thing being equal. This is way baby can learn any language; it

responds to triggers in the same way as any other baby.As children born, they bring their own language, but the

language not yet in right form. In construct their language in to

right form, children pass some processes, from babbling

processes till understandable processes.

Prelinguistic Stages

In first year of life there are three stages thought to have nothing directly

to do with the acquisition of language. A) the crying stage lasts from birth to

around 2 mounths. The coosing stage, characterized stage by vowel-like sound,

lasts from about 2 abou 2 months to 5 months. And babbling stage, characterized

by syllable-like consonant-vowel sounds, lasts from about 5 months to 12 months.



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However, language-like behaviors such as cooing and babbling are not

actually practice for language aquisition, the reasonable hypithesis is that they

are simply genetically determined stages that he human organism goes through on

its way to maturation.

Phonological development

From birth, children are exposed to variety of noises in

their environment before they can begin to acquire. Two months

of birth, infants can recognize their mothers voice and develop

the ability to distinguish among certain speech sound.

Babbling

The emergence of articulatory infants skill begins around

three or four month age, when children start to produce cooing

and babbling sound. From around age six months or so,

childrens babbling gradually becomes more similar to the sound

pattern of language they are acquiring.

Early phonetic processesBabbling increase in frequently until the age about twelve

months, at which time children start to produce their first

understandable word. By the time children have acquired fifty

words or so for some time before dying out.

Production versus perception

When the children active in acquire they tend to make

error between what they have heard and what they produce as

they speaks. According to one study, a child who not produces a

distinction in this could own speech between mouse and mouth,



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cart and card was, nonetheless, able to point to pictures of

correct objects in a comprehension task.

Morphological development

Determining factors. What determines the order of acquisition

of minor lexical categories and bound morphemes. That are;

1. Occurrence of the morpheme in utterance final position.

Children show a greater tendency to notice and remember

elements that occur at the end of the utterance then those

found in any other position.

2. Syllabicity. Children seem to take greater notice of

morphemes such as-ing and on, which constitute syllables,

than the plural or possessives suffixes, which single

consonant.

3. Susceptibility to stress. The fact that morphemes such as

English the or in can be stressed apparently increase their

salience and facilities their acquisition.

4. Obligatorness. All other thing being equal, morpheme that is

obligatory in particular context will be esier to acquire thanone that optional.

5. A straightforward relation between form and meaning.

Whereas the English inflection suffix-ed mark only past tense,

the portmanteau verbal ending-s simultaneously represent

three linguistic categories.

6. Lack of exception. Whereas all singular noun form the

possessive with-, not all verb use-d mark only past tense.

7. Lack of allomorphic variation. Whereas the affix-ing has the

same form for all verbs, the past tense ending-ed has three

major allomorph-/t/t for verb such chase, /d/.



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8. Absence of homophones. In English, three separate

morphemes (plural, possessive and the third singular) have

the form-s.

Development of word meaning

By the eighteen months or so, the average child has a

vocabulary of fifty words or more. Over the next months this

vocabulary grows rapidly, sometimes by as ten or twelve words a

day. The word a typical vocabulary of two year old are; body

part, food, clothes, household and animals.

A major factor in lexical development is the chills ability to

use contextual clue to draw inference about the category and

meaning of new words. From seventeen months of age, for

instance, children presence or absence of determiners to

distinguish between proper nouns name and common nouns.

Children are also to tend over extension in get meaning as

a result of the similarities in the appearance, shape, size and

texture. Other aspect can not understood by the children are the

prepositions.

Syntactic development

Like phonological and morphological development, the

emergences of syntactic rules take place in an orderly sequence.

Beginning with the production of one word utterances near the

end of first year life, children gradually master the rules for

sentence formation in their language

Linguistic Stages

The stages of language acquisition from the perspective of the four

components of grammar: phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, in that

order. There are clarirfy several potential points of confusions. First, in acquiring



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language, children go through more or less the samestages at more or less the

same time. These stages, however, represent general trends, and every child does

not follow them in lock-step fashion. Second, in this chapter we will deal sorely

with the acquisition ofEnglish. However, the principles discussed here typically

apply, where theyare relevant, to the acquisition of orher first languages as well.

Third, it is much more difficult to draw inferences about first-languageacquisition

than it is to study almost any other area of linguistics. Thisis because language

acquisition is the only area of linguistics that requires investigators to deal with

immature informants (i.e., infants and children).

INFANTS ACQUISITION PROCESSING IN LINGUISTIC ASPECT

Acquisition of Phonology

Here some an example of stages a child goes through in acquiring the

phonology of his or her language :

Vowels. Children exposed to English tend to acquire

first /a/ and then /i,u/. This sequence follows from two

principles. First, extreme values in this system tend to be

acquired before intermediate values. Second, childrentypically acquire segments common among the world's

languages before they acquire those that are relatively

rare.

Consonants. Children exposed to English tend to

acquire /p,b,m,/ first and then /t/. This sequence follows

from several prineiples. First, place of articulation tends to

be acquired from the front of the mouth to the back.

Second, manner of articulation tends to be acquired from

most consonant-like to least consonant-like.

PLACE : Labial Dental/Alveolar Palatal/velar

more front more back

MANNER : Stops more closed



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Nasals

Fricatives

Affricates

Liquids more open

Syllable Structure. The simplest type of syllable

found among the world's languages is CV, where C :

consonant and V : vowel. All languages contain words

made up of CV syllables. English has a rule that tenses a

lax vowel in word-final position. (Note, for example, that

said contains the lax vowel ,//, but the tense vowei /e/

occurs in final position as in say.) This rure changes /I/ to

/i/, yielding /tmi/. Again, the point is that a child's

acquisition of phonology is rule governed and predictable.

Acquisition of Morphology

Grammatical morphemes are generally absent at first, but aretypically

mastered by age 5. The class of grammatical morphemes includesinflectional and

derivational affixes, among other things. Inflectional affixes. In general, the {PRES PART}

affix, spelled -ing, is acquired fairly early, presumably

because this phonological variation; that is, it always

appears as /i/or /In/. The morphemes {PAST}, {PLU},

{POSS}, and {PRES} , on the other hand, are all acquired

somewhat later, presumably because they exhibit

somewhat more phonological variation.

Derivational Affixes. The acquisition of derivational

affixes is not as well understood as the acquisition of

inflectional affixes. This is because there are many more

derivational affixes in English than there are inflectional

affixes.



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Acquisition of Syntax

Here some representative examples of the stages a child goesthrough in

acquiring the syntax of his or her language :

length of Utterance and Word Order.

Somewhere berween the agesof I and 2 years, every

child enters the one-word or holophrastic stage.This

stage normally lasts between 3 and 9 months and is

characterizedby one-word utterances, where each

word typically refers to some concreteobject in the

child's environment (e.g,, shoe, milk, eye, ball, car,

Mommy,Daddy). Around the age of 2, children

typically enter the two-word stage,which is

characterized by utterances containing a maximum

of two words.

Questions. Stages in the acquisition of

questions by childrenacquiring English have been

studiedquite extensively by languageacquisition

researchers. As we look at these stages, keep in

mind that English has two basic interrogative

structures: yes-no interrogatives (e.g.,Has Biff seen

Tammy?) and wh-interrogatives (e.g., Who has Biff

seen!).

Negatives- As was the case with questions,

stages in the acquisition of negative sentence

structures have been studied extensively. As welookat these stages, keep in mind that negative

declarative sentences in the adultgrammar are

formed by putting not immediately in the right of the



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firstauxiliary in the corresponding affirmative

structure.

Once again, the point of this section is that a

child,s acquisition ofsyntactic categcries and rules

proceeds through orderly, systematic, andpredictable

stages.

Aquisition of Semantics

Semantics is probably the most poorly understoodcomponent of grammar.

Likewise, the way that children acquire semantics is also not well understood.

Nonetheless, we can still draw somegeneralizations concerning this process.

lexical semantics. Two fairly clear processes that children gothrough in

acquiring the meaning of individual words are overgeneralization and subsequent

narrowing. These processes can best be seen inthe acquisition of concrete nouns.

SentenceSemantics. The way a child acquires the ability to

interpretsentences is not purely a semantic phenomenon; it is inextricably

boundup with syntax.

One interesting case is the acquisition of the ability to interpret

passivesentences. At one time, linguists thought that children acquiredtheirentirelinguistic system (except for vocabulary) perfectly and completely by

aboutthe age of 5.

A final ability that children acquire in systematic stages involves

theinterpretation of sentences linked by temporal connectives. Clark found that

children typically go through fourdifferent stages in their interpretation ofsuch

sentences. In the first stage, this interpret all the sentence. according to order of

mention: that is, theevent reported in the first clause is interpreted as happening

before theevent reported in the second clause.

One further pointto note in this example is that children interpretmore

sentences correctly at stage II than at stage III. This illustratethefact that a chird

acquiringa native language may appear to be regressing at certain points in his or

her development.



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Determinant of Language Acquisition

The role of imitation and correction

Children not fully imitation, they just acquire the

intonation. Even thought they imitation the language from their

parent, but commonly they produce their language. When they

make mistake in produce the language, the correction of their

parent is not function, they will produce their language with their

way again and again.

The role of parental speech

A good deal of recent work has been devoted to the search

for possible relationship between language and type of speech

that typically addressed to young language learner, such speech

is called caretaker speech or motherese.

In some cultures, children are not considered to be

potential conversational partner until they are fluent speakers. It

is showing in several times the parental speech takes little role inchildren acquisition.

The role of inborn knowledge

Every child bring their own knowledge when they born and

with abstract linguistic. Some children with advance knowledge

of type of categories and rules that are found in grammar of any

human language. They would therefore know that word language

they acquiring will belong to small set of syntactic categories.

The set of inborn categories and principles common to all human

language is called universal grammar.



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CHAPTER 9

THE NEUROLOGY OF LANGUAGE

Introduction

A human being does not have largest brain of any creature

in the world. They human brain contains an average of ten billion

neurons, or nerve cells, each of which is linked with one

thousand to ten thousand other neurons. These nerve cells

participate in countless electrical microcircuits which make

possible though, perception, communication, and other types of

mental activity.

This is my last paper the purpose of this paper is provides

a brief survey of the organization of human brain as it pertains to

language. This paper will begin with a brief description of the

basic structure and function of parts of the brain used for

language.

1. The human brain

Human brain divided into two roughly symmetrical

hemispheres, some time called the right and left brain. The

activity of the two cerebral hemispheres is coordinated by a

number of interconnecting nerve pathways, the larges of which is

the corpus callosum. In most individuals, the left hemisphere has

primary responsibility for language, wile the right hemisphere

control visual and spatial skill as well as the perception of

nonlinguistic sound and musical melodies. The localization of

cognitive and perceptual function in particular hemisphere of the

brain is called lateralization. The right side of the brain is



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responsible for movement of left and leg, while the left

hemisphere control the right arm and leg. It also happen in the

function of ears. The control of one side of the body opposite

side of the brain is known as contraleteralization. The

This are the hemisphere dominance; left hemisphere

(language analytic reasoning, temporal ordering, reading and

writing, and arithmetic.). right hemisphere dominance

(perception non linguistic sounds, music, visual and spatial skills,

holistic reasoning, and pattern recognition).

2. The brain and language

The language centers are located in the left hemisphere of

the brain in well over 90 percent of right-handed human being.

The left hemisphere

The brain dominance appear to exist even prior of birth. It

is known that portion of the left brain that crucial to language is

larger in fetuses than is corresponding portion of the brain.

The role of right brain

The left brain is not dominant for perception and analysis

of all type sound. If the function of left brain in processing

linguistic sounds, the function of the right brain in processing non

linguistic sound such as music and so on.

Coordinating the two brains

Although most peoples language centers are localized inthe left brain, both hemispheres are required for fully natural use

of language. Left visual is to imagine that person perceive while

the right is receive the information or sound before processing

by left brain.



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The language centers

Brocas area, named after its discover Paul Broca, is

located in the front of left hemisphere and is responsible for

organizing the articulatory patterns of speech this may have

something to do with the fact that is lies very close to the area of

cortex that controls the muscle of the face, jaw tongue, palate ,

and larynx.

Wernickes area, discovered by nineteenth-century

neurologist Carl Wernicke, is very close to the primary auditory

cortex, which is responsible for reception of auditory input.

Wernicke area plays a major part in representation of meaning

and involved both in the interpretation of words and in selection

of lexical items for the purposes of sentence production.

Between Brocas and Wernickes areas are connected by bundle

of nerve fibers known as arcuate faciculus. Behibd the

Wernickes area, there is language center responsible for

converting a visual stimulus into auditory form and vice versa.

3. Aphasia

Language dis order resulting from brain damage are

grouped together under the general label aphasia. Depending

upon which region of the brain hase ben damage, patients suffer

impairment of different language abilities.

Brocas Aphasia

Damage Brocas Aphasia area usually result in disorder

with several symptom. The first and most obvios of which is poorarticulation. Second feture is systemic substitution and deletion

of sound , which is termed phonemic paraphasia. The thirt

feature is impairment in the ability to form morphological and

syntactic pattern.



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Wernics Aphasia

It contrasts to the type neurolinguistic disorder associated

with damage to Wernickes are. Patient with Wernicke ;s aphasia

may suffer from some phonemic pharaphasia, but the most

striking feature ot this order is an iability to comprehend spoken

language and to construct meaningful sentences.

Conducting Aphasia

Conducting Aphasia damage to arcuate fasciculus

affects transmission of information from Wernickes area. The

symptoms of conducting Aphasia is since lexical information from

Wernicke;s area cannot be transmitted to Brocas area. Patients

with conducting aphasia do not have articulation problems,

because this aspect of speech is controlled by Brocass area.

Alexia and Agraphia

As a result damage gyrus impedes the association of visual

patterns with auditory forms, thereby interfering with the abilityto write and write. Impairment to reading ability is called alexia,

while lost e ability to write is known as agraphia.

3. The Critical Period Hypothesis

The cortical period is the time potentially to chill learning

language, based some experts after being some research, such

as Genie case. The time potentially to child learn language sincethey three years old until they puberty. They are also purposed

that in learning a language the most influence in ability is the

age, is not how long a person learns the language.



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Conclusion

Understanding the human brain represents one the great

challenges for modern science. The progress that has made in

the last decades has led to the identification of the location and

function of the major language centers of the brain-Brocas area

and Wernickes area. Many difficult issues remain to be

resolved. Linguists have as yet little understanding of how

specific grammatical rules are represented in brain, of why the

language centers are organized the way they are, knowledge is

growing rapidly and it is possible that there will soon be

substantial breakthroughs in the field of neurolinguistic.

linguistic for non linguistic

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