violent non state actors

7/29/2019 Violent Non State Actors

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ISNETH Zurich

Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule ZrichSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

Violent non-state actors anD nationalanD international security

international relations anD security network


2/21

Phil Williams

Violent non-state actors anD nationalanD international security

international relations anD security network

Photograph used with the permission of Reuters.


3/21

table of contents

International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2008 ISN

Introduction.....................................................................................................................4

The context for the rise of violent non-state actors.................................................. 5

Dimensions of VNSAs ....................................................................................................8

Types of VNSAs............................................................................................................... 9

Warlords.9

Militias.10.

Paramilitary forces.11

Insurgencies

12

Terrorist organizations. 14

Criminal organizations and youth gangs.15

Conclusion ......................................................................................................................17

Endnotes ........................................................................................................................ 19

About the author .......................................................................................................... 21


4/21

Violent Non-State Actors and

National and International Security


INTRODUCTION

ev g v gg h v

- (Vnsa) hv m pvv

hg -. i ep, jhd

gz hv d dm

d -pzd Mdd d ld

d hv pvd m h

pv g d m.

In Mexico, drug-trafcking organizations are

hgg h Mx p

m, d hv d hgh-

g pm h cd

administrations efforts to disrupt their activities

d d h p. i h v r d

Janeiro and Sao Paulo, drug trafckers and, more, m pvd dm m

gv h h

. i c am d h ud

s, h gg h M svh

(Ms-13) hv mv d hgh-dpv

p. i cm, h h

h p hg m h farc g

h g hv g md

into a major drug-trafcking organization that

m g, p h m gh-

g pm gz d dg

trafckers. In Albania, Italy and many parts of them sv u, m gz

md , p p d

d h pd, gg v

v h hg d dm

vg. i m a

c a d agh, d mj

p h p m d h m.

i iq, g, , m d m

gz p mm pp

p, g d vppg h

m h gm d v

central state particularly difcult. In short, in many

p h d, h wph dg m Vnsa.

th dm h d -, h

hh hd gm mp h

h vg , v

ppd. l am,

Europe, did not benet (or suffer from the state-

dg mp h h 20h

), h v qhd p h

pp h m x h.

In Africa, many states were the articial creation

of colonialism and, in Robert Jacksons felicitousphrase, were little more than quasi-states. Even

pg h h v dm

it appeared in the great power conicts of the 20 h

, h 21 , h mp

h g g dd

convenient ction. Relatively few of the sovereign

pd h ud n

m mp h h

d. th dm hg h h

d-ppd g phm

p h v hg hv

d m d p h d. th

m d d h gp, d,

drug-trafcking organizations, youth gangs,

, m, g d

m gz. i m hgp hgg h ; h h

pg d dg h ;

m, h pv -d h h

ght one another. In several instances they are

both ghting one another and confronting state

h h d hm

g hm d . Dp h dvg

m, hv, h - v

h h. th p

mm hg d

, hg h g h h

m h dvd p gp, d h g h h dmh v h x

v dd.

th h d gzd m

d mm. Mv, m

hv md d h mj

themselves. As one study observed, the Federation

am s (fas), h n-s a

wg Gp (nsawG) h i

cmm b ldm (icbl), d h

Hvd Pgm Hm P d

Conict Researchare in the forefront of identifying,

gzg d zg md gp mp mp g p.

ad h h gg h pp

gg h md gp

g m p d dmd

states. The Federation of American Scientists refers

to these groups as para-states since they are

entities which challenge the states monopoly on

the use of violence within a specied geographical

territory. It lists 387 such organizations.

th pp xp h phm

v - , h gzg hh v -p, h h


5/21

distinct characteristics. The analysis identies

, d d dvpm h hv

d h mg Vnsa. th

h h h gp hmv, g

d d Vnsa. th pp d

h pg d t thm

d v mp

d shz, fh d ld h g v

pv h md gp hv m

tier-one security threat.

THE CONTEXT FOR THE RISE OF VIOLENT NON-STATE

ACTORS

i , Vnsa hv d m.

ev rm, h hgh p, hd d h mg m d h pd

z h mm p.

Dg h 20h , hv, h gp

relatively insignicant, dwarfed by the process

d d h mg

p -. Vnsa m

p h dz p, h

h d h

hmv h h g v

g d d . i h 21 ,

hv, Vnsa pp mj hg

h wph . ahgh h hv -mgd g p h gg

m , h pp

d h .

th , , h

v. i gg q h

hv m d pd mp

h md wph . D h,

hv, mphz d p h

h m g gm d h

p, m mphzg h v

d h hd d. i , h

dm mp. Php h dd mp , h,

m g- m

dm. th d:

Legitimacy. th h mphzd k J H

mg h. th m gm h , h

m h h d

h h h p . a

d d:

Strong and healthy states are those that exhibit

several common characteristics or measures oflegitimacy ... there is an implicit social contract

between state and society, the latter being comprised

of all ethnic, religious, political, and economic

groupings. In other words, there is agreement on the

political rules of the game. There is loyalty to the

state, the political principles upon which it is based,

and its institutions.

i h h gm, d

g p dd h.

Capacity. sg d v hv

signicant extractive capacity but match this with

h pv v gd gg m h

m d d hh

d . i dd, h gg d

mgm h m, hh dnot only scal prudence but also the creation of a

dg h h m

h dpv q xg

h. s h hgh xv d

mh h h v pv, p

seen as exploitative which undermines their

gm. s h h x

raw materials typically become rentier states, in

which the political elite benets but the mass of

h pp dpvd; h g-m h

m v dm gm. s

h md xv p h, xpg q m d p

. Mv, h p gp d

dvp h (h h

h m h md

) h pp - .

i m , h mp xp h

pmv p d h h

h v m j; h

h m h px h , h h

hgg h d gm.

The primacy of the collective interest over

individual interest. a gd hv h d z

d p mp.

i h h p, pd d

v m d pd; hgh

h pp h xp dvd

and group interests within well-dened limits.

th g p h p p

d dpd gm h

pm hv. P dm

p d h v

d d ( vg) mp.

Mv, h mm xp hthose in ofce will use their position for the public

gd h h pv g. i h





6/21

dvd p v h v

h p h

m gmd. wh h

m h pz p, h g

h v dd h

p dvd .

Inclusiveness rather than exclusivity. i , h

means that no group is excluded from seeking

political inuence or receiving a fair share of

resources and services because of its afliation or

d. th v mphv

h h p. M pp gv

gh z d d h dg.

th p h v gdpvdd h . o h h d, x

, p m , m

h , m h. wh

dg x m d p

m h mgh vd, h

m v d pd,

provoke insurrection or ethnic conict. In the nal

analysis, states are rather like Caesars wife they

hv h hv

.

i m, g hzd hghv gm d h, dq v

pv v gd, d m

mgm, h pm h v, d

hgh dg v. w ,

contrast, suffer from decits in legitimacy, capacity,

pv p gd d v. i

m , g h v

dm m g, h

h m

gh h. wh h

mp dm g hh h ,

h pp h Vnsa d

d.

ahgh h p

, h

d h mg h d Vnsa.

s h gm, xmp,

m h d g

h pp. i h m,

dvd d gp p v dvp

alternative patterns of afliation. This often means

h m, m h m

p p , pp h

state. As David Ronfeldt has argued, as a societydegeneratesthe more its state, market, and civil-

society systems falter and fall apartpeople are

v h m. i g m

the driving form. Given that tribalism often

mphz xv d d d

hv d d, v m

d h Vnsa.

i m v, h gm

d hgh pv, g

h h , p pv pp. i

other words, what Thomas and Kiser call extreme

coercive action by the state can contribute to

pvg v pp. smhg

m h xd p h

population either through neglect, lack of capacity

m m dm. th the creation of no-go zones or spaces in which

Vnsa mg m v gv.

Mv, h h p

m h dmd h z

security and other public goods, other actors ll the

gap. When there is a security decit in particular,

Vnsa m x pvd ,

h h d x, m m mp,

in the provision of security. The difculty is that

h gp pv

pd.

VNSAs are inherently illegitimate vis--vis the

m p h

g hvg mp h

legitimate use of violence. Yet, they often provide

v gv, g v d

ppg v gd h h

g d pvd. th h h

gvd p, hh h m

d-d m h ud s m,

m ppp ppd. th

p gvd p m h

h h gv.

i h mgh , m -dgvd p , , v

gvd p. y, h h

hg h h dm

gm d p pp. i h d,

Vnsa dvp p gv ,

, h dm gv h .

ah mp ddg

h Vnsa gz. n h

gz hgd dvd p

mg m , h pvdd

d mp Vnsa. Gows of arms, for example, are no longer under

h xv . i m d





7/21

hv m mp p d

hv p h m;

h qm vg mm

h p p hm. am d

V b, ld M d Mz a k

hv d d dmz

m p h h pvdd Vnsa h

p p h hm hg

gvm . i m v, gz

h d Vnsa dvp h mgh md

p d

d g pp d h mmd

h p. Gz, g h h

h g m, h pvdd

dg pp Vnsa. f m gp,h pd dvd m xp h

pp d hmv; h,

the prots from illicit activities provide the funding

h hm p p d m

gd. whv h x h gp,

hv, h j gz h,

m p, dmhd h

gmd d mpd Vnsa.

i dq gv h d d

gz h h pvd d

h h mg Vnsa, h d g h h mg .

Indeed, for mobilization into a VNSA to actually

occur, there must be transformational process that

p h v h dvd z

d p h gp v. fm h ppv

of the individual, rst, the state must fail him.

a h gm gvg h, h

h p h xp d,

mpm d . th

h m p pvd v

v d/ m

xv v p. sd, h

m x d vg d d h hg . f, h m m

mz d gp,

possibly transforming it into a full-edged VNSA.

th p pvdd h tm

and Kiser refer to as identity entrepreneurs who

create or reinforce the identity that now stands

ppd h . th m h

d p, h m h

hv.

ah ddg h p

terms of Malcolm Gladwells notion of tippingp. fm h ppv, h Vnsa

dd p d pdm

hh, mg h hg, h g d

of imitative behavior. Gladwell identies several

h h phm. H

gh mphz h mp x,

mph h d h h pm

d d , dd v.

He also refers to the law of the few those key

dvd h p mzg

pp . i h Vnsa, h

identity entrepreneurs are typically charismatic

d h d p, gv h

mm pp, d

h pp v gz

hvg h pp. i , Vnsa

pvd phg mpm hdmpd, mgzd d dhd.

Mv, v dvpm d h

Vnsa v h x v dd. P

mp z d dmgph

trends, most signicantly a continued or even

intensifying youth bulge in many developing

.

uz h mp dm. o h

m mp h mg m

gg m m- h pp

v 20 m pp. i h x dd t, h h g

jd Mm, Dh, Mx c, n

y, s P, Dh, J d lg. th h

z h g mm d

d d pm p p

d mp dd d

h d d . i

m , h d pv

vhmg, dg , g d

pd . oh d

gg dd d h gh

h m mg- h pp

v 10 m h pd gh hm 5 d 10 m d

h m h pp 1

d 5 m. b 2015, h 23 mg,

19 of them in the developing world, and 37 cities

h pp 5 d 10 m. M

h m g

gv. sm md h

Richard Norton terms feral cities. Norton denes a

feral city as a metropolis with a population of more

h m pp h gvm

hh h h m h

of law within the citys boundaries yet remains g h g

system. He offers a compelling description of the





8/21

conditions in a feral city, noting that social services

x, d h v mj

the citys occupants have no access to even the

m hh . th

. Hm h m

p m dvd v. y

d dd mp, dm h.

sm m, h m, md

gp, , ghhd ,

x v dg v p

the city.

th pm, , mp z

h hh h h h

pm, dg g m, g

m hm mpd. th m v d h gh m

m h v ph. wh

h d p, h hgh

v m. o h m v

p mhg m gzd. idd,

underemployed, urbanized young men are an

p v gp h d

into organized crime. They also provide a vibrant

d xpdg g p h Vnsa. th

h g mg h

m dd h d, hzd

hgh v v d h mg Vnsa h h v h

m pvdg dg d d

pd d v dm m

gv.

ag h gd,

Vnsa d p

: h mm

v dg h hh h

pvd v gv d

challenge the states monopoly of violence. At the

m m, h mp v mg

Vnsa. adg h x h ppidenties the dimensions along which VNSAs

v. th q xm h

d d Vnsa.

DIMENSIONS OF VNSAs

t dd h hh Vnsa d m

h, d v

dm h . th d:

Motivation and purpose. i mp

h dv h , dd h g

d d h hh h hv h g.

Strength and scope. n Vnsa d

q. sm v m d p

md ggph , h h hv

d p. th h xd

m .

The ways in which they obtain funding or access to

resources. i m , dg v

g g d m h m d;

h h q h

g. exmg h dg Vnsa

q g h hp h h

m , g d g v.

Organizational structure. th g

Vnsa: m hh d

zd; h d d dd;

d m dd hd d hh. Mv, gz

; h dp d hg v m

p pp d h

vm d h h dv.

The role of violence. Although the denition of

VNSAs has violence at the core violence is what

dgh Vnsa m h nGos d dv

h g dd p

of global civil society different organizations not

d v d m v,

d pp.

The relationship between VNSAs and stateauthorities. i m , h hp

h; m d Vnsa h

hp m mpx h dg

v p

d Vnsa.

The functions VNSAs fulll for members and

supporting constituencies. a p h h

x hh h Vnsa m v

form of governance and fulls functions normally

h p h . i m h

d v, mp dm h

d p gp d h

lled by VNSAs. These can include the provision of h mpg d mg

d d d xd h mgh

dd p m .

Indeed, for VNSAs lling functional spaces is often

even more important than lling territorial spaces.

th m hp dg

d v Vnsa. i ggd h h

v d d gp q p

. th d d,

gz, gzd m gp h

dm d , hgg, m d g. th

h xd pv m mp (PMc).

8International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2008 ISN




9/21

Although PMCs reect what might be termed the

pvz v, h d m h

VNSAs in that they are, to a signicant degree

gd d g h

. th h m h Vnsa

h, , p d h . th

xd mm p. ahgh h

h h g p

years especially in the seas off Somalia and West

Africa and a growth in its lethality, pirates for the

m p m h g

d. th hg h d

gm d, hgh h h

pp m d mm d (

xmp, h s M), h

signicance is inherently limited.

TYPES OF VNSAs

Warlords

th dghg d hv

dd m h h d

gm h h hm dvd,

(m hm hv hd m m gd

xp) x v

g p hgh h m p.

th mm -x h p

h h h d

extend to the territory under their control even ifh q h . th g

g h v. a

, d h h: h

command private military forces; they rule a specic

, d h h mm;

h hv dg gm d m

m d m hp h h

pp; h pp h g m

m, ggg m m

m m; d h hg, pvz

ppm h ,

d m h . a h m

m, d d mp x d .

a wm r h h, d p h

dvd v v

. o h h d

are inherently temporary; they tend to uctuate in

p h h d pp.

i m h jv, d p

p d . th p

p v p

d xp h h ,

mm ggg g d mm pvdg p d

pp v h pm v.

Examples include, warlord mining economies in

mp pd , h s l

and the Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as

d vvm h pm m

Burma in the 1980s and 1990s and in contemporary

agh. wh dg vvd, v

and the threat of violence are used to sustain illicit

m , mp d

routes, and to guarantee fulllment of transaction

contracts within the opium network.

wd p x hh m

dhp d , hgh h d

p hgh d d h h

m . i m , d

vd xg ; h, d h . i h , hv,

hm h d pg

systems in which the warlords bestow favors and

recognition on those who support them.

i m h hp h h ,

warlords are pragmatic within limits. In effect,

h m h m d

pp v h h

h. o , hv, h

h h dm

h h hp d m p. i agh, xmp, d

have used state building and democratization

p gmz h p h h

local and international political system, in effect,

creating a warlord democracy. It is a democracy

m h h , d p hd

mg gp, hm h gh

v. th pg: d hv

vd g h h

m hg h p

d pgv. spp h ,

therefore, at best can only be limited, qualied and

mv.

As for the functions fullled by warlords, scholars

hp dvdd.

Clearly, most warlords do not engage in projects

p ; h m h v

dg h, g, pp d m h

community of supporters. For many observers,

therefore, they are VNSAs without redeeming

v, hmpg hg d h

m zd p d h

their own group.

y, hd dp h h d





10/21

pvd dg pd d

, h g h h h

h j v.

M g p h d, dg

Mancur Olsons notion of stationary bandits,

h d hv vd h

pv h h , h

encourages local investment by their subjects

and in turn increases their own wealth. Indeed,

mp gz h d pvd

v m gv h,

imperfections, has a closer relationship with and

php v hgh dg pv

the community, than does the state. Moreover,

- d h h xh h d h x hp h

h h d pv

h h d h d

d v. th php h g

m mp d agh d

m h h t h 1990. n

h dd gg h d

d. th h p v

sm, h d d m

h dm h ; v h h

g h d h g

v vm.

Militias

M m p v m

d, h h hm d. a

militia can be understood as an irregular armed

pg h h d/

g . th mm m m

m h d d d mpd

g m h d h m

gv hm m, ,

p d . i m , h

d j; h, jg

opportunity or a duty. Militias can represent specich, g, , h mm

gp. th m p d h p

d, h gp,

their own after the break-up of the states forces.

th m h v h , h

d d. G, mm m

v m m g. nvh,

some cases they are skilled unconventional ghters.

i h h hg m h

gg xm v hg h p h

civilian population. Militias are outside the formal

security sector and central government command,d d h . b h m

x pvd h h

government for whatever reason has failed

to do so, however, militias are often considered

legitimate entities lling the gap resulting from

the absence of effective national, provincial, or

local security institutions. If they ll a functional

h h , hv, h h

hg h gm h . Mv,

the potential for conict is very real. Militias do

pp . l h

the militia organization.

M p pv h p

g gp h h d

v dq p m h .

th hp xp h h hv d pp h v r d J. i

hgh pzd , m mm d

j; h m m, m v d

hv dgd h h m

h m p. th hghgh

h r h dd h d m

as both protectors and predators a duality that

h q vd iq h m

hv pd mj h ud s

v Mh 2003. i , iq h h g-

dg m (h kdh Phmg d h

bd gz) d m h hMhd am, hh h md g h sd

mvm, d d h fdh p,

hh m pv h d

h h h pv b.

ahgh mh md h g d

m iq, h h pv b

m h v h fdh,

the SIICs Badr organization and the Mahdi Army.

Mh h v pp v h

of oil both legal exports and oil smuggling. The

fdh p d h iq o M

M 2006, h g hgd h Jh Mhd m, hh dm

h p, h a b p h d

h a f p, hh h g d

illegal exports of crude oil. SIICs Badr militias

p a b. i ,

h h gp h p vm

where the rules are unclear and the prots are

mm. Mv, h gp h p

d g v m

h p h mp. i h v

ggd h h p hv m

criminal gangs than political forces and the gap p d m v h

d. t mg h mpg gp





11/21

hv pd pd v, h h

web of different security forces with allegiances

to different factions or militias undermine law

m d xd h h

m h p d h g. P

hv v gh h h

h pv m. t , p

hdq d md h hv m

common in Al Basra. In March 2008, however, the

iq gvm vd m d d

a degree of order in the city although ironically

m h gvm p dpd h

mm h bd m h hd

gd h iq am. i mg h m

h m mpv h iq gvm,

h h m v m mpx h a ag d h s

m h ud s. ev h h

ddd h md .

P h h d h m.

o h hd, h m hv d dh

qd d pd mj

cleansing. They have also inltrated government

dpm, h Mhd am mm hvg

pvv p h M Hh

d M i. a h m m, m

have become very important in lling governancegaps in Iraq, going beyond lling only the security

gap to also lling some of the service gaps. This is

p Jh--Mhd, h pp

m bghdd d a b. th

difculty is that service provision is not politically

. av v pvd p

hg h p-sddm iq , hh

h dd hg hgh v

gm pp.

idd, v h v ggd h

v pv m hgh

welfare. Groups reap three main benets frompvdg p gd hgh h

m. f, h

hghgh h h

to fulll its side of the social contract, thereby

hgg h gm h . sd,

- gz h

pp v hh p

h . thd, gp h g h

h pp mmd d m

h hh g g

the regime.

The provision of services in the rst place, of course,

q d d h

g m gg v

dg. Jh--Mhd (JaM) h xd

in this. Many of Iraqs gas stations, for example,

d h JaM, hh

m h

but also dominates the Shia trade in propane-

gas canisters, which Iraqis use for cooking. In

addition, JAM controls Jamila market which is the

m mp h bghdd, h

vg p m d m-

bound goods into the capital. The extortion or

xg mh h m h

v v m. i JaM hv vvd

x d m v, hv,

v mpd h d m

the support of its constituency. This is reected inthe fact that sometimes the militiamen sell the

propane at a premium, earning healthy prots; at

h m h - m ,

earning gratitude from the poor and unemployed.

Moreover, in late 2007 and early 2008 JAM clamped

d g m ggd

pd hv xdg h m h

gdd pm.

ahgh h m iq hv g

h h g, p h i, h

- gz hm x p gp.

y h v dv

pv pp v

g v d m. impg

d -hg v gv,

h, q d v

to establish sufcient security and provide other

v h h m g

. Dg h, hv, d h

d.

Paramilitary forces

th d m d pm . o p

dghg h h pm

, , x

gvm . th m x

h h d h v

encouragement of the government or the states

m . s Dgp, h m

hv pm

parallel military formations describes them

as armed formations outside regular military

and police commands. He also suggests

that paramilitaries are often poorly trained,gh qppd, hgh gmd, q

gzd, p d d pd,





12/21

g hm d h gm h hm

to hold territory inexpensively. The difculty with

pm , hv, h d,

they often prove difcult to control.

th php h m

pm gz, h ud

s-D f cm (auc). th gp

h m x hp h cm

government and army ght left-wing insurgency

gz vvd m ,

engaged in fairly extensive drug-trafcking, and

inltrated both the army and the government.

Pm cm m x

h 1960 g pdpermitting the formation of local self-defense

groups. Initially, such groups were fragmented.

In 1997, however, the AUC was established, under

h dhp, c c g h

gp gh. wh h h auc hd

an estimated membership of 80,000.

ahgh h mp h m h

auc , h gz m vvd

mp m v, gg m dg-

trafcking to oil theft, extortion and kidnapping.

As one report notes, While paramilitaries liked p hmv

Colombias leftist insurgents, ordinary Colombians

were often victimized instead of protected by

the paramilitaries. The armed groups displaced

dg mm m h d,

massacred civilians and kidnapped political gures.

a hm gh gp hv dmd, m

paramilitaries even charged taxes in local areas

and regulated how citizens could dress. Here

g h p pm d

m v.

i 2003, Pd u gd pgm h h auc d d p

dmz, dmm d g

(DDr). l m h xmp h DDr

p, hv, h h pvd p

. ahgh m mm h auc hv

gd , m hv d

md gp. adg h i

c Gp (icG), h p h h

dq. a , cm g

the continuity or re-emergence either of old style

pm gp d gp

d m gz d h dgtrade. Estimates of the membership of these new


illegal armed groups range from 3,000 to 9,000.

th gp d h b eg n d

sd, h ogz nv G

n, d h cg w

Gj. ahgh h gp d z d

cohesiveness with some displaying considerable

factionalism all of them are involved in some way

with illegal activities such as drug-trafcking and

mggg, d h gh gp p

d p-d d g, p

to Ecuador and Venezuela. Some are more overtly

m h h, h m p h

their former enemies the left-wing insurgents

even as others continue the ght against them.

nvh, h h mg h gp ddg v d dzg

m h m d cm

d g q m h p d

m g h u gvm h md

.

Insurgencies

An insurgency has been dened by the United

States Department of Defense as an organized

mvm md h vh d

gvm hgh h v d

armed conict. More elaborately, it has beendescribed as an organized, armed political

gg h g m h z p

hgh v v d pm

h xg gvm. i m , hv,

an insurgencys goals may be more limited. For

xmp, h g m d

m gvm d h

m h d h

g d. th g m

d x md p

unattainable through less violent means.

Insurgents typically operate within a dened d dpv h xg

gvm gm h hg

hmv v d gm v.

ig m gv

h h xg m vh d

pd h g gp, hh p

d v, hh h m m

d m j.

wh g h

v g d h d h

h p h v m

gv h pvdd h . sm,hgh g dvp




13/21

, p h dp mm, h

jv -dd.

f g h h pz. th

are almost invariably dissatised with and hostile

h xg d p h

d h pp h p. th

pp g m dpd

d -dm (gh

h l tg tm em ltte s

l), h d

M dg (h M g np

h p h gvm), v

shh (pd h t). i h

iq, h s g p xp h ud s (d h jv h

d vp h h sh m)

d p mp h s

hd hd d pd p h

p d iq.

ev hgh g p p hgh

d h d p hm m g

h h xg gvm

d pv hh m h mgh

h dm gm d pp

mg h pp. n d pv hmm g m v dg

mhm. ig m h

h m d gz,

mp dv h gd.

o h m g g gp h

h farc cm. wh g -

g d mvm g

j dmd ,

was gradually transformed from an ideological or

spiritual insurgency to a commercial insurgency.

i farc pd d xd m d

drug trafckers, but some fronts, most notably thesxh bgd, m m dp vvd

h ppg h a fx

ogz Mx d h c gz

bz. sv hgh-g farc mm hv

even been arrested for cocaine-trafcking in the

ud s h mpd mv h

more lucrative downstream market. In 2007 and

2008, however, FARC suffered a series of major

v, dg p h mgh

dg g hgg

h cm gvm. ev h farc

insurgency is nally defeated, however, it seems h gp h farc

pm vvd h dg d. Mv,

ggd v, mg phm

cm farc d

m gz d h m gh-

g pm h md p h auc.

i agh, h t g m

being funded in large part by prots from the opium

d, hgh h h

d m h h

mmm h d h h hzd

FARC. The use of narcotics-trafcking by insurgents

p c a. i h

1990, h im Mvm uz

m vvd h pm d h d m dg . sm v v

ggd h v dgd

largely to cover and protect the IMUs trafcking

v d h h gp m m

gz h g. i h v,

hv, m mm h gp gh

gd h t d a Qd agh

g h ud s. th gg h h

desire for prot had not become more important

h h h h hd d farc.

idd, m g pp m h

p jv h g h pd m v mj dg mhm.

th h h ltte. f h

group, however, the prots from their own criminal

v hv ppmd m m

the Tamil diaspora particularly in Canada which

d gm d, d

d m d x, d h

pd m h d d h d

fraud and drug-trafcking.

ig v . sm hm

particularly the more traditional insurgencies

based on Maoist notions are organized around dhp h dg hh. y

v h gp mm p

dzd. th h h h

farc, hh hd mp , h hh

hd dg m, h v

hh . th g iq

mh m d d dd.

Bruce Hoffman has characterized it as a loose,

ambiguous, and constantly shifting environment

in which constellations of cells or collections of

dvd gv d h

md , xhg g, dp, gg j g d h





14/21

disperse at times never to operate together again.

ig v pv, hg

h d h m d

m. farc, xmp, gh h m-

mg xp h ira, h h s

g iq d h -Qd

iq (aQi), mg dd h h

ally. The rift was provoked in part by AQIs efforts

m v h

pgv d p h m

-Qd mg h p

. wh h pph hd d

h Phpp, d d m

iq.

Terrorist organizations

a dd v, m Vnsa

. f gz, , h

dm v g v

g h g

also their dening characteristic. These groups

p hg hgh h v.

a h m m, gz d

m m g d jv. eh

of the four waves of modern terrorism identied

by David Rapoport anarchist, anti-colonial, left-

wing and religious has had its own set of militantgz g hg d g v

g . y, h dm d

gz d m h

h. th -

gz, xmp, gp

dissatised with the outcome of decolonization,

g -dm d

mpg h hv h

jv. f h gp h m h

dm m d h p

h . wh h gp hv

pp mph, dg gm d

m , h p dvp g. nvh, h h

21 , h m dg

gz gp h d

h h gp d m im.

ahgh m h g h, h v

11 spm 2001 gv pdd

pm. s h m h

gv -Qd, h gz

p h d h t t

h wd td c d h h

Pentagon. Led by Osama Bin Laden, al-Qaidasmj jv pp h pm

gm h Mdd e h gvm

h p shh d g h

h . th xg gm

(p h sd m d h

Pd M egp) gdd h

near enemy while the United States is designated

the far enemy because of its support for the

q h Mdd e.

Unlike the warlords, militias and insurgencies all

of which are nationally-based al-Qaidas has a

g p. i

dd, gz.

a h m m hp h

v d. wh g ,-Qd m

h hv mph p

d g p p. th

gz -Qd h hgd

v m. P 2001, -Qd

h h dhp gp agh

h d dpd hgh w

ep h pph. th p

v md h pvdd gd

h g h . a h ud s

v agh d h mv

al-Qaidas safe haven, the network appeared tom m hz. sq, m

v gd h -Qd hd md

m mvm,

pg mph dvd d gp

g hm. th Mdd mg,

p m hv d

h m-p phm. a h

m m, mm h hd

h h d g jhd d v h

gures in al-Qaida. In the bombings that occurred

in London on 7 July 2005, the al-Qaida link seems

hv g h h

vvd gg P p g.k h vv -Qd h g

ud s v dgd d h

h dp d mph. Mv,

h m d h h g

referred to as al-Qaida central is reestablishing

P.

o hh h h d

hg 2001 dg. i h mh

h 11 spm 2001 , md

g im h h d

dvd pp gz.a h d h , h





15/21

Mdd hv m dg,

d hgh m v. th Mdd

mg, p, dd gp

of Moroccan drug trafckers who had become

dzd d mgd gp.

The trafckers provided all the funding, much of

h -h, d h h d

h m h xpv.

th m v . th

ira h p h d

php pg h, h h p p

nh id, h ira md m

gz g m

p. cm v d dh d g h. th p

g m dg mhm h

hzd Hm d Hzh g h

h pp d h Mdd e. t

pp h ud s h

-d g sh am h bz,

ag d Pg m gh, xmp,

hv h pd m g mggg,

g d h m v,

Hm d Hzh. f h gz h

d hv mp. Hm d

Hezbollah unlike many terrorist groups whichfocus almost exclusively on attacks have also

pvdd v . i h

P h pv d p

hv dm, Hm h d

p pv h d

hospitals. As Levitt has noted, economic, social

d hh d h w b d Gz

sp m, vg vd h gp

like Hamas are all too eager to ll. In the event,

Hamas proved so successful in lling some of the

p gp d h h, J

2006, mj h Pm.

sm, l, Hzh, hh d m, p hp, d h

d hv vvd h pv

d h v. ahgh Hm d

Hzh gz,

h v xv d

h d d h hv m mj p

p h pv .

sh xmp hdg, h m p,

gz h h

gp dd h m h hg

g d gm. Dv d h h q, m

gp d hv h p m

g mpg dd h

d dm h hgh pvg

g p p v.

a h m m, h dgd

h h mm v h

m d g, p.

Criminal organizations and youth gangs

o h Vnsa dd h, m

gz h m q. ahgh

m m gz m , m d

m hm hv pdd h pp

gz mg

p. th hv m g dvh m d gzd m gp h

as the Chinese Triads, Italian Maa organizations

d h Jp yz g hg

the spotlight with Nigerian drug trafckers and

nancial fraudsters, Russian and Albanian criminal

gz, o M c Gg, d

Mexican drug-trafcking organizations among

h. am h gz

h v d, h,

d h m

gz gzd m.

t m gz

d v dd

cz: m hm mp

h m. th m

m gz dv

as much prot as possible from their activities

within the limits of acceptable risk. In some

h p hgh hgh

prots; in others, they will avoid risk and accept

lower prots.

cm gz d m z d

p d h p v. Gpm l am, xmp, p

d h dg , h

gp m h p hv mh

d m v. f r,

ch d a gz, xmp,

the range of activities include extortion, trafcking

hm g, p m mm

x, g mggg d g.

ng gzd m mh

with a lot of drug-trafcking, trafcking in women

m w a ep (p

i), d h m 419 ( dv )d h hv m q, m





16/21

hv pd d x d d h

.

th g m

gz. sm hh gz;

h d d h m d

mx hh d . th v

h h hgh-dp

d d hd g h

m gh-d hh. i Mx,

example, the Gulf Cartels hierarchical structure

h md g h cd

government than Chapo Guzmans Sinaloa Cartel,

hh m d, h m

h v. Mv, mgz hv m m

h m p -

d hm.

cm gz v h p d

h h h p . M v

m, h d d p

hg h . oh, hv,

mh g, m md d p

hg, p , v

-g dm. th g m

gz p p, h hg dm h p

d jd p. Mv, h m

hh m gz p

m , hgh pmv vm

h dg h d h

g . sm h v

ggd m gz

especially trafcking in nuclear material, in

weapons, and in human beings threaten

, d hm .

i gzd m h vd

ppg h , hv, h p. cd

h g dv gd

. a h m m, h p

m m d md

then organized crime ourishes in the emerging

pp p. th h iq

h m gz hv hv

vvd dppg, mggg, dg-

trafcking and a series of other crimes sometimes

pg h m p-d Vnsa

d mm mpg g hm h

gp hmv gg m v d h p d m gd.

V p gzd m. y, h

m p, h v v d d v

h h d d dm. V d

h h v d m

dp, p g m h, d

d h h, hh m v m

gvm d m g. Dg

h 1990, r gzd m ppd

p v d hzd

hdd g, mm gg

v, mm vgv j d

m p d mm d

m h d gzd m

to obtain control over specic businesses. In effect,

violence was a nely-honed instrument. As them d r h dd

d gm hd p ph

inuence and control, the violence has diminished.

Indeed, in 2008 the most violent organized crime

m Mx. sv

h. f, Mx h dvpd dg

markets and some of the violence reects a struggle

h m. sd, hgh v

v mg mj m p m

p m ppd d dpd

g m mm v gz.i m h d g

mvg dg h ud s.

th h d h nv ld,

cdd Jz d tj hv h

intense ghting among rival organizations. Since

h dv h cd dm

2006 and its offensive against the drug-trafcking

organizations, the trafckers have responded by

hg p h v v, g h

m d m p. i

in May 2008, ve police chiefs were assassinated

dg h g ch h fd P.

th md h Mx .

There are two precedents for this the war on the

cm dd P e d

the Maas attacks on the Italian state, both of

which occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

i h , h gh d mgd

v m h . M v

d h h hg h Mx

m md h h

d h h d hv h m v

capability to ght back.

i c am, h pp h

the drug-trafcking organizations than with youth





17/21

gg pp m. th gg

v d m g p gg

d g m h d m

society and family. The maras emerged from

conicts in El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua

during the 1980s. Thousands of people ed north,

dg g m g m h

had fought on the governments side or with the

g. M h g m l

ag, h p-dd,

few were able to nd work. As a result many

dd h gg d g dvp

gg h mp -pv.

th ud s q dpd m

h gg mm c am. ah dd dg hgh pg

h pm, gvg dm

d g gh. em gg h

there are about 70,000 maras in Central America

with 36,000 in Honduras, 14,000 in Guatemala,

11,000 in El Salvador, 4,500 in Nicaragua, 2,700 in

Costa Rica, and 1,400 in Panama with another

20,000 h ud s.

One analysis contends that the existence of

m vd h h

pvd m v dmd .i h ud s, m vd h

dq g pgm,

h v, dgd mv ddvgd

teens onto a path with a prosperous future. This

gm mpg d d h

h gm dvpd hgh h pp

ggg h h Vnsa

linked to deciencies, shortcomings and failures

. a h h Vnsa, hv, h

p hg h . adg

m, h m c am

overwhelm the governments, the police and the

g m h h h d, vand numbers. Moreover, they are becoming more

pzd d dvpg h

g m -hd m

gz. th d mv pp

g vd d m

prots whether through contracting out to

more established criminal and drug-trafcking

gz hgh d vvm

for-prot criminal activities. According to Saltsman

and Welch, the maras are becoming increasingly

involved in the trafcking of narcotics, weapons

d mggg hm g lam d h us-d h. th

vvd h, d h dppg

of business leaders. Some observers have even

gd h m d dvp pv

v h gz,

hgh gv d , d

mv h dvpm pp

h ggd. nvh,

h h d p h p

hg h c

am.

CONCLUSION

o h m g Vnsa h

h v. th gg h h m

dg mpg hm gh d g

. y, m h pdg h h d hv hg mm:

h mg p dq,

deciencies or shortcomings in many states and

dg h mp

h hmg. a h m m, h

mp d mv, pp,

p d h . o h dg,

hv, h h g m

h h. th xmp

g gzd m d

, hgh h d mp

convenience rather than real afnity.

o pg hm mg m h

pdg v h m h

m d Vnsa h. th

Mdd xmp h h m gz

mph gp. th h

ira h pp d m.

i pp h farc, g h h gh-

g pm, h mphd m p

m gz. f h p, h

m mgh vvg m d

m gz. whh h

h d p gzd m vm h p pd p hp

h p d m h

m hp h

v m . y, v h h

- m m d

Vnsa h h d hm

g. P h h g

h m v hv m h mm

dm. t p mp m v

g h xv pgv m

gz. t, g, d,

m d pm gg dg h m v. idd,

h v, h vvm h g





18/21

g m, d h h h

m hv md hm mh m md

hg h . i , m h

d h v p Vnsa mpd

h h .

a h m m, h hg h

dm h wph hv m

m pv h h m

increasingly decient. The implication of both

h v d d h

h h vvd d

h 21 d dd

h h m Vnsa. i m h

m h v Vnsain an effort to advance their own interests the

links between Pakistans Inter-Service Intelligence

and Daewood Ibrahims D-Company (which

pdm m gz

vvd h Mm mg

of 1993) or between Venezuelas Hugo Chavez

d farc h h h d

hppd. th phm

in frequency and signicance over the next few

dd. Vnsa hg m

g g h h

mpx d g gpd gz v h pv

difcult to disentangle.

Violent Non-state Actors





19/21


1 th h d h D. l c v hp d m h hm dvpd h pp.

2 i m g h v D. ax ch d D. G M h us amw cg.

3 r H. J, r H., Quasi-states: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the ThirdWorld, (cmdg, uk: cmdg uv P, 1990).

4 rhd H. shz, Dg fh, d im V. lhd, amd Gp: a t-o sP, INSS Occasional Paper, No. 57, September 2004, (USAF Institute for National Securitysd, usaf adm, cd), p. 63.

5 id. p. 16.6 id. p. 16.7 Ibid. See also Troy Thomas and Stephen Kiser, Lords of the Silk Route, in INSS Occasional Paper,

n.43, M 2002. (usaf i n s sd, usaf adm, cd).d t thm d wm c, Violent Systems (usaf i n ssd, usaf adm, cd: inss o Pp 52, Mh 2004).

8

k. J. H, The State, War, and the State of War (cmdg: cmdg uv P, 1996), p.15 d shz .

9 id.10 th mp h mphzd wm r, Warlord Politics and African States

(Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 1998)11 Shultz et al, p. 8.12 David Ronfeldt, In Search of How Societies Work: Tribes the First and Forever Form, RAND

Working Papers, p. 62, v hp:\\.d.g.13 Thomas and Kiser, op. cit. p. 714 See William Reno, Protectors and Predators: Why is there a difference among West African

militias? in by Louise Andersen, Bjorn Moller, and Finn Stepputat (eds.) Fragile States andInsecure People? Violence, Security, and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century (n y: PgvMacmillan, 2007), pp. 99-122.

15 cp J bm, usaf, Mj wm c, usaf, Mj t thm, usaf,Mdg V n-s a: a smm cp d Mhd, IITA ResearchPublication, n. 4 im s, nvm 2004, p. 2, (i im thg

app, ud s a f adm, cd).16 thm d k, p. 43.17 id. p. 43.18 Ibid. p. 68.19 Mm Gd, The Tipping Point, (n y: l, b, 2000).20 Summary Report: Governing Emerging Megacities Challenges and Perspectives, (7-8

Dm 2006, f), p. 4 . av hp:\\.ggph.-.d/pp/dd/2006-12_dm.pd

21 E. Zwingle, Megacities: The Coming Urban World, National Geographic, V. 202, n. 5,November 2002, p. 77.

22 Richard Norton, Feral cities, Naval War College Review, am 2003. av hp:\\..v.m/p/rv/2003/am/pd/6-03.pd.23 id.24 id.25 Thomas Homer-Dixon, Standing Room Only Toronto Globe and Mail, 6 Mh 2002.26

See Thomas and Kiser, and Shultz as well as Kimberley Marten, Warlordism in ComparativePerspective International Security, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Winter 2006/07), pp. 4173.27 Ana Pejcinova, Post-Modernizing Afghanistan, CEU Political Science Journal, i 5, 2006, pp.

32-53 at page 37. Available at http:\\www.ceeol.com.28 wm r, Warlord Politics and African States (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 1998).29 Richard Snyder, Does Lootable Wealth Breed Disorder? A Political Economy of Extraction

Framework Comparative Political Studies, Volume 39, Number 8, October 2006 pp. 943-968, atp. 948.

30 a Pjv, p. 40.31 Kimberly Marten, p. 48.32 a Pjv, p. 35.33 f d M.34 a Pjv, p. 40.35 Thomas and Kiser, p. 76.36 Marten, p. 47.37 shz p. 23.

38 Anthony J. Schwarz, Iraqs Militias: The True Threat to Coalition Success in Iraq Parameters,Spring 2007 pp. 55-71 at p. 57.

enDnotes


20/21


39 Ibid p. 58.40 id. p. 59.41 Alexei Barrionuevo, In Rio Slum, Armed Militia Replaces Drug Gangs Criminality With Its Own

The New York Times, 13 June 2008.42 See William Reno, Protectors and Predators: Why is there a difference among West African

militias? in by Louise Andersen, Bjorn Moller and Finn Stepputat (eds.) Fragile States andInsecure People? Violence, Security, and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century.

43 The analysis here draws from International Crisis Group, Where is Iraq Heading? Lessons fromBasra, Middle East Report, N67 25 June 2007, p. i. and Reidar Visser quoted in Ben Lando, ShiaParties Battle for Control of Oil-Rich Basra Region, UPI 18 August 2007.

44 Anthony Borden, Battling for Power in Basra, Institute for War and Peace Reporting, IraqiGovernance Report, Issue 2, August 2007 p.2.

45 Ghaith Abdul-Ahad Welcome to Tehran - How Iran Took Control of Basra, The Guardian, M19, 2007 available at http:\\www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,,2083387,00.html.

46 Alexus G. Grynkewich, Welfare as Warfare: How Violent Non-State Groups Use Social Servicesto Attack the State, Studies in Conict & Terrorism, Vol. 31, No. 4 2008 pp. 350370 at p. 353.

47 Jeffrey Bartholet, How Al-Sadr May Control U.S. Fate in Iraq, Newsweek, Dm 4, 2006.48 Anbari Trucks, Mahdi Guns, and High-Volume-Trade, Iraqslogger, October 2, 2007.49

id.50 Sunil Dasgupta, Paramilitary Forces and Security Reorganization, GSC Quarterly, 12 (spg

2004). Pgm G s d cp, s s rh c v hp://..g.

51 id.52 id.53 sph H, Colombias Right Wing Paramilitaries and Splinter Groups, c fg

Relations, 11 January 2008 available at: http:\\www.cfr.org/publication/15239/colombias_ghg_pm_d_p_gp.hm.

54 id.55 id.56 id.57 International Crisis Group, Colombias New Armed Groups, Latin America Report, n. 20, 10

May 2007.58 id. p. .59 id. p. 1.60 Ibid. pp. 6-7.61 Ibid. p. 7.62 US Army & Marines Field Manual, fM 3-24, (f D, J 2006), hp://..g/p/

ddd/m/m3-24d.pd.63 US Army & Marines Field Manual, FM 100-20 /AFP 3-20, Military Operations in Low Intensity

Conicts.64 sv Mz, The Future of Insurgency(Dm 10, 1993). th d v hp:\\

...m///g//mz.pd65 See Tamara Makarenko, Terrorism and Drug Trafcking Threaten Security in Central Asia,

Janes Intelligence Review, Vol. 12 No. 11, (2000) pp.28-3066 Hm, b. Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in I raq. s M, ca: ranD, 2004.67 See http://www.international.ucla.edu/media/les/Rapoport-Four-Waves-of-Modern-

tm.pd.68 For a fuller analysis see Phil Williams, In Cold Blood: The Madrid Bombings in Perspectives on

Terrorism: Special Issue on Under-Investigated topics in Terrorism Research, June 2008, available

hp:\\.m.m69 See John Horgan and Max Taylor, Playing the Green Card- Financing the Provisional IRA:Part 1, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 11, No.2 (Summer 1999) pp. 1-38 and John Horgan,The Provisional IRA in 2005: The Final Moments of an Increasingly Irrelevant Movement?Pp ppd i whp G t d h img, uv Pittsburgh, March 24-27, 2005.

70 Mh lv, Hamas: Politics, Charity and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, (n Hv: yuv P, 2006), p. 5.

71 Steven C. Boraz and Thomas C. Bruneau, Are the Maras Overwhelming Governments in CentralAmerica Military Review, nv-D 2006, pp. 36-40 p. 36.

72 Ibid. p. 37.73 Terry W. Saltsman and Ben J. Welch III, Maras in Central America. Availble at http:\\www.

mj.m.74 Boraz and Bruneau, p. 38.75 sm d wh.76 th p v d d h md h h P

P k h us am w cg.


21/21

D. Ph wm P

i s h

Gd sh P d

i a h

uv Pgh. fm 1992

ap 2001, D. wm h

Director of the Universitys Matthew B. Ridgway

c i s sd. P

Williams has published extensively in the eld of

dg Crisis Management

(1976), The Senate and US Troops in Europe (1986),

d (h M b) Superpower Detente: A

Reappraisal (1987). He has edited or co-edited books h c, rg d bh pd,

dg .

Dg h 15 , h h h d

pm gzd m d

h h v p h

j Survival, The Washington Quarterly, The

Bulletin on Narcotics, Temps Strategique, Scientic

American, Criminal Organizations, and Cross Border

Control. i dd, D. wm dg

d j d, Transnational Organized

Crime. H h h h udn d ud s gvm g

gzd m d h gv g

m h j. D. wm h dd

vm, Russian Organized Crime, d ,

Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex: The New

Slave Trade. H -d vm,

Combating Transnational Crime.

H mpg P P

gzd m. i 2001-2002,

h m h uv

Pgh d Vg s cert/cc

cg M uv, h h d mp m d gzd m. i h

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nances as well as on complexity theory and its

relationship to intelligence analysis. During 2008-

2009, D. wm Vg rh P

h sg sd i, us am w

cg h h g gzd m

iq d m h Mdd bmg.

H phd ssi mgph d,

From the New Middle Ages to a New Dark Age: The

Decline of the State and U.S. Strategy. [hp://.

gd.m.m/p/dp.cfm?pubID=867]

about tHe autHor

violent non state actors

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