vine biological cultivation

7/30/2019 Vine Biological Cultivation

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ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF OCCUPATION -

CONTINUING TRAINING IN RURAL AREAS

Mesolonghi 2006

Vine biological cultivation



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This section aims at teaching vine biological cultivation methods.

More specifically, after the seminar the farmer will have gained further knowledgeconcerning:

1. the selection of the appropriate location to cultivate and create the necessary

facilities2. the essential soil nutrients and related fertilizing methods3. pruning methods4. covering water supply demands5. ground cover6. controlling undesirable plants – weeds by cultivation, mechanical, natural and

organic means.7. ability to discern the main diseases and their organic control.

Keywords

nutrition, fertilization, pruning, water supply demands, ground cover, undesirable plants –weeds, organic means against disease



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Index

1. Choice of location –planting ....................................................................... 4 2. Nutrition - Fertilisation............................................................................... 4 3. Pruning .................................................................................................. 10

4. Covering water supply demands............................................................... 11 4.1. For dry farming ............................................................................................ 11 4.2. For irrigated farming......................................................................................11

5. Ground cover.......................................................................................... 13 5.1. Meaning and role of ground cover .................................................................. 13 5.2. Types of ground cover...................................................................................13 5.3. Ground cover planning .................................................................................. 13

6. Controlling undesirable plants - weeds...................................................... 15 6.1. Cultivation measures ..................................................................................... 15 6.2. Mechanical means ......................................................................................... 15 6.3. Natural means .............................................................................................. 15

6.4. Organic means..............................................................................................15 7. Organic means of dealing with main diseases............................................ 16

7.1. Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea). ............................................................................. 17 7.2. Eutypa disease (Eutypa lata)..........................................................................17 7.3. Esca disease of grapevine or Esca (Stereum hirsutum). ................................... 18 7.4. Downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola). .......................................... 19 7.5. White root rot (Armillaria mellea - Rosellinia necatrix). ................................... 20 7.6. Dead arm disease (Phomopsis viticola). .......................................................... 21 7.7. Powdery mildew of grapevine (Uncinula necator). ........................................... 21 7.8. Equally important fungal grapevine diseases ................................................... 24

8. Crop enemies and organic control ............................................................ 25

8.1. Vine moth (Lobesia botrana)..........................................................................25 8.2. Grape leaf louse, Grape Phulloxera, Vine louse (Dactylosphaera vitifolii). .......... 28 8.3. Grape mealybug (Pseudococcus citri). ............................................................ 28 8.4. Black vine weevil (Otiorynchus sulcatus L.). .................................................... 28 8.5. Blister vine leaf mite (Eriophyes vitis) ............................................................. 29 8.6. Other enemies .............................................................................................. 30

8.6.1.Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) .................................................................. 30

8.6.2. Coleoptera (beetles) .......................................................................................... 30

8.6.3. Vine thrips ......................................................................................................... 30

9. Birds...................................................................................................... 30 10. Currant insects...................................................................................... 30

11. References - Links................................................................................ 32



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1. Choice of location –planting

Before proceeding with organic farming the vine farmer should examine the area tobe cultivated.

If, for example, the vineyard is next to land conventionally cultivated by chemicalagriculture methods, certain measures are on call so as to minimize repercussions.

Specifically, a separating hedge made of trees or bushes or even a dry stonewall, etcmust be raised. Naturally, there should be some consultation with the neighbouringowner of the conventional land so that he/she does not spray near the border onadverse wind conditions.

The organic farmer should examine the vineyard orientation, as he/she should assessthe area microclimate, which may result in serious fungal diseases; the organicfarmer should give serious consideration to how he/she should deal with such asituation within the organic farming framework.

Land orientation is of great importance as relating to spring frosts.

In any case of course Biological Agriculture avails of the means to deal with problemseffectively. However, an arising issue is the overall philosophy of this productionsystem whose key target should be the reduction, if not altogether elimination of inputs in the long term.

2. Nutrition - Fertilisation

Vine demands are significantly lower as compared to other types of cultivations.

However, it is essential that demands are met or else product quality is degraded. Ingeneral, the organic vine farmer should aim at acquiring vine stock of mediumvivacity, by maintaining soil fertility at average level, average productivity andespecially smooth and appropriate nutrition; this is to decrease production costs inthe medium as well as in the long term and to increase product competitiveness.

Quality and not quantity is the target. Up until a few years ago, viticulturalistsresorted to vineyard overfertilisation, mainly using nitrates, in order to produce up totwo times their allowed yield per square metre quota and thus increase their income,even in cases of very fertile soil. This practice was also promoted by the lowfertilization share in production costs as compared to other expenses (less than

10%). This resulted in the overall quantitative increase of products albeit of degraded quality.

Table 1 shows nutrient quantities annually removed from a vineyard per squaremetre through leaves, shoots and fruit. These prices should be increased by 5-10%to allow for root and cane annual growth. Naturally, part of the removed nutrientsmay be restored through leaves and shoots crumbling to remain in the vineyard orthrough grape pomace which are winemaking byproducts and may be used asorganic fertilisers.



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Table 1. Nutrient amounts removed from 100 square metres of vineyardsoil per year

NITROGEN 4-7 Kg

PHOSPHOR 0.4-1 Kg (1-2 Kg P2O

5)

POTASSIUM 4-7 Kg (5-8 Kg K 2O)

CALCIUM 4-8 Kg (6-12 Kg CaO)

MAGNESIUM 0.6-1.5 Kg (1-2.5 Kg MgO)

SULPHUR 0.6 Kg

IRON 60 gr.

ZINC 10-20 gr.

MANGANESE 8-16 gr.

BORON 10-15 gr.

Basic nutrient fertilizing tactics which may be applied in Western Greece (as well asmost areas in the country) is as follows:

Nitrogen: 0-3 Kg per 100 square metres depending on vineyard conditions

Potassium: 1.5-2 times the amount annually removed from sandy soil and 2-3times the amount for clay soil, always in combination with soil CEC (i.e. 8-20kg)

Phosphor: Normally only if there has been no phosphor addition prior to vineplanting and soil levels are too low.

2.1. NITROGENNitrogen rich plant nutrition results in the following:

Delay in expansion proportional to the shoot diameter increase due to thenitrogen high levels.Increase in the number of buds expandedHeightened germination rate (germination speed), greater vivacity usually

yielding quality degradationLarger leaves of dark green colour and greater thickness. Yield increase (mainly due to the increased vivacity of vine stock) up to apoint.Excessive delay in germination stop or, at worse germination lasting up to theharvesting period or even later (summer pruning constituting the major partof production cost reaching up to even 26% while vine toppings contribute by47% to this percentage).Great density foliage resulting in adverse microclimate for quality, healthyproduce (increase of botrytis infestation and simultaneous nitrogen increasein the must).

Sugar and polyphenole decrease and increase in acidity.Maturation delay



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Increase in wine arginine and urea contentDisplay of potassium chlorosis in soils where stock nutrition supply is poor inpotassium. Vulnerability to mildew and botrytis.Delay in defoliation.

To conclude by defining all of the above, we refer to increase in plant vivacity,extension of the young plant period and domination of hormonal substancesfavouring germination although adverse to quality produce (auxins, gibberellins,cytokinins), and vulnerability to various diseases.

Thus, in the case of fertile soil, nitrate fertilization is a luxury while in the case of toolight and infertile soil, nitrate fertilization could probably be replaced by enriching thesoil with organic substances and nourishing the plants by the mineralisation of theorganic substance nitrogen. In all cases, the viticulturalist should not stop providingnitrogen since nitrogen stocks are not inexhaustible even in the case of fertile soil.On the contrary, he should frequently review vegetation conditions, especially growthrate, so as to control nitrogen supply of the vineyard and achieve balanced growth.This may be achieved by maintaining soil fertility, which can be ensured with organicfertilization at a cost lower or higher than the corresponding conventional agriculturecost depending on the organic fertilizer source to be used.

2.2.PHOSPHOR The use of phosphate fertilizers is restricted to cases of young vineyards in order toassist in the root system growth or to cases of low phosphor levels in the soil.Generally, phosphor influence on vines is very difficult to show due to low vinerequirements in the element and the scarcity of soil totally lacking phosphor. Planreaction has only been observed in the case of poor, low depth sandy soil; such

reaction was demonstrated with root system growth following the addition of phosphate fertilizers.

2.3.POTASSIUMIn addition to contributing to plant growth and water savings in relation to winemaking varieties and especially increased acidity varieties, potassium also playsanother very important role. Grape potassium content, both in the must as well asthe skins, is a crucial factor as it helps towards wine acidity reduction. This does notcertainly mean that we should resort to uncontrolled fertilisations rich in potassiumas there is a risk of magnesium competitiveness and pH increase; this in turn wouldlead to wine production lacking acidity, normal hue and preservability. The need for,

or lack thereof, potassium fertilisers is to be demonstrated by plant tissue analysis onthe basis of which the viticulturalist is to proceed.

2.4. Concerning the remaining nutrients, the vine farmer should intervene whenshortages are ascertained. Overall, wine οργανοληπτικά features are favoured bysoil rich in ανθρακικό ασβέστιο. Farmers also have commercial products at hand tocompensate possible nutrient shortages, especially τροφοπενίες relating to minerals.Such commercial products should be included in the European Union Regulation2092/91.

2.5. Organic substance provides soil with nutrients, macroelements and mineralsat the same time constituting the sole nitrogen source for vines, always within themoderate vegetation growth dictated by quality grape and wine production inbiological farming. Furthermore, it assists in avoiding metal toxicity, such as sulphur



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and copper in acid soil used to combat vine fungal diseases as well as manganesetoxicity. Soil may be enriched with organic substances adding: manure, greenmanure and mixing of grape pomace, shoots, various composts, etc.

Thus, the basic aspect of organic farming is soil fertility enhancement which leads to

the well balanced growth in cultivation to produce organic products.

Within the organic farming framework, the EEC 2092/91 Regulation allows the vinefarmer to improve vineyard fertility supported by green manure, cultivating legumesor other deep rooted plants, mixing decomposing or non decomposing substances(manure, etc) from non intensive farming, creating and mixing various composts. Also, he may use some other products, such as sulphuric magnesium, phosphateminerals, etc, provided the soil and plant tissue analysis documents the need toresort to such products.

2.5.1. For centuries manure has been the sole nutrient source for vineyards, as oneton of manure per 100 square meters (75% humidity) provides 4-5 kg of nitrogen, 2-

3 kg of phosphor (P2O

5), 7.0 kg of potassium (K

2O), 6-7 kg of CaO and 2 kg of MgO.

Naturally, manure used to be very inexpensive as every household kept animals orcould easily and cheaply be provided with the manure required amounts. However,manure is no longer a cheap fertilizing material neither readily available and thus it isnot always the best solution for the grape farmer. Manure is to be fully fermentedbefore being mixed with the soil. Following fermentation, nutrients in the manuretake absorbable forms. The fermentation procedure destroys weed and variouspathogen spores; however, part of the nutrients is also lost. Manure content levels inminerals are also important, as shown in Table 2 that follows.

Table 2. Manure average content in microelements (mg/kg)Fresh manure Dry manure

Boron 3,5 18,50

Cobalt 0,2 1,0

Copper 2,0 13,0

Manganese 43,8 209,0

Molybdenum 0,13 1,5

Zinc 16,4 89,0

Recommended dosage for vineyards varies depending on the manure type. 200-300kg of chicken manure/ 100 square metres more than suffice while in the case of βοοειδών manure, the dosage may even rise up to 2 tons/ 100 square metres.

In very well aerated sandy soil, the manure should be incorporated at a depth of 15-20cm so as to avoid its decomposition being too fast. On the contrary, in badlyaerated heavy soil, it should be mixed on the surface (5-10cm). It has beendemonstrated that in areas of low rainfall, digging the manure in a depth of 25 cmfavours nitrogen use by plants as compared to a 12 cm depth.

Manure has residual action so green manure is recommended as its annualalternate. This mainly applies to nitrogen, which is used by plants at an approximate

rate of 30% in the first year and at approximately 10% in the second year. The most



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appropriate season to fertilise with manure is autumn so that winter precipitationmay be used to best advantage and the manure is dissolved and absorbed by trees.

2.5.2. The compost is another type of organic fertiliser produced during the aerobicbiological decomposition of organic residues and their conversion to humus, rather

stable substances as well as the formation of clay-humus complexes.

Animal manure and plant residues, easy to be found within the area of cultivation,may be used to produce compost. In regions around Greece where citrus, olives andvines are cultivated, the farmer wishing to prepare his own compost may usebranches from citrus prunings, olive leaves, olive kernels and winery στέµφυλα.Cotton gin unit wastes, fruit processing unit wastes as well as well washed seaweedmay also be used.

Composting takes place in heaps 2-3 m in width, approx. 1.5 in height and unlimitedlength. Before the formation of the heaps, the material to be fermented is cut inpieces of 1.5-7.5 cm in length if it is thick and water is added if needed. Such

preparation ensures the best possible conditions as concerns humidity, temperatureand oxygen in order for the microflora to start action. Optimal humidity ranges from40% up to 60% while piece size ensures the heap has the required oxygen available.

To start composting, residues must have the appropriate nitrogen and carbonbalance. This way microorganism propagation and increase is favoured. The optimalC/N ratio is 25-30. This ratio may be achieved by mixing different materials, such asthree parts of plant waste and one part animal waste.

Immediately after heaping the prepared materials, microbial action begins releasingenergy which results in temperature rise in the heap. In about 10 days’ time,

temperature begins to fall due to the exhaustion of available oxygen. At this point,heap oxygenation is essential which is achieved by turning it over. In total, threeheap turnings are required while the procedure lasts 8-10 weeks.

The compost is ready when the material crumbles in dry form and is moldable in wetform. When fermentation is not complete or fully mature, the compost may causevarious deficiency diseases, mainly nitrogen deficiency, and even phytotoxicsymptoms. Deficiency diseases are a result of the continuation of the decompositionof non fermented compost after being added to the soil which leads to nitrogen andother element use by decomposition micro-organisms on the expense of plants.Following the completion of fermentation, it is recommended for the compost not to

be used for two months so that it matures. Mature compost does not attract flies,does not carry odour but smells nice similar to a forest after rain.

Compost content in nutrients depends on the source materials. Element ratios rangefrom 1-2% nitrogen, 0.5-1% phosphor, 0.5-1% potassium and there are aslosignificant amounts of minerals. For the fertilisation to be satisfactory requiredamounts reach 1.5-3 tons/100 square metres, which may be achieved with thealternate use of manure or green manure. It has been demonstrated that followingapplication, compost yields 5-15% of its components while it has residual action for athree-year period.

2.5.3. Green manure The term green manure applies to plant mass incorporation

in the soil wherein the plant mass consists of plants specially cultivated for thispurpose. Green manure favourably influences crops by increasing fertility although in



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order to be successful it requires soil humidity and it is impossible when there is nowater available. In addition to providing the soil with organic material, green manurealso enriches it with nutrients especially if the plants used are leguminous. Suchnutrients are stored within the plant mass and are not removed with spargings. Theygradually return to the soil through the organic material decomposition.

It also covers the ground promoting structure and limiting erosion. It reduces the soilnutrient sparging, utilizes rain water by creating plant mass and contributes to soilslaking, mainly subsoil. Green manure may combat weeds as a result of competitionand lack of light and reduce nematode infestations.

Plants suitable as green manure are classified into cultivation plants and non plantspecies, in leguminous and non leguminous and in seed and root propagated weeds.Leguminous plants cultivated as green manure are various clover species, vetch,soya, lentils, peas, lucerne and lupines. Other non leguminous green manure cropare graminaceous plants (mainly oat and others) and the cruciferae. In relation toviticulture, the appropriate legumes are vetch (soil pH <7) and lupin (soil pH >7). Vetch is also cost effective as seeds are cheap. 12-13kg of vetch are required tocover 100 square metres. Seeding may take place in autumn while cutting andincorporation at the beginning of the blooming stage (early April). More nitrogen isavailable in the content at this stage. If plants are harvested in time andincorporated in the soil with care, they decompose fairly fast and contribute to theincrease of the humus, biological action and enhancement of soil composition. Thisway, the soil is enriched in organic material (2 tons of green manure per 100 squaremetres may yield 300-600 kg of humus, estimating on the basis of a humus makingfactor of 0.1-0.15, whereas the corresponding manure factor is 0.4-0.6).

2.5.4. Another option for the viticulturalist is to use grape pomace from organic

wineries as soil enhancer. This is an inexpensive solution to either producecompost or directly use in vineyards. Moreover, pruned shoots could be used albeitwith care because in areas where wood diseases are present – bacterial, viral – thismay lead to the contamination to healthy vine stock as well.



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3. Pruning

a) Winter pruning

Winter pruning starts in January or February. In the cup like formation, pruning

maintains two heads on each branch each of which contains two fruit bearing buds.In linear formations, three to six heads are maintained depending on the formationsystem.

b) Green pruning

Green pruning aims at correcting winter pruning errors, balancing betweenvegetation and production, ensuring better blooming and breeding conditions,obtaining healthy shoots and strong stock all finally resulting in the better quality of produced grapes. The main green prunings are ofshoot cutting and topping.

Offshoot cutting takes place between April and May when shoots are 10-20 cm long

and concerns:

Removing shoots from the trunk which do not normally bear fruit and aretherefore not vivacious and

Removing shoots from buds which did not develop in last year's growth orfrom non fruit bearing buds of the annual wood.

In cup like formations, following offshoot cutting, the shoots are tied together withstraw so as to avoid damage from the wind.

Topping refers to the removal of the tender tops just before blooming aiming atbetter fruit setting conditions and better grape nutrition at a later stage. It should benoted that topping is rather severe with the top cutting being of several cm inlength; as a result the remaining shoot carries only a few leaves which may notnourish the grapes..



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4. Covering water supply demands

4.1. For dry farming

a. Increase of rain efficiency by:

Sloping relief arrangement in a way that ensures restriction of surface runoff and soil erosion.

Conservation of natural plant cover (weeds) up to the end of theraining season in sloping areas.

Increase of soil filtration and water capacity through the additionof organic materials (manure, plant residues, green manure, etc.)or inorganic soil enhancers (lime, gypsum, etc.) wherevernecessary.

Limiting rain loss due to foliage retention through the reduction of leaf surface area (diameter and height reduction, foliage thinning),so as to ensure sufficient soil penetration by rain, especiallyaround the end of the rain season (late winter, spring).

b. Balancing water consumption – availability through:

Foliage root restriction (heavy pruning).

Annual pruning

Soil moisture loss restriction through: a) restriction of evaporation

from uncovered ground through mechanical processing at the endof the rain season, and b) weed control through: cutting themmechanically in early spring, incorporating them in the soilmechanically at the end of the rain season and applying the covercrops system.

4.2. For irrigated farming

The tensiometer use with available crops and conditions provides a practical solutionwhich is quite reliable as concerns checking irrigation depth and quantity required.

Poorly planned surface irrigation methods (sloping furrows, border-strips, rills,

basins) or water jet pump systems for neighbouring crops should be avoided asrunoffs as well as deep filtration with transfer of undesirable agrochemicals arepossible.

Drip irrigation is preferable for neighbouring crops so as to reduce the risk of runoffsand deep filtration to a minimum or even eliminate such risk.

Cleaning local irrigation networks from chemical deposits or other organic orinorganic materials leading to blockage is not permitted through chemical means.Reparative or provisionary measures to be taken are:

The use of good quality water low in salt content.



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The restoration of organic or inorganic material blockages only bymechanical or natural means and methods such as: Frequent network cleaning by opening the trickler tips or inserting compressed air or water(5-6 atm).

Restoring chemical deposit blockages only by mechanical means orreplacement of blocked tubes or distributors.

In local irrigation systems, additional measures should be taken to restorecompounds which are exhausted underneath the tricklers. Such measures are:

Moving the trickler tubes every one or two years – as the crop allows – toa neighbouring strip of the ground.

Addition of allowed organic material especially in irrigated areas so as toassist in activating new mineral quantities in the ground.



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5. Ground cover

Ground cover is the method of covering the soil with materials or plants to maximizegeoponic, ecological, social and economic benefits arising from covering the ground.Ground cover relates to the soil management system and constitutes the basis for

long term preservation of both the productivity of vine produce systems and thebeauty of rural landscape.

5.1. Meaning and role of ground cover

Maximizing agricultural benefits of ground cover relies on the enhancement of soilfertility, favourable microclimate changes, beneficial species hosting as well asundesirable grass control on the basis of the relation between the ground cover timeperiod and the weed phenomenological cycle.

The ecological importance of ground cover consists in soil erosion control, biovarietypreservation, avoidance of environmental pollution with agrochemicals and limiting

the use of non-renewable resources.

Finally, the social and economic importance of ground cover consists in thepreservation of an aesthetic landscape, the minimization of soil processing, weedcontrol and nutrition costs; at the same time the social or hidden cost associatedwith the use of non ecological methods is eliminated.

5.2. Types of ground cover

Ground cover is achievable through either green manure, that is to say incorporationof ground cover plants in the soil, or layer formation, which denotes plant residues orother materials (e.g. black plastic sheets) being applied on soil surface.

Also, the ground cover may be permanent with the use of the appropriate plant mix.To this purpose, depending on the vineyard soil management system, annual winterlegumes are used, characteristic among which are the various vetch, clover andlucerne species or even perennial legumes.

The improvement of the soil natural properties may also be achieved using plantsstoring excess nitrogen within their biomass; such typical plants are cereals and self-propagating or summer grasses.

However, plants to be used for ground cover should be selected based on thefollowing criteria:

Increase rate and quantity of dry material produced.

Cost due to input demands (seed, irrigation water)

Obstruction of other farming activities.

Amount of nitrogen or organic material added to the soil.

Vineyard soil management method.

5.3. Ground cover planning

Planning ground cover should be rather careful so as to maximize benefits and avoidadverse effects. Thus the organic farmer must be aware of the vineyard needs,



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proceed to the appropriate planning for soil management and ground cover whilekeeping to planning principles as follows:

Establishment of current vineyard status, the environment and thefarmer’s options.

Definition of main and secondary targets to be achieved by ground coveras well as of parameters relating to specific targets.Definition of the ground cover type for which the following should beconsidered:How and when ground cover preparation is to take place either forground cover plants or artificial layers.How the essential nutrients are to be provided for the ground cover plantnutrition.Whether soil inoculation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the amount of seed to be used considering the ground cover plant species as well as thedesirable ground cover rate in the vineyard.

Ground cover management is quite important for both its success and related costand is based on the following:

Incorporation of ground cover plants in the springConsecutive cutting of ground cover plants.Combining the two methods above with slight sheep grazing duringwinter.

In order to maximize ground cover benefits, the organic viticulturalist should beaware of the following:

Ground cover plant seeding takes place in the autumn, early winter, atthe start of the rains.Ground cover with plant residues (straw, leaves) takes place in the springto fight weeds.Ground cover plants are incorporated in the spring during their bloomingperiod. Incorporation is to take place prior to the beginning of the vineblooming so as to avoid competition for water and nutrients.Using legumes for ground cover ensures the provision of significantnitrogen amounts to the vineyard.System water supply demand modification is effected through the use of perennial ground cover plants.

Ground cover is applied between vine lines when the arrangement islinear. In contrast, in old fashion vineyards, it is essentially applied to thetotal surface.



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6. Controlling undesirable plants - weeds

The term weeds – a rather disputed term today – refers to wild (self-sown) plantsgerminating and growing on their own within the limits of a crop field, withouthaving been seeded. They lead to competing with crops thus depriving the latter of

precious nutrients and water and eventually creating serious problems for crop yield.

Measures to be taken are classified in cultivation, mechanical, natural and organic.

6.1. Cultivation measures

Adjustment of seeding time and planting densityMixed crops, e.g. farming legumes with cerealsCrop rotationsPrevention of weed dispersion

6.2. Mechanical means A range of small tools specially designed for weeding out mainly

vegetables and aromatic plantsGrass cutting and scrub clearance equipment to exterminate difficultweedsIn the large scale cultivation areas, the focus is on soil surface machinesfor light processingUse of rotating brushes with the simultaneous arrangement of theground relief.

6.3. Natural meansTemperature use. The use of thermal methods relies on the principlethat undesirable plants, mainly at young stage, are exposed to hightemperature for a very short time period; this leads to solidification withsubsequent expansion and break of cellular walls. The plant is unable tocarry out natural functions and soon dies.Sun heat. Moist soil is covered with transparent plastic sheets duringthe hot summer period.Ground cover either with black plastic sheets or dry grasses, straw,sawdust, etc.

6.4. Organic means.Higher level plants as weed competitors e.g. ground cover plants suchas clover.Micro-organism, usually pathogenic fungi, with specialized action.Insects. Natural weed enemies with specialized action.Controlled grazing by cattle, sheep and goat, etc also taking into

account manure recycling, animal feed utilization, etc.

The organic farmer is in a position to combine available mild methods in fullknowledge and sensitivity and successfully manage the weed problem.



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7. Organic means of dealing with main diseases

Plant protection is a fundamental agricultural improvement applied in all forms of agriculture. In conventional agriculture, it mainly focuses on using toxic, syntheticpesticides which have resulted in the serious imbalance of the agro-ecosystem today.

The ecologically friendly way to deal with disease as well as animal enemies in plantsaims at appropriate and ecologically balanced combination of preventive, farming,biological, biochemical and biotechnological methods to achieve long term asopposed to short term optimization of productive results at the lowest environmentaland financial cost. At the same time, it develops such strategies as to be able torepair damages inflicted on the agro-ecosystems through conventional plantprotection. The basic principles governing this ecological approach for crops andtherefore vines can be summarized as follows:

Development and application of strategic restoration of the damage dueto the conventional plant protection of the ecosystem

Avoidance of toxic synthetic pesticides as well as genetic engineeringproducts whose effects are non controllable

Financial and ecological study of the control methods available for thespecific disease so as to be able to select an appropriate combination.

The need to study in depth all factors involved in the specificpathological ecosystem, especially the biological three aspect basics:plant – pathogen – competitive micro- and macro-flora and fauna.

The main fungal diseases infesting Greek vineyards are downy mildew, το powdery mildew, botrytis, eutypa, esca, white root rot and dead armdisease. Preventive measures play a great role in the fight against fungal diseasesreaching approximately 70%. Prevention is achieved in the following two ways:

a. Providing plants with balanced nutrition which, in the long term, maychange the biochemical composition and thus plant behaviour againstinfestations.

b. Non contamination. Vine high support so that the shoots do not touchthe ground, thinning the foliage and green pruning for good aerationare steps to be taken to this purpose. Another fundamental measureis the appropriate selection of predefined grape varieties and stock soas to be adjusted to local conditions



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7.1. Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea).

SYMPTOMS: It infests tender shoots, leaves on which it forms brown circular orirregular stains, young bunches before and after blooming and mature grapes whichshow surface breaks or cuts. Table vine varieties are particularly affected.

ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. The pathogen may be combated by the following measuresand methods:

1. Inspection of shoots during pruning so as to ascertain theircontamination potential lingering from the previous farming period.Shoots with dispersed hard, black and irregular masses display intensepathogen infestation.

2. Avoidance of vivacious germination. Organic fertilizers with high Ncontent should be avoided.

3. Rational pruning so that the plants are well aerated.

4. Prevention of the grapes being infested by powdery mildew or thevine moth.

5. Copper compounds in the last sprays against downy mildew hardengrape skins and render it untouchable to the pathogen. This similarlyapplies to potassium salts of fatty acids and resinous copper.

6. The copper salt of picric acid controls botrytis.

7. Paraffinic and vegetable oils act satisfactorily.

8. Thyme and oregano essential oils as well as alanosin derived fromStreptomyces alanocinicus in vitro and in vivo significantly restrictedthe fungus.

9. Competitive Trichoderma spp, Cladosporium cladosporioides, C.herbarum, Epicoccum sp etc. significantly restrict the fungus.

10. Sour grape extract activates the plant immune system and restrictsbotrytis set in. Sour grapes contain organic acids obstructing botrytisspore germination.

11. Various organic substance extracts, especially knot extract.

12. Use of hardy cultivated varieties. The Gamete hybrid, a cross breedingproduct of Gamy x Reichensteiner is used in Switzerland with verygood results.

7.2. Eutypa disease (Eutypa lata)

SYMPTOMS. The main displaying symptoms of the disease are shoot metabolismupheaval in spring due to mucotoxins. Often a part of the stock demonstratesdelayed growth. Sometimes leaves die off followed by intense blossoming or theformation of small fruit without any seeds. A large branch cut shows a partial

desiccation of the wood circular sector. Infected wood is brittle.



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ECOLOGICAL CONTROL: It consists of the following:

1. Reduction of the pathogen contamination potential in the widervineyard area. Therefore, the farmers are to destroy all pruning by-products, especially sick stock.

2. Reduction of stock receptivity. Pruning must take into account theinfliction of the fewest possible wounds. In order for the next year’sproduction not to be reduced, pruning must allow for the creation of new tops by hungry shoots.

3. In the case of severe pruning, coating the wounds with bung puttyand/or disinfection with an appropriate solution. As bung putty, beewax based products may be used in combination with resins,microcrystallic wax and pine pitch. Potassium permanganate is a goodsterilizer. Copper, pine oil and vegetable oil and resin mix are effectivein preventing wound contamination.

4. Infusion of the trunk with 10 ml of Trichoiject or the placement of 1-2Tricho minidowels tablets inside the trunk of each stock, bothcontaining competitors of the Trichodeum species. Such interventionsprotected stock for three consecutive farming periods from the Eutypalata and Botryosphaeria stevensii in New Zealand.

7.3. Esca disease of grapevine or Esca (Stereum hirsutum).

SYMPTOMS. Initial symptoms are displayed at the lower shoot leaves. Edge chlorosisis established which later invades the between the nerves section. Many shoot tops,even crowns, may desiccate. Apoplexy is a very frequent symptom. In a stock

transverse section, medulla rot is observed reaching the heart wood. The infectedpart of the wood is soft, spongy, brittle and acquires yellow white colour.

ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. Recommended:

1. Removal and burning of infected parts.2. Stock life extension by exposure to light and air. To this purpose, the

stock wood is cut and remains exposed to light and air with the aid of stone wedges.

3. Wood protection with the substances referred to in the eutypa case.4. Interventions in winter with vegetable or paraffinic oils or wetting with

sulphur or dense Bordeaux spray.



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7.4. Downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola).

SYMPTOMS. The pathogen infests all green parts such as shoots, tendrils, leaves andyoung bunches. Infestation after the young bunch pollination give them an ashy hueand rot is characterized as downy mildew. Late infestation before setting is displayed

on the young bunches with “brown rot” symptoms. Serious late infestation causestotal foliage loss resulting in shoot maturation delay, increase of sensitivity to otherpathogens and reduction of the next blossoming.

ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. It is based on prophylactic, mainly preventive measureswhich can be summarized as follows:

1. Avoiding to plant vineyards in fields of very wet and cool microclimate.

2. During planting, lines should follow wind direction. Thus, stock are betteraerated and the water from any rain or dew dries out faster.

3. The same applies to appropriate pruning.

4. If grape pomace is used as organic fertilizer, it should be well fermented soas to avoid any seed germination which would constitute pathogen growthfoci. For the same reason, harvesting should be effected with care and nograpes should be left on the ground.

5. Leaves falling on the ground constitute excellent layers for fungusoverwintering. They should be either removed or deeply buried.

6. Destruction of offshoots at the low stock trunk as they function as transfer

points for the pathogen to the shoots.

7. During pruning, shoots should be inspected for macroscopic symptoms of downy mildew infestation. If, for example, knees display tissue swelling andcracks lengthwise, then care should be taken to prevent initial infestation.

8. Development of a warning system for disease dispersion. Epidemiologic risk prognosis models for downy mildew, intervention scheduling and the meansto use have already been developed. The Diouys and Milvit are of specialinterest. The second model is descriptive and definitive of the quantity of thepathogen asexual reproduction.

9. Application of preventive sprayings with Bordeaux spray. Viticulturalists

should know that copper compounds cause phytotoxicity on new vegetationin cool and wet weather conditions. Vulnerable stages during whichvegetation should remain covered with a copper compound is at 8-10 cmlength, after 10 days, during grape setting, veraison and up to harvestmaturation. This does not denote that all sprayings should be made. There isneed for systematic review of the disease development. Initial infestation iseffected at 8-10 cm vegetation length, rainfall of 10-12 mm for 24 hours and

temperature range of 10-12οC.



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10. The preparations of sulphuric clay and wettable sulphur and lignite aluminumsulphate (Mycosan) and silicon, aluminium and titanium acids in compoundswith wettable sulphur demonstrate satisfactory action.

7.5. White root rot (Armillaria mellea - Rosellinia necatrix).

SYMPTOMS. Progressive stock desiccation is the characteristic feature. A pathogensymptom is the presence of white mycelial fans or brown blackish shoestring-likestructures called rhizomorphs beneath the bark of the root collar and roots. Infectedstock wood becomes brittle.

ORGANIC CONTROL. A range of prophylactic - preventive measures and organicmethods are included.

1. In fields where a new vineyard is to be planted after an older vineyard,forest trees or plants are uprooted, the land should necessarily be leftfallow or grain crops should be cultivated for two or more years as they are

not infected by the pathogen. Also, the roots of previous vegetation shouldbe carefully removed.

2. Use of healthy propagating material. Propagating material with highdevelopment rate avoids pathogen infestation.

3. Avoid transferring contamination with various tools and mechanicalcultivation means.

4. Removal of infected vine stock.

5. Application of 100-150 Kg of agricultural lime per 100 square metres if needed.

6. If the infestation is partial, the infected vines as well as two lines of healthystock should be isolated from the rest of the vineyard with a ditch of 60 cmin depth and 30 cm in width or with the use of a vertically incorporatedplastic sheet. Soil works should be left at the end for these infected parts.

7. The crown and main trunk root area should be exposed and smeared withpaste or the addition of Bordeaux spray to the rhizosphere, 10% and 2-3%respectively. This method should be applied on a limited scale though.

8. Heating of the soil by steam or geothermical water at 43 οC for 2 hours.Such temperature kills the pathogen, does not damage the vine root systemand preserves the competitive microflora.

9. Heating of the soil by sunlight, especially in new vineyards and whereverconditions allow, for at least 8 weeks during summer months with the useof a transparent polyethylene sheet 100mm thick. The combination of thismethod with an organic substance from well fermented grape pomace orother bioactivators enhances results further.

10. The use of competitive microorganisms such as Trichoderma harzianum, T.

viride, Bacillus subtilis etc and the Boletus granulatus, B. luteus,Scleroderma spp. Mycorrhizals.



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7.6. Dead arm disease (Phomopsis viticola).

SYMPTOMS. Plants are vulnerable when vegetation has reached 10cm in length. Inspring, within 15 days from offshoot expansion, the first black linear or rough surfacespots appear on the cane basal region. At the beginning of summer, these spotsdevelop into bulging brown blackish necrotic areas, suber like with many tears. In

autumn, infected canes become typically white in colour and their surface fills withspherical pycnidia. Dead arm disease damage is demonstrated in several ways.

1. In spring, many buds do not open. Cane growth is slow.

2. In summer, if the necrotic spots surround the cane, its growth is verylimited and it breaks under the weight of the grapes or wind force.

3. Yield reduction and decimation of plant capital is observed.

ORGANIC CONTROL. Various measures and methods are included.

1. During pruning, it is essential to inspect canes to ascertain theinfestation size in the last year’s growth. Whitish canes with manypycnidia testify to severe contamination and demand appropriateprotective measures to be taken.

2. Infected canes should be burnt immediately after pruning. This task should be undertaken collectively by all viticulturalists in the widervineyard carrying area.

3. The use of varieties resistant to dead arm disease, typical of which isthe Pinot Meuvier variety.

4. Pruning with more buds so that crowns or canes are not lost. In thefollowing growth periods, pruning should aim at restoring to initialcondition.

5. Late pruning so that the development of shoots vulnerable to theinfection does not coincide with the dense spore release.

6. Use of healthy propagating material.

7. Interventions with various preparations after bud expansion. Wettablesulphur is used in 2 sprayings with an 8-day interval between them. Thefirst spraying should take place when the vegetation is 2-3 cm long.Potassium or aluminium phosphates should be included in the organiccompound list as they result from natural raw materials and cannot playthe role of a bioactivator for the plant defense system through thepathogen.

8. Disinfection of pruning tools with Bordeaux spray or KMnO4

7.7. Powdery mildew of grapevine (Uncinula necator).

SYMPTOMS. Leaves, tendrils, shoots and young bunches are infested. The infectedparts show the typical white powdery fungus spores. The greatest damage is inflicted



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on berries which crack and are later infected by various rots. In the first stages of infestation, leaves typically crimp upwards. The cultivar is susceptible when shootsare 10cm long, 10 days later, at blooming and immediately after that, at fruit setting.If the conditions are favourable, vine stock should be protected by interventions at10-day intervals.

ORGANIC CONTROL. It relies on:

1. The inspection of canes at pruning to assess the overwinteringpathogen contaminating potential with a view to planning acomprehensive disease control programme. Canes with dark cross lineson the surface demonstrate serious infestation during the previousyear’s growth. In such a case, even with the buds still closed or at thetime of their opening, sprayings limit total intervention number by 40%and adequately control the disease.

2. Vine stock light topping in areas of serious powdery mildew infestations.

3. The use of varieties resistant to the disease, mainly in areas withfavourable climatic conditions prevailing. The Aramon, Cot, Folleblanche, Grenache, Syrah varieties are relatively resistant to thepathogen.

4. Interventions with sulphur. Sulphur is used in dry treatment andsprayings and is of five types

Sublimed sulphur, resulting from the sulphur vapoursublimation and condensation. It is the most effective.

Sulphur flour. A result of mineral sulphur milling.

Sulphur milk, a result of sulphur precipitation consisting of crystallic grains.

Sulphur compound mixed with talc or kanoline or lime usedwhen temperatures are adverse for sulphur use due tophytotoxicity.

Black sulphur. A by-product of gas production. It containsbitumen and cyanides and should not be used in organicfarming.

Sulphur for spraying is also known as wettable sulphur and is classified as:

Normal wettable sulphur produced from the above mentioned typesafter further pulverisation and addition of wetting substances,

Precipitated or white sulphur which is produced by mixingpolysulphuric calcium with hydrochloric acid and is not used in organicfarming due to the chlorine content.



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Fine grain wettable sulphur with 80% of grains smaller in diametrethan 12µm.

Colloid wettable sulphur with grains smaller in diametre than 1µm.

Wettable sulphur used when shoots are 2-3 cm long restricts initial infestation andadequately controls powdery mildew. Sulphur adequately restricts the blister vineleaf mite, red spider mite and rust mites in general. Use should be stopped threemonths before harvesting for excellent quality wine production as is the case of the Aruaguac and Cognac French wines, as it gives an unpleasant taste overpoweringtheir special aroma.

Appropriate measures should also be taken for the use of sulphuric calcium to controlpowdery mildew. This is produced by mixing sulphur and calcium in water andconstitutes a protective and exterminating fungicide.

The following products may also be used effectively.

1. Sulphur + Thiobaccilus sp. Is used from the ground.

2. The sulphuric clay + wettable sulphur + lignite aluminum sulphate,silicon, aluminium and titanium oxides in mixtures with wettablesulphur and Feoniculum vulgare oil extract.

3. Canola vegetable oil.

4. Paraffinic oils at 1% dosage in combination with sodium or potassiumbicarbonate at 0.5% dosage.

5. Grape fruit seed extract (commercial product BC1000).

6. Phosphates used alone or in combination with sodium or potassiumbicarbonate.

7. Fine grain sulphur and Bacillus thuringiensis compound for concurrentcontrol of the vine moth. Vegetable and paraffinic oils do not harmgrapes in any way whatsoever, may also control Botrytis cinerea andhave no adverse effect on the quality of the wine produced.

8. Betonite, sodium silicate and diatomaceous earth compounds.

9. Bacillus megatherium, B. thuringiensis and Curtobacteriumflaccumfaciens promote vine resistance to powdery mildew.

10. Sodium salicylate, used as a painkiller for man, activates the vinedefense system limiting powdery mildew infestations.

11. The competitor fungus Ampelomyces quisqualis.



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7.8. Equally important fungal grapevine diseases

Such are the fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), anthracnose (Cleosporiumampelophagum), verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae), white rot (Coniothyriumdiplodiella) and others.

Concerning organic control especially for soil bourne diseases, the following extractsto water the roots and pastes to smear on the crown and the trunk arerecommended: paste from nettles, potassium permanganate as wound disinfectant,sodium silicate, fossilised seaweed powder as well as homeopathic extracts frompathogenic or infected plants.

To control the diseases over ground, nettle extracts or nettle, prostrate knotweed,seaweed, garlic and onion juice are used. Aromatherapy, homeopathy and isopathyare frequently used. Potassium permanganate is also recommended to disinfectwounds or for sprayings.

Protection and prevention are the foundation for fungal disease control invineyards. Therefore, the foremost care is to develop and properly organise alertsystems and epidemiological models for specifying epidemic risks, time and means of intervention.



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8. Crop enemies and organic control

Control of animal enemies of the vine is a serious problem especially for organicagriculture. The major such enemies are the vine moth, the Vine louse, the grapemealybug, the black vine weevil, certain mites as well as various lepidoptera,

heteroptera and thrips.

8.1. Vine moth (Lobesia botrana)

The vine moth is a butterfly of about 12mm. It mainly flies at sunset and in thenight. Its flight time ranges between 10-30 days depending on temperature. Eachfemale places up to 100 eggs of 1mm each on the bunch and berries. Depending on

temperature, the larva hatches in 12 days (15οC) and 6 days (25

οC). The hatch

period is the most appropriate for control measures. Otherwise, the 1mm larvadevelops to 12mm during blooming, destroys blossoms and later generations piercethe berries and make them rot creating spots for botrytis to set in. The viticulturalistshould then be aware of the vine moth biological cycle and within this butterfly – egg

– larva cycle he should especially know when eggs hatch. This biological cycle lasts45 days in spring and 33 in the summer. 3 generations typically develop in a year.

Adult vine moth

The specific control day for the vine moth larva is set based on insect trap catches.The insect traps should be placed in the vineyard in mid April when the first vinemoth generation starts. As the generation develops, daily trappings increasegradually and after a while, e.g. 10-12 days, they start to decrease. Setting theintervention date is similar in conventional and organic agriculture. However controlmethods differ. Chemical control uses poisons while organic farming controls the vinemoth larva with the Bacillus thuringiensis. The B. Thuringiensis is an aerobic, Gramnegative bacterium, which during spore production also produces a crystal protein,protoxin. When swallowed by the larvae and, under the alkalic environment and thelysis protein enzymes in the insect gut, it is converted to a toxin, delta-endotoxin,which has insecticide action. Endotoxins disperse, attack and destroy midgutepithelial cell walls. The larvae stop feeding and die after 2-4 days.



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Vine moth in the vineyard

Berry infestation by vine moth

This bacillus specifically acts on lepidoptera larvae and has no effect on the eggs, thebutterfly or any other organisms. To make the bacillus more attractive to the larva,we also add sugar in the tank, approximately one kilo per ton. In our vineyard,trapping records in recent years have demonstrated that the maximum number of flights was reached around mid May, 16-20 June and 16-20 August.



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More specifically:

1st generation April - May Intervention not necessary

2nd generation June - July Control necessary

3rd generation August - September Control necessary

Also, another organic farming method to control the insect is the moth matingdisruption through the use of pheromones. Experimental studies have demonstratedthat the application of 50 pheromone dispensers (BASF type) per 100 square metresprotected an area of 4000 square metre equally well or better that insecticides(Tsitsipis et. Al, 1995). This method is also being tested in other areas by otherresearchers and improvements are predicted (Zartaloudis et al, 1995). For themethod to be successful though, it has to be applied in large vineyard areas and nore-contamination from neighbouring farms should occur.

Moreover, there are the so called insect growth regulators. It refers to bioanalogues

of the youth hormone, also known as gonadal steroid hormone. The role it plays ininsect growth is crucial. It controls pre-pupa growth, metamorphosis and intervenesin important biological functions (egg production, mating, metabolism). Fenoxycarb(Insegar) is a well known preparation of this type.. It is a contact and stomachinsecticide imitating the youth hormone. It is applied just before the start of egglaying or at the latest at recent egg laying and interrupts germinal growth. It ishighly effective and it is essential to meet use requirements (timely application, berrytotal coverage).

It is also possible to use appropriate insect growth inhibitors which obstruct thechitin biosynthesis. The larva is unable to create a new chitin casing after they are

rid of the previous one and die. They also destroy the eggs as they inhibit theembryogenesis process. The group includes several insecticides. Teflubenzuran hasbeen used to control the vine moth. It is applied preventatively at the first generationas well as the following generations.

In conclusion, we must mention the action of certain hymenoptera of theTrichogrammatidae family. They are parasitoids certain species or races of whichhave been selected as they successfully parasitise on the vine moth eggs from firstgeneration. T. cacoeciae, T. evanenscens, T. principium, T. embryophagum areindicatively mentioned. During the initial limited experimental applications, 40,000-60,000 individuals per 100 square metres were used and 20,000 release positions

were set. Today, the numbers reach 20,000 individuals/100 square metres and 40release positions. With three releases per generation (in ten-day intervals), parasitingpercentage may reach up to 90% which is extremely satisfactory. However, animportant problem for applying this biological control is how to synchronise theparasite presence with egg laying.



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8.2. Grape leaf louse, Grape Phulloxera, Vine louse (Dactylosphaeravitifolii).

DISPERSION METHOD. Climatic conditions play an important role in the vine lousedevelopment and growth. In conditions in our country, the insect may grow anddisperse as first or second instars nymphs. It multiplies parthenogenetically and has

8-9 or more generations. Phylloxera causes nodosities with its galls on small rootswhile on larger roots tuberosities (carcinoma) are created. Infected parts rot anddecay while over ground the plant demonstrates delayed growth, chlorosis, leavedesiccation, premature defoliation and finally vine stock desiccation. The insect isassisted in germination by soil transfer by machines, air, and irrigation ditch water.

CONTROL. To control the insect, especially in the organic farming framework, thecombination of the European variety with the appropriate American species or hybridrootstock must be ensured.

8.3. Grape mealybug (Pseudococcus citri).

They prefer shady locations where their body comes to contact with plant organsurrounding surfaces, such as underneath the various fruit calyx, contact pointsbetween fruits or even leaves. Larvae produce honey like secretions during growth.In the vineyard, they demonstrate different development from the citrus trees.During winter, when the stock lacks green plant organs, the insects are protected inappropriate spots of the trunk, such as the roots; they may descend down to 60 cmin depth or more. In spring, the insects climb, settle on tender parts and weaken thevine stock by sucking. Also with berries, as insect populations rise, honey secretionsalso increase becoming hotspots for the development of fungi with the well knownsmut covering the leaves, shoots and bunches, promoting stock weakening anddegrading grape quality. The destruction is heavier when grapes are covered with

leaves as the louse populations do not grow in well aerated, sun lit spots.

CONTROL. a. Clearing stock, shoots and leaves to promote aeration and exposure tosunlight. b. Biological control application with beneficial insects and predators suchas: Anagyrus pseudococci (eucyrtidae), Leptomastidea abuormis (Eucyrtidae),Leptomastix dactylopii and the Coccinelidae predators: Cryptolaemus montrouzieriand Nephus reunionii.

8.4. Black vine weevil (Otiorynchus sulcatus L.).

It attacks and feeds on buds or young leaves or shoots. Intense infestation is similarto hail attacks. It is a harmful insect and it also affects other cultivated or self-sownplants, such as fruit bearing trees, decorative plants, bushes, strawberries, etc.

It overwinters as larva and adult in the soil, on vine roots or other tissues. After thelarva stage, the insect appears on the vines from beginning of April to mid June.During daytime, adults hide and climb the stock to feed only during the night. Malesare very rare as they multiply parthenogenetically. It has one generation per yearwith adults living approximately 15-17 months. Eggs are laid at a shallow depth whilelarva development may last 9-10 months up to 2 years. Larvae feed on the hostroots and create a soil pupation chamber underground.

CONTROL. This insect is controlled with the Beanveria sp. Fungi as well aspreparations of insect eating nematodes.



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8.5. Blister vine leaf mite (Eriophyes vitis)

It feeds on the lower surface of the leaf by stinging, which results in the formation

of galls which protrude on the upper surface. Oversized hairs grow in the hollow of the lower surface and microscopic examination proves the presence of the mitetogether with eggs and larval stages, which feed by sucking the juices from the leaf.

The mite develops 5-7 generations a year. The colour of the hollow is white at first,then red and finally dark brown. A number of 20-30 galls per lear does not affectproduction but causes the leaves to fall earlier. In winter, the mite overwinters inprotected locations on the stem and in the buds of the vine stock, and in spring itmigrates to the young leaves.

This particular mite can cause growth retardation of young vine stock. Sulphur canbe used to treat this mite with good results.

Vine bud mite. This is due to one of the subspecies of Eriophyes vitis which was firstdefined in California in 1938. This subspecies only grows in buds of the vine anddoes not form galls on the leaves. The different parts of the shoots are infestedwhen they are still in the bud. All of the infested parts sprout and grow abnormallyor do not grow at all, whereas non-infested buds grow normally. The buds from the1st to the 6th knots of the shoot are usually destroyed and the grower is forced toleave more buds during pruning. This results in the rapid elongation of the vineyard’sshoots, something which cannot be continued over many years. Amongst othersymptoms there is also the deformation of the shoots, short internodes , thecharacteristic shrubby growth, the deformation of the leaves, and the delay of their

unfolding, et al. resulting in a serious decrease of production.

galls of Blister vine leaf mite on vine leaves

infestation of a bunchof grapes by the blister

vine leaf mite



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A large number of eggs and mites is destroyed when pruning is done early and theyare exposed to weather conditions as well as being destroyed by various predators of the Tydeidae family. Since dealing with the mite is difficult because it is hidden in thebuds of the vine stock most of the year, care must be taken so that it will not betransmitted with the use of infested plant material.

8.6. Other enemies

Various other animal enemies create problems for the cultivation of vineyards. Attimes they are only of local interest. Such insects are:

8.6.1.Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)

Sparganothis pilleriana Sciff (Torticidae) commonly known as the vineleafroller tortrix moth.

Theresimina ampelophaga Baylle-Barelle (Zygaeinidae).

8.6.2. Coleoptera (beetles)Byctiscus betulae L. (Curculionidae) κοιν commonly known as the vineleafroller.

Anomala vitis F. (Scarabeidae)

Lethrus apterus Laxmann (Scarabeidae)

Synoxylon sp.

Scale insect.

Pulvinaria vitis L. (Lecanidae)

8.6.3. Vine thrips

The thrip Drepanothrips reuteri exists locally and particularly infests the earlystages of sprouting, causing characteristic scabs.

The newly introduced Frankniella occidentalis. Perhaps it will soon turn into aserious entomological enemy of the vine as well. In that case, the restorationbiological balance must be sought with the effective predators of the genus :Orius sp., Anthocoris sp., Amblyseius sp., et al. which have already beentried.

9. Birds

They are often a problem for table grapes. A combination of special nets and varioussound instruments provide effective protection.

10. Currant insects

They attack a large number of stored produce and have a similar life cycle. Theyoverwinter at the larval stage and become active in spring and summer. There areapproximately 4-6 generations a year. When there are favourable conditions, the



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insect does not undergo diapause, but continues its development. This chiefly occursin warm areas. The insects feed upon the dried grapes of the vines until thebeginning of winter. The eggs are usually deposited when the grapes are still on thedryings rack and their development continues in the storage sacks.

TREATMENT. Nowadays, after the ban on the use of methyl bromide, onlyphosophine is used for the treatment of conventionally grown currants. For organiccurrants, however, it is recommended that the storehouses be without any openingsand well sealed; therefore the mass entrapment of insects in pheromone traps givessatisfactory results (Bouchelos, personal contact).



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11. References - Links

1. Vineyard Cultivation: ZEUS Publications, Xouthou 14, Athens, tel.210-5243323

2. Making my wine (G.Politis) : STAMOULIS Publications, tel.210-5238305

3. ORGANIC FARMING (T.Epitopais) : Bibilioekdotike Publications, tel.210-3842094

4. VITICULTURE (Hofman,Kopfer,Werner): Publications PSYCHALOS tel.210-3827278

5. www.ciheam.org

6. www.agronews.gr

7. www.agrotypos.gr

8. www.bioagro.gr

vine biological cultivation

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