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United States Department of Agriculture

Economic Research Service

Economic Research Report Number 256

September 2018

Household Food Security in the United States in 2017

Alisha Coleman-JensenMatthew P. RabbittChristian A. GregoryAnita Singh


Economic Research Service www.ers.usda.gov


Recommended citation format for this publication:

Alisha Coleman-Jensen, Matthew P. Rabbitt, Christian A. Gregory, and Anita Singh. 2018. Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, ERR-256, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service

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September 2018

AbstractAn estimated 88.2 percent of U.S. households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2017, meaning they had access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households (11.8 percent) were food insecure at least some time during the year, including 4.5 percent with very low food security, meaning that at times the food intake of one or more household members was reduced and their eating patterns were disrupted because the household lacked money and other resources for obtaining food. Declines from 2016 in food insecurity overall and in very low food security were statistically significant. The rate of food insecurity declined from 12.3 percent in 2016, and very low food security declined from 4.9 percent, continuing downward trends. Among children, changes from 2016 in food insecurity and very low food security were not statistically significant. Children and adults were food insecure in 7.7 percent of U.S. households with children in 2017, versus 8.0 percent in 2016. Very low food security among children was 0.7 percent in 2017, essentially unchanged from 2016. In 2017, the typical food-secure household spent 23 percent more on food than the typical food-insecure household of the same size and household composition. About 58 percent of food-insecure households participated in one or more of the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly food stamps); Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); and the National School Lunch Program) during the month prior to the 2017 survey.

Keywords: food security, food insecurity, food spending, food pantry, soup kitchen, emer-gency kitchen, material well-being, material hardship, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, SNAP, Food Stamp Program, National School Lunch Program, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, WIC


Alisha Coleman-Jensen, [email protected] Matthew P. Rabbitt, [email protected] A. Gregory, [email protected] Singh, USDA, Food and Nutrition Service

ii Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, ERR-256

USDA, Economic Research Service

About the Authors Alisha Coleman-Jensen is a sociologist and Matthew Rabbitt is an economist in the Food Assistance Branch, and Christian Gregory is an economist in the Diet, Safety, and Health Economics Branch, Food Economics Division, of the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Anita Singh is chief of the SNAP Evaluation Branch, SNAP Research and Analysis Division, Office of Policy Support, Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank Xinzhe Cheng, Michael Smith, Jean Buzby, Michele Ver Ploeg, and Constance Newman, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (ERS), for their reviews. Thanks also to ERS editor Dale Simms and ERS designer Cynthia A. Ray for their help in producing the report.

iii Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, ERR-256


Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Household Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Prevalence of Food Insecurity—National Conditions and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Prevalence of Food Insecurity by Selected Household Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Prevalence of Food Insecurity by State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Household Spending on Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Food Expenditures by Selected Household Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Food Expenditures and Household Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs and Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Food Security of Households That Received Food and Nutrition Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Participation in Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs by Food-Insecure Households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Contents

iv Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, ERR-256


List of Tables

Table 1A—Households and individuals by food security status of household, 1998-2017 . . . . . .7

Table 1B—Households with children by food security status and children by food security status of household, 1998-2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Table 2—Households by food security status and selected household characteristics, 2017 . . . . 14

Table 3—Prevalence of food security and food insecurity in households with children by selected household characteristics, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Table 4—Prevalence of household food insecurity and very low food security by State, average 2015-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Table 5—Change in prevalence of household food insecurity and very low food security by State, 2015-17 (average), 2012-14 (average), and 2005-07 (average) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Table 6—Weekly household food spending per person and relative to the household cost of the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP), 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Table 7—Weekly household food spending per person and relative to the cost of the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) by food security status, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Table 8—Percentage of households by food security status and participation in selected Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Table 9—Participation of food-insecure households in selected Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Additional tables are available in: Coleman-Jensen, Alisha, Matthew P. Rabbitt, Christian A. Gregory, and Anita Singh. 2018. Statistical Supplement to Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, AP-79, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

ERS is a primary source of economic research and

analysis from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, providing timely informa-

tion on economic and policy issues related to agriculture, food, the environment, and

rural America.


A report summary from the Economic Research Service September 2018


Alisha Coleman-Jensen, Matthew P. Rabbitt, Christian A. Gregory, and Anita Singh

What Is the Issue?

Most U.S. households have consistent, dependable access to enough food for active, healthy living—they are food secure. But some households experience food insecurity at times during the year, meaning their access to adequate food is limited by a lack of money and other resources. USDA’s food and nutrition assistance programs increase food security by providing low-income households access to food for a healthful diet and nutrition education. USDA moni-tors the extent and severity of food insecurity in U.S. households through an annual, nationally representative survey sponsored and analyzed by USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS). This report presents statistics from the survey that cover household food security, food expendi-tures, and use of Federal food and nutrition assistance programs in 2017.

What Did the Study Find?

An estimated 11.8 percent of U.S. households were food insecure in 2017, down from 2016 and continuing a decline from a high of 14.9 percent in 2011, while still above the pre-recession (2007) level of 11.1 percent. The percentage of households with food insecurity in the severe range—very low food security—also declined.

• In 2017, 88.2 percent of U.S. households were food secure. The remaining 11.8 percent (15.0 million households) were food insecure. Food-insecure households (those with low and very low food security) had difficulty at some time during the year providing enough food for all their members due to a lack of resources. The decline from 2016 (12.3 percent) was statistically significant.

• In 2017, 4.5 percent of U.S. households (5.8 million households) had very low food security, down significantly from 4.9 percent in 2016. In this more severe range of food insecurity, the food intake of some household members was reduced and normal eating patterns were disrupted at times during the year due to limited resources.

• Children were food insecure at times during 2017 in 7.7 percent of U.S. households with children (2.9 million households), essentially unchanged from 8.0 percent in 2016. These households were unable at times to provide adequate, nutritious food for their children. As in 2015 and 2016, the 2017 prevalence of food insecurity among children was near the 2007 pre-recession level of 8.3 percent.

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September 2018


Alisha Coleman-JensenMatthew P. RabbittChristian A. GregoryAnita Singh


Summary

Prevalence of food insecurity and very low food security in 2017 is down from 2016

Percent of households

0

4

8

12

16

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017

Food insecurity(including low and very low food security)

Very low food security

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Popula-tion Survey Food Security Supplement.

• While children are usually shielded from the disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake that characterize very low food security, in 2017 both children and adults experienced instances of very low food security in 0.7 percent of households with children (250,000 households), essentially unchanged from 0.8 percent in 2016.

• Rates of food insecurity were higher than the national average for the following groups: households with incomes near or below the Federal poverty line, all households with children and particularly households with children headed by single women or single men, women and men living alone, Black- and Hispanic-headed households, and households in principal cities and nonmetropolitan areas.

• The prevalence of food insecurity varied considerably from State to State, ranging from 7.4 percent in Hawaii to 17.9 percent in New Mexico in 2015-17. (Data for 3 years were combined to provide more reliable State-level statistics.)

• The typical (median) food-secure household spent 23 percent more for food than the typical food- insecure household of the same size and composition. These estimates include food purchases made with Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits.

• About 58 percent of food-insecure households in the survey reported that, in the previous month, they had participated in one or more of the three largest Federal nutrition assistance programs (SNAP; Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); and the National School Lunch Program).

How Was the Study Conducted?

The annual food security survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau covered 37,389 households, comprising a representative sample of 127 million U.S. households. The survey asked one adult respondent per household questions about experiences and behaviors that indicate food insecurity, such as being unable to afford balanced meals, cutting the size of meals, or being hungry because of too little money for food. The food security status of the household was assigned based on the number of food-insecure conditions reported.

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1 Household Food Security in the United States in 2017, ERR-256



Introduction

Since 1995, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has collected information annually on food access and adequacy, food spending, and sources of food assistance for the U.S. population. The informa-tion is collected in an annual survey, the Food Security Supplement, conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau as a supplement to the nationally representative Current Population Survey.1 A major impetus for this data collection is to provide information about the prevalence and severity of food insecurity in U.S. households. Annual monitoring of food security contributes to the effective opera-tion of the Federal nutrition assistance programs as well as private food assistance programs and other government initiatives aimed at reducing food insecurity. Previous reports in the series are available on the ERS website.

This report updates the national statistics on food security, household food spending, and the use of Federal food and nutrition assistance by food-insecure households, using data collected in the December 2017 food security survey—the 23rd annual survey in the Nation’s food security moni-toring system. Additional statistics—including the prevalence of food insecurity during the 30 days prior to the food security survey, the frequency of food-insecure conditions, and use of food pantries and emergency kitchens—are available in the Statistical Supplement to this report (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).

1See Coleman-Jensen (2015) for the history of the food security measurement project and the development of the food security measures.



Household Food Security

Food security—access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life—is one of several conditions necessary for a population to be healthy and well nourished. This section provides information on food security and food insecurity in U.S. households over the course of the year ending in December 2017.

Methods

The statistics presented in this report are based on data collected in the Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS) conducted in December 2017. The CPS currently includes about 52,000 households and is representative, at State and national levels, of the civilian, noninsti-tutionalized population of the United States. In December 2017, 37,389 households completed the Food Security Supplement; the remaining households were unable or unwilling to do so. Survey sample weights were calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau to indicate how many households were represented by each household that responded to the survey.2 All statistics in this report were calcu-lated by applying the Food Security Supplement weights to responses by the surveyed households, so the statistics are nationally representative.

Unless otherwise noted, statistical differences described in the text are significant at the 90-percent confidence level.3

Household food security statistics presented here are based on a measure of food security calculated from responses to a series of questions about conditions and behaviors that characterize households when they are having difficulty meeting basic food needs.4 Each question asks whether the condition or behavior occurred at any time during the previous 12 months and specifies a lack of money and other resources to obtain food as the reason. Voluntary fasting or dieting to lose weight are thereby excluded from the measure. The series includes three questions about food conditions of the house-hold as a whole and seven questions about food conditions of adults in the household; if children are present, an additional eight questions about their food conditions are included (see box, “Questions Used To Assess the Food Security of Households in the CPS Food Security Supplement,” page 3).5

2In 2017, 28.0 percent of households that responded to the monthly December CPS did not complete the Food Security Supplement. Reweighting of the Supplement takes into consideration income and other information about households that completed the labor-force portion of the survey but not the Food Security Supplement. This corrects, to some extent, biases that could result from nonresponse to the Supplement by households that completed only the labor-force part of the survey.

3Standard errors of national-level estimates from 2011 to the present were calculated using balanced repeated replication (BRR) methods based on replicate weights computed for the CPS Food Security Supplement by the U.S. Census Bureau. For years before 2011, standard errors of national estimates use a design factor of 1.6 based on the complex CPS sample design. State-level estimates from 2010 to the present use replicate weights computed for the CPS Food Security Supplement. Before 2010, standard errors of State-level estimates were calculated using jackknife replication methods with “month in sample” groups considered as separate independent samples. This report uses the phrase essentially unchanged to describe differences between estimates of a statistic for 2 years that are not statistically significant at the 90-percent confidence level. Standard errors of all estimates are available from the authors by request.

4The methods used to measure the extent and severity of food insecurity have been described in a number of studies (Hamilton et al., 1997a, 1997b; Andrews et al., 1998; Bickel et al., 1998; Carlson et al., 1999; Bickel et al., 2000; Nord and Bickel, 2002). See also the assessment of the measurement methods by a panel of the Committee on National Statistics (Na-tional Research Council, 2006). Further details on the development of the measure are provided on the ERS website.

5An official Spanish translation of the food security questions is used in the survey and available on the ERS website. ERS assessed the effect of interview language on Hispanics versus non-Hispanics and found no differences in the statistical properties of the food security measure (Rabbitt and Coleman-Jensen, 2017).



1. “We worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

2. “The food that we bought just didn’t last and we didn’t have money to get more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

3. “We couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

4. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in the household ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

5. (If yes to question 4) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or 2 months?

6. In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

7. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry, but didn’t eat, because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

8. In the last 12 months, did you lose weight because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

9. In the last 12 months did you or other adults in your household ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)


(Questions 11-18 were asked only if the household included children age 0-17)

11. “We relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed our children because we were running out of money to buy food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

12. “We couldn’t feed our children a balanced meal, because we couldn’t afford that.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

13. “The children were not eating enough because we just couldn’t afford enough food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

14. In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children’s meals because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

15. In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn’t afford more food? (Yes/No)

16. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)


18. In the last 12 months did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

Questions Used To Assess the Food Security of Households in the CPS Food Security Supplement



Responses to the 18 food security questions are reported in tables S-5 to S-7 of the Statistical Supplement (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018). The food security status of each interviewed household is determined by the number of food-insecure conditions and behaviors the household reports. Households are classified as food secure if they report no food-insecure conditions or only one or two food-insecure conditions. (Food-insecure conditions are indicated by responses of “often” or “sometimes” to questions 1-3 and 11-13, “almost every month” or “some months but not every month” to questions 5, 10, and 17, and “yes” to the other questions.) They are classified as food insecure if they report three or more food-insecure conditions.6 Households are classified as having food-insecure children if they report two or more food-insecure conditions among the children in response to questions 11-18.7

Food-insecure households are further classified as having either low food security or very low food security.8 The very low food security category identifies households in which the food intake of one or more members was reduced and eating patterns disrupted because of insufficient money and other resources for food. Households without children are classified as having very low food security if they report six or more food-insecure conditions. Households with children age 0-17 are classified as having very low food security if they report eight or more food-insecure conditions among adults and/or chil-dren (see box, “What Is ‘Very Low Food Security’?” on page 5). 9 They are further classified as having very low food security among children if they report five or more food-insecure conditions among the children (that is, if they respond affirmatively to five or more of questions 11-18).

Low and very low food security differ in the extent and character of the adjustments the household makes to its eating patterns and food intake. Households classified as having low food security have reported multiple indications of food acquisition problems and reduced diet quality, but typically have reported few, if any, indications of reduced food intake. Those classified as having very low food security have reported multiple indications of reduced food intake and disrupted eating patterns due to inadequate resources for food. In most, but not all, households with very low food security, the survey respondent reported that he or she was hungry at some time during the year but did not eat because there was not enough money for food.

6To reduce the survey burden on higher income respondents, households with incomes above 185 percent of the Federal poverty line that give no indication of food-access problems on either of two preliminary screening questions are deemed to be food secure and are not asked the questions in the food security assessment series. The preliminary screening questions asked of all households are as follows:

• People do different things when they are running out of money for food in order to make their food or their food money go further. In the last 12 months, since December of last year, did you ever run short of money and try to make your food or your food money go further?

• Which of these statements best describes the food eaten in your household—enough of the kinds of food we want to eat, enough but not always the kinds of food we want to eat, sometimes not enough to eat, or often not enough to eat?

7Both qualitative and quantitative research studies have suggested that parents’ reports of their children’s food insecurity sometimes differed from adolescents’ self-reported food insecurity and that parents were sometimes unaware of the degree to which children reduced their own food intake due to household food insecurity (Fram et al., 2011; Nord and Hanson, 2012). The extent to which underreporting of children’s food insecurity may exist is unknown (see pp. 9-10 in Coleman-Jensen, McFall, and Nord (2013) for a discussion of research on parent-reported and self-reported food insecurity among children).

8Prior to 2006, households with low food security were described as “food insecure without hunger” and households with very low food security were described as “food insecure with hunger.” Changes in these descriptions were made in 2006 at the recommendation of the Committee on National Statistics (National Research Council, 2006) in order to distinguish the physiological state of hunger from indicators of food availability. The criteria by which households were classified remained unchanged.

9Implications of differences in raw score thresholds for very low food security between households with and without children are discussed in Nord and Coleman-Jensen (2014) and Coleman-Jensen, Rabbitt, and Gregory (2017).



Very low food security can be characterized in terms of the conditions that households in this category reported in the food security survey. Households without children classified as having very low food security reported six or more food-insecure condi-tions and households with children reported eight or more food-insecure conditions, including conditions among both adults and children. Thus, the conditions reported by respondents reflect the definition of “very low food security”: at times during the year, the food intake of household members was reduced and their normal eating patterns were disrupted because the household lacked money and other resources for food. In the 2017 survey, households classified as having very low food security (representing an esti-mated 5.8 million households nationwide) reported the following specific conditions:

• 99 percent reported having worried that their food would run out before they got money to buy more.

• 97 percent reported that the food they bought just did not last and they did not have money to get more.

• 95 percent reported that they could not afford to eat balanced meals.

• 96 percent reported that an adult had cut the size of meals or skipped meals because there was not enough money for food; 88 percent reported that this had occurred in 3 or more months.

• 93 percent reported that they had eaten less than they felt they should because there was not enough money for food.

• 68 percent reported that they had been hungry but did not eat because they could not afford enough food.

• 48 percent reported having lost weight because they did not have enough money for food.

• 30 percent reported that an adult did not eat for a whole day because there was not enough money for food; 24 percent reported that this had occurred in 3 or more months.

As noted above, all households without children classified as having very low food security reported at least six of these conditions. The majority of households with very low food security, 67 percent, reported seven or more food-insecure conditions. (Conditions reported by households with children were similar to those without children, but the reported food-insecure conditions of both adults and children were taken into account.)

What Is “Very Low Food Security”?

Percentage of households reporting each indicator of food insecurity, by food security status, 2017

0 20 40 60 80 100

Worried food would run out

Food bought did not last

Could not afford balanced meal

Cut size of meal or skipped meal

Cut or skipped meal in 3+ months

Ate less than felt should

Hungry but did not eat

Lost weight

Did not eat whole day

Did not eat whole day, 3+ months

Percent

Food secureLow food securityVery low food security

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement.



Prevalence of Food Insecurity—National Conditions and Trends

An estimated 88.2 percent of U.S. households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2017 (fig. 1, table 1A). In concept, “food secure” means that all household members had access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life (Anderson, 1990).10 The remaining 11.8 percent (15.0 million households) were food insecure at some time during the year. That is, they were at times unable to acquire adequate food for one or more household members because they had insufficient money and other resources for food. A majority of food-insecure households—those classified as having low food security (but not very low food security)—avoided substantial reductions or disruptions in food intake, in many cases by relying on a few basic foods and reducing variety in their diets. But 4.5 percent (5.8 million households) had very low food security—that is, they were food insecure to the extent that eating patterns of one or more household members were disrupted and their food intake reduced, at least some time during the year, because they could not afford enough food.

Among U.S. households with children under age 18, 84.3 percent were food secure in 2017. The remaining 15.7 percent of households with children were food insecure at some time during the year (fig. 2, table 1B). This prevalence is essentially unchanged from 16.5 percent in 2016. Parents and caregivers often are able to maintain normal or near-normal diets and meal patterns for their chil-dren, even when the parents themselves are food insecure. In about half of food-insecure households with children in 2017, only adults were food insecure (8.0 percent of households with children). However, both children and adults were food insecure in 7.7 percent of households with children (2.9 million households) in 2017. In 0.7 percent of households with children (250,000 households), food insecurity among children was so severe that caregivers reported that children were hungry, skipped a meal, or did not eat for a whole day because there was not enough money for food. These house-holds are described as having very low food security among children. In such households, some-times only older children may experience the more severe effects of food insecurity, while younger children are protected from those effects (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2013; Nord, 2009a).

The food security survey is designed to measure food security status at the household level. While it is informative to examine the number of persons living in food-insecure households, these statistics should be interpreted carefully. Within a food-insecure household, each household member may be affected differently by the household’s food insecurity. Some members—particularly young children—may experience only mild effects or none at all, while adults are more severely affected. It is more precise, therefore, to describe these statistics as representing “persons living in food-insecure house-holds” rather than as representing “food-insecure persons.” Similarly, “persons living in households with very low food security” is a more precise description than “persons with very low food security.”

10Food security statistics, as operationally measured for this report using survey data, are based on household responses to items about whether the household was able to obtain enough food to meet their needs. This operational measure does not specifically address whether the household members’ food intake was sufficient for active, healthy lives—the concep-tual definition of food security. Nonetheless, research based on other data collections has found survey-based measures of food security to be statistically associated with various outcomes involving health, nutrition, and children’s development in a manner that generally supports the link between the report’s survey-based measure of food security and the conceptual definition of food security (see, for example, Gregory and Coleman-Jensen, 2017; Coleman-Jensen et al., 2013; Nord, 2009a; Nord and Hopwood, 2007; Nord and Kantor, 2006).



Figure 1 U.S. households by food security status, 2017

Food-insecure households—11.8%

Households with low foodsecurity—7.3%

Households with very low foodsecurity—4.5%

Food-secure households—88.2%


Table 1A Households and individuals by food security status of household, 1998-2017

Food insecure

Category and year Total1 Food secure All

With low food security

With very low food security

1,000 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 PercentHouseholds:

2017 127,272 112,254 88.2 15,018 11.8 9,261 7.3 5,757 4.5

2016 126,401 110,850 87.7 15,551 12.3 9,413 7.4 6,138 4.9

2015 125,164 109,315 87.3 15,849 12.7 9,540 7.7 6,309 5.0

2014 124,044 106,618 86.0 17,426 14.0 10,488 8.4 6,938 5.6

2013 122,579 105,070 85.7 17,509 14.3 10,664 8.7 6,845 5.6

2012 121,546 103,914 85.5 17,632 14.5 10,679 8.8 6,953 5.7

2011 119,484 101,631 85.1 17,853 14.9 11,014 9.2 6,839 5.7

2010 118,756 101,527 85.5 17,229 14.5 10,872 9.1 6,357 5.4

2009 118,174 100,820 85.3 17,354 14.7 10,601 9.0 6,753 5.7

2008 117,565 100,416 85.4 17,149 14.6 10,426 8.9 6,723 5.7

2007 117,100 104,089 88.9 13,011 11.1 8,262 7.0 4,749 4.1

2006 115,609 102,961 89.1 12,648 10.9 8,031 6.9 4,617 4.0

2005 114,437 101,851 89.0 12,586 11.0 8,158 7.1 4,428 3.9

2004 112,967 99,473 88.1 13,494 11.9 9,045 8.0 4,449 3.9

2003 112,214 99,631 88.8 12,583 11.2 8,663 7.7 3,920 3.5

2002 108,601 96,543 88.9 12,058 11.1 8,259 7.6 3,799 3.5

2001 107,824 96,303 89.3 11,521 10.7 8,010 7.4 3,511 3.3

2000 106,043 94,942 89.5 11,101 10.5 7,786 7.3 3,315 3.1

1999 104,684 94,154 89.9 10,529 10.1 7,420 7.1 3,109 3.0

1998 103,309 91,121 88.2 12,188 11.8 8,353 8.1 3,835 3.7

All individuals (by food security status of household):2

2017 320,418 280,374 87.5 40,044 12.5 27,159 8.5 12,885 4.0

2016 319,029 277,825 87.1 41,204 12.9 26,556 8.3 14,648 4.6

2015 316,161 273,923 86.6 42,238 13.4 27,605 8.7 14,633 4.6

2014 313,305 265,170 84.6 48,135 15.4 30,922 9.9 17,213 5.5Continued—



Table 1A

Households and individuals by food security status of household, 1998-2017—continued

Food insecure

Category and year Total1 Food secure All

With low food security

With very low food security

1,000 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent

All individuals (by food security status of household):2

2013 310,853 261,775 84.2 49,078 15.8 31,974 10.3 17,104 5.5

2012 308,361 259,395 84.1 48,966 15.9 31,787 10.3 17,179 5.6

2011 305,893 255,773 83.6 50,120 16.4 33,232 10.9 16,888 5.5

2010 304,034 255,202 83.9 48,832 16.1 32,777 10.8 16,055 5.3

2009 301,750 251,588 83.4 50,162 16.6 32,499 10.8 17,663 5.9

2008 299,567 250,459 83.6 49,108 16.4 31,824 10.6 17,284 5.8

2007 297,042 260,813 87.8 36,229 12.2 24,287 8.2 11,942 4.0

2006 294,010 258,495 87.9 35,515 12.1 24,395 8.3 11,120 3.8

2005 291,501 256,373 87.9 35,128 12.1 24,349 8.4 10,779 3.7

2004 288,603 250,407 86.8 38,196 13.2 27,535 9.5 10,661 3.7

2003 286,410 250,155 87.3 36,255 12.7 26,622 9.3 9,633 3.4

2002 279,035 244,133 87.5 34,902 12.5 25,517 9.1 9,385 3.4

2001 276,661 243,019 87.8 33,642 12.2 24,628 8.9 9,014 3.3

2000 273,685 240,454 87.9 33,231 12.1 24,708 9.0 8,523 3.1

1999 270,318 239,304 88.5 31,015 11.5 23,237 8.6 7,779 2.9

1998 268,366 232,219 86.5 36,147 13.5 26,290 9.8 9,857 3.7

Adults (by food security status of household):2

2017 246,517 219,013 88.8 27,504 11.2 17,796 7.2 9,708 3.9

2016 245,200 216,934 88.5 28,266 11.5 17,498 7.1 10,768 4.4

2015 242,706 213,586 88.0 29,120 12.0 18,235 7.5 10,885 4.5

2014 239,937 207,125 86.3 32,812 13.7 20,425 8.5 12,387 5.2

2013 237,219 203,913 86.0 33,306 14.0 21,115 8.9 12,191 5.1

2012 234,730 201,662 85.9 33,068 14.1 20,708 8.8 12,359 5.3

2011 231,385 197,923 85.5 33,462 14.5 21,371 9.2 12,091 5.2

2010 229,129 196,505 85.8 32,624 14.2 21,357 9.3 11,267 4.9

2009 227,543 194,579 85.5 32,964 14.5 20,741 9.1 12,223 5.4

2008 225,461 193,026 85.6 32,435 14.4 20,320 9.0 12,115 5.4

2007 223,467 199,672 89.4 23,795 10.6 15,602 7.0 8,193 3.7

2006 220,423 197,536 89.6 22,887 10.4 15,193 6.9 7,694 3.5

2005 217,897 195,172 89.6 22,725 10.4 15,146 7.0 7,579 3.5

2004 215,564 191,236 88.7 24,328 11.3 16,946 7.9 7,382 3.4

2003 213,441 190,451 89.2 22,990 10.8 16,358 7.7 6,632 3.1

2002 206,493 184,718 89.5 21,775 10.5 15,486 7.5 6,289 3.0

2001 204,340 183,398 89.8 20,942 10.2 14,879 7.3 6,063 3.0

2000 201,922 181,586 89.9 20,336 10.1 14,763 7.3 5,573 2.8

1999 198,900 179,960 90.5 18,941 9.5 13,869 7.0 5,072 2.5

1998 197,084 174,964 88.8 22,120 11.2 15,632 7.9 6,488 3.31Totals exclude households for which food security status is unknown because household respondents did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale. In 2017, these exclusions represented 340,000 households (0.3 percent of all households).2The food security survey measures food security status at the household level. Not all individuals residing in food-insecure households were directly affected by the households’ food insecurity. Similarly, not all individuals in households classified as having very low food security were subject to the reductions in food intake and disruptions in eating patterns that characterize this condition. Young children, in particular, are often protected from effects of the households’ food insecurity.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement.



Figure 2 U.S. households with children by food security status of adults and children, 2017

Food-insecure households—15.7%

Food-insecurechildren and adults—7.7%

Food-insecure adults only—8.0%

Low food security among children—7.0%

Very low food security among children—0.7%

Food-secure households—84.3%

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 Cur-rent Population Survey Food Security Supplement.

In 2017, 40.0 million people lived in food-insecure households (table 1A). They constituted 12.5 percent of the U.S. civilian noninstitutionalized population and included 27.5 million adults and 12.5 million children (table 1B). About 6.5 million children (8.9 percent) lived in households in which 1 or more child was food insecure. About 9.7 million adults (3.9 percent) lived in households with very low food security (table 1A), and 540,000 children (0.7 percent) lived in households with very low food security among children (table 1B).

Statistical Supplement tables S-2 and S-3 present estimates of the number of people and the number of children in households in each food security status and household type (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).

When interpreting food security statistics in this report, bear in mind that households were classi-fied as having low or very low food security based on their experience of the conditions indicated in the module at any time during the previous 12 months. The prevalence of these conditions on any given day is far below the corresponding annual prevalence. For example, the prevalence of very low food security during the 30 days prior to the survey is 2.6 percent (table S-4) and the prevalence on an average day during the 30-day period prior to the December 2017 survey is an estimated 0.7-0.8 percent of households (0.8 million to 1.0 million households; see box, “When Food Insecurity Occurs in U.S. Households, It Is Usually Recurrent But Not Chronic,” on page 11).11 Children, along with adults, experienced very low food security in an estimated 40,000 to 44,000 households (0.11 to 0.12 percent of all U.S. households with children) on an average day during the same period.

11Average daily prevalence of the various behaviors, experiences, and conditions characterizing very low food security is calculated based on the proportion of households reporting the condition at any time during the previous 30 days and the average number of days in which the condition occurred. The average daily prevalence for each condition is calculated as the product of the 30-day prevalence and the average number of days experienced divided by 30. The ratio of daily prevalence to monthly prevalence of the various indicator conditions provides the basis for approximating the average daily prevalence of very low food security during the reference 30-day period. The daily rate of very low food security is expressed as a range whose lower and upper bounds are based on the minimum and maximum ratio of daily prevalence to 30-day prevalence. See table S-9 in the online Statistical Supplement (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).



Table 1B Households with children by food security status and children by food security status of household, 1998-2017

Category and year Total1

Food-secure households

Food-insecure households2

Households with food-insecure children3

Households with very low food security

among children1,000 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent 1,000 Percent

Households with children:2017 37,942 31,975 84.3 5,967 15.7 2,926 7.7 250 0.72016 38,400 32,058 83.5 6,342 16.5 3,069 8.0 298 0.82015 38,978 32,519 83.4 6,459 16.6 3,022 7.8 274 0.72014 39,079 31,590 80.8 7,489 19.2 3,665 9.4 422 1.12013 38,486 30,978 80.5 7,508 19.5 3,814 9.9 360 0.92012 39,201 31,354 80.0 7,847 20.0 3,910 10.0 463 1.22011 38,803 30,814 79.4 7,989 20.6 3,862 10.0 374 1.02010 39,419 31,447 79.8 7,972 20.2 3,861 9.8 386 1.02009 39,525 31,114 78.7 8,411 21.3 4,208 10.6 469 1.22008 39,699 31,364 79.0 8,335 21.0 4,361 11.0 506 1.32007 39,390 33,160 84.2 6,230 15.8 3,273 8.3 323 0.82006 39,436 33,279 84.4 6,157 15.6 3,312 8.4 221 0.62005 39,601 33,404 84.4 6,197 15.6 3,244 8.2 270 0.72004 39,990 32,967 82.4 7,023 17.6 3,808 9.5 274 0.72003 40,286 33,575 83.3 6,711 16.7 3,606 9.0 207 0.52002 38,647 32,267 83.5 6,380 16.5 3,456 8.9 265 0.72001 38,330 32,141 83.9 6,189 16.1 3,225 8.4 211 0.62000 38,113 31,942 83.8 6,171 16.2 3,282 8.6 255 0.71999 37,884 32,290 85.2 5,594 14.8 3,089 8.2 219 0.61998 38,036 31,335 82.4 6,701 17.6 3,627 9.5 331 0.9Children (by food security status of household):4

2017 73,901 61,361 83.0 12,540 17.0 6,541 8.9 540 0.72016 73,829 60,891 82.5 12,938 17.5 6,519 8.8 703 1.02015 73,455 60,337 82.1 13,118 17.9 6,377 8.7 541 0.72014 73,368 58,045 79.1 15,323 20.9 7,949 10.8 914 1.22013 73,634 57,862 78.6 15,772 21.4 8,585 11.7 765 1.02012 73,631 57,733 78.4 15,898 21.6 8,290 11.3 977 1.32011 74,508 57,850 77.6 16,658 22.4 8,565 11.5 845 1.12010 74,905 58,697 78.4 16,208 21.6 8,458 11.3 976 1.32009 74,207 57,010 76.8 17,197 23.2 8,957 12.1 988 1.32008 74,106 57,433 77.5 16,673 22.5 9,098 12.3 1,077 1.52007 73,575 61,140 83.1 12,435 16.9 6,766 9.2 691 0.92006 73,587 60,959 82.8 12,628 17.2 7,065 9.6 430 0.62005 73,604 61,201 83.1 12,403 16.9 6,718 9.1 606 0.82004 73,039 59,171 81.0 13,868 19.0 7,823 10.7 545 0.72003 72,969 59,704 81.8 13,265 18.2 7,388 10.1 420 0.62002 72,542 59,415 81.9 13,127 18.1 7,397 10.2 567 0.82001 72,321 59,620 82.4 12,701 17.6 6,866 9.5 467 0.62000 71,763 58,867 82.0 12,896 18.0 7,018 9.8 562 0.81999 71,418 59,344 83.1 12,074 16.9 6,996 9.8 511 0.71998 71,282 57,255 80.3 14,027 19.7 7,840 11.0 716 1.0

1Totals exclude households for which food security status is unknown because they did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale. In 2017, these exclusions represented 109,000 households with children (0.3 percent of all households with children). Children are age 0-17. 2Food-insecure households are those with low or very low food security among adults or children or both.3In some food-insecure households with children, only adults were food insecure. Households with food-insecure children are those with low or very low food security among children. 4The food security survey measures food security status at the household level. Not all children residing in food-insecure households were directly affected by the households’ food insecurity. Similarly, not all children in households classified as having very low food security among children were subject to the reductions in food intake and disruptions in eating patterns that characterize this condition. Young children, in particular, are often protected from effects of the households’ food insecurity.




When households experience very low food security in the United States, the resulting instances of reduced food intake and disrupted eating patterns are usually occasional or episodic, but not usually chronic. The food security measurement methods used in this report are designed to register these occasional or episodic occurrences. The questions used to assess households’ food security status ask whether a condition, experience, or behavior occurred at any time in the past 12 months, and households can be classified as having very low food security based on a single, severe episode during the year. Readers should be mindful of this when interpreting food insecurity statistics. Analyses of additional information collected in the food security survey on how frequently various food-insecure conditions occurred during the year, whether they occurred during the 30 days prior to the survey, and, if so, in how many days provide insight into the frequency and duration of food insecurity in U.S. households. These analyses reveal that in 2017:

• About one-fourth of U.S. households with very low food security at any time during the year experienced the associated conditions rarely or occasionally—in only 1 or 2 months of the year. For three-fourths of households, the conditions were recurrent, experienced in 3 or more months of the year.

• For about one-fourth of food-insecure households and one-third of those with very low food security, occur-rence of the associated conditions was frequent or chronic. That is, the conditions occurred often, or in almost every month.

• On average, households that were food insecure at some time during the year were food insecure in 7 months during the year. During the 30-day period ending in mid-December 2017, 8.0 million households (6.3 percent of all households) were food insecure—about 54 percent of the number that were food insecure at any time during the year (see Statistical Supplement table S-4, Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).

• Similarly, households with very low food security at some time during the year experienced the associated conditions, on average, in 7 months during the year. During the 30-day period ending in mid-December 2017, 3.3 million households (2.6 percent of all house-holds) had very low food security—about 57 percent of the number with very low food security at some time during the year (see Statistical Supplement table S-4).

• Most households that had very low food security at some time during a month experienced the associated conditions in 1 to 7 days of the month. The average daily prevalence of very low food security during the 30-day period ending in mid-December 2017 was between 0.8 million and 1.0 million households (0.7 to 0.8 percent of all households)—about 15 to 18 percent of the annual prevalence.

• The daily prevalence of very low food security among children during the 30-day period ending in mid-December 2017 was probably between 40,000 and 44,000 households (0.11 to 0.12 percent of households with children)—about 16 to 17 percent of the annual prevalence.

• The omission of homeless families and individuals from these daily statistics biases the statistics down-ward, and the bias may be substantial relative to the estimates, especially for the most severe conditions.

(Statistical Supplement tables S-7 to S-9 (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018) provide information on how often conditions indi-cating food insecurity occurred, as reported by respondents to the December 2017 Food Security Supplement. See Nord et al. (2000) for more information about the frequency of food insecurity. See Ryu and Bartfeld (2012) and Wilde et al. (2010) for more information about longer term patterns of food insecurity.)

Prevalence of food insecurity and very low food security, by reference period (2017)


Food insecurity


11.8

6.3

4.5

2.6

0.7 to 0.8NA

Any timeduring year

Any time during 30 days prior to survey

Estimated average daily

NA = Estimated average daily occurrence of food insecurity is not available because information was not collected on the number of days that less severe food-insecure conditions occurred.


When Food Insecurity Occurs in U.S. Households, It Is Usually Recurrent But Not Chronic



From 2016 to 2017, there was a statistically significant decline in the prevalence of food insecurity from 12.3 percent to 11.8 percent. Food insecurity was essentially unchanged from 2015 to 2016 (fig. 3, table 1A). (That is, the difference was not statistically significant.) There was a statistically significant decline in food insecurity from 14.0 percent in 2014 to 12.7 percent in 2015. Before that, the prevalence of food insecurity was essentially unchanged from 2013 to 2014 and from 2012 to 2014. That is, the changes were within the range that could have resulted from sampling variation. The cumulative decline from 2011 (14.9 percent) to 2014 (14.0 percent) was statistically significant, and that downward trend continued through 2017. Over the previous decade, food insecurity had increased from 10.7 percent in 2001 to nearly 12 percent in 2004, declined to about 11 percent in 2005-07, then increased in 2008 (to 14.6 percent), and remained essentially unchanged at that level in 2009 and 2010.

There was a statistically significant decline in very low food security from 4.9 percent in 2016 to 4.5 percent in 2017 (fig. 3, table 1A). Very low food security was essentially unchanged from 2015 to 2016. The decline in very low food security from 5.6 percent in 2014 to 5.0 percent in 2015 was statistically significant. Before that, the prevalence of very low food security was essentially unchanged from 2011 (5.7 percent) through 2014. The prevalence of very low food security was also 5.7 percent in 2008 and 2009. In 2010, the prevalence of very low food security had declined to 5.4 percent. Prior to 2008, the prevalence of very low food security had increased from 3.3 percent in 2001 to 3.9 percent in 2004, and remained essentially unchanged through 2007.

Figure 3 Trends in the prevalence of food insecurity and very low food security in U.S. households, 2001-2017


Food insecurity(including low and very low food security)


0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017




Prevalence of Food Insecurity by Selected Household Characteristics

The prevalence of food insecurity varied considerably in 2017 among households with different demographic and economic characteristics (table 2). Differences in food security across demo-graphic and geographic groups reflect, in part, differences in income across those groups; though no adjustment is made for income in the statistics presented in this report, food insecurity was strongly associated with income. For example, 36.8 percent of households with annual incomes below the official poverty line (household income-to-poverty ratio under 1.00) were food insecure, compared with 5.8 percent of those with incomes at or above 185 percent of the poverty line.12

Rates of food insecurity were below the national average of 11.8 percent for married-couple fami-lies with children (9.5 percent), households with more than one adult and no children (7.7 percent), households with elderly persons (7.9 percent), and elderly living alone (8.6 percent).13 The preva-lence of food insecurity was also below the national average for White, non-Hispanic households (8.8 percent); households headed by non-Hispanics of other, or multiple, races (9.9 percent); and households with incomes above 185 percent of the poverty line (5.8 percent).

Rates of food insecurity were higher than the national average in 2017 for the following groups:

• All households with children (15.7 percent) 14

• Households with children under age 6 (16.4 percent)

• Households with children headed by a single woman (30.3 percent) or a single man (19.7 percent)15 and other households with children (18.1 percent)

• Women living alone (13.9 percent) and men living alone (13.4 percent)

• Households headed by Black non-Hispanics (21.8 percent) and Hispanics (18.0 percent)

• Households with incomes below 185 percent of the poverty threshold (30.8 percent).

12The Federal poverty line was $24,858 for a family of four (two adults and two children) in 2017.13“Elderly” in this report refers to persons ages 65 and older.

14About 40 percent of the difference in food insecurity between households with and without children results from a dif-ference in the measures applied to the two types of households. Responses to questions about children as well as adults are considered in assessing the food security status of households with children, but for both types of households, a total of three indications of food insecurity is required for classification as food insecure. Even with the child-referenced questions omitted from the scale, however, in 2017, 13.3 percent of households with children would be classified as food insecure (that is, as having food insecurity among adults), compared with 10.1 percent for households without children. Comparisons of very low food security are not biased substantially by this measurement issue because a higher threshold is applied to households with children, consistent with the larger number of questions taken into consideration (Nord and Coleman-Jensen, 2014). See Coleman-Jensen, Rabbitt, and Gregory (2017) for a discussion of a comparable classification method for households with and without children.

15Some households with children headed by a single woman or a single man as classified for these analyses included other adults, who may have been parents, siblings, cohabiting partners, adult children, or other relatives of the reference person or unrelated roomers or boarders.



Table 2 Households by food security status and selected household characteristics, 2017

Food insecure

Category Total1 Food secure AllWith low

food securityWith very low food security


All households 127,272 112,254 88.2 15,018 11.8 9,261 7.3 5,757 4.5

Household composition:With children < 18 yrs 37,942 31,976 84.3 5,966 15.7 4,421 11.6 1,545 4.1With children < 6 yrs 16,200 13,551 83.6 2,649 16.4 2,008 12.4 641 4.0Married-couple families 24,744 22,383 90.5 2,361 9.5 1,876 7.5 485 2.0Female head, no spouse 9,561 6,663 69.7 2,898 30.3 2,038 21.3 860 9.0Male head, no spouse 3,057 2,455 80.3 602 19.7 429 14.0 173 5.7Other household with child2 581 476 81.9 105 18.1 NA NA NA NA

With no children < 18 yrs 89,330 80,278 89.9 9,052 10.1 4,840 5.4 4,212 4.7More than one adult 53,107 48,997 92.3 4,110 7.7 2,357 4.4 1,753 3.3Women living alone 19,963 17,195 86.1 2,768 13.9 1,362 6.9 1,406 7.0Men living alone 16,260 14,087 86.6 2,173 13.4 1,120 6.9 1,053 6.5

With elderly 37,805 34,814 92.1 2,991 7.9 1,833 4.8 1,158 3.1Elderly living alone 14,312 13,078 91.4 1,234 8.6 710 4.9 524 3.7

Race/ethnicity of households:White, non-Hispanic 84,548 77,083 91.2 7,465 8.8 4,389 5.2 3,076 3.6Black, non-Hispanic 16,358 12,799 78.2 3,559 21.8 2,164 13.3 1,395 8.5Hispanic3 17,197 14,108 82.0 3,089 18.0 2,137 12.5 952 5.5Other, non-Hispanic 9,169 8,263 90.1 906 9.9 572 6.3 334 3.6

Household income-to-poverty ratio:Under 1.00 12,871 8,135 63.2 4,736 36.8 2,641 20.5 2,095 16.3Under 1.30 17,271 11,318 65.5 5,953 34.5 3,387 19.6 2,566 14.9Under 1.85 27,012 18,699 69.2 8,313 30.8 4,901 18.2 3,412 12.61.85 and over 69,442 65,405 94.2 4,037 5.8 2,783 4.0 1,254 1.8Income unknown 30,818 28,150 91.3 2,668 8.7 1,577 5.2 1,091 3.5

Area of residence:4

Inside metropolitan area 108,977 96,401 88.5 12,576 11.5 7,807 7.1 4,769 4.4In principal cities5 37,365 32,199 86.2 5,166 13.8 3,132 8.4 2,034 5.4Not in principal cities 55,330 50,152 90.6 5,178 9.4 3,204 5.8 1,974 3.6

Outside metropolitan area 18,295 15,853 86.7 2,442 13.3 1,454 7.9 988 5.4

Census geographic region:Northeast 22,520 20,280 90.1 2,240 9.9 1,486 6.6 754 3.3Midwest 27,581 24,346 88.3 3,235 11.7 1,909 6.9 1,326 4.8South 48,281 41,817 86.6 6,464 13.4 3,995 8.3 2,469 5.1West 28,890 25,811 89.3 3,079 10.7 1,871 6.5 1,208 4.2

NA = Not reported; fewer than 10 households in the survey with this characteristic had very low food security.1Totals exclude households for which food security status is unknown because household respondents did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale. In 2017, these exclusions represented 340,000 households (0.3 percent of all households).2Households with children in complex living arrangements, e.g., children of other relatives or unrelated roommate or boarder.3Hispanics may be of any race.4Metropolitan area residence is based on 2013 Office of Management and Budget delineation. Prevalence rates by area of residence are comparable with those for 2014 and later but are not precisely comparable with those of earlier years. 5Households within incorporated areas of the largest cities in each metropolitan area. Residence inside or outside of principal cities is not identified for about 15 percent of households in metropolitan statistical areas.




Across residential classifications, food insecurity was higher than the national average for households in principal cities of metropolitan areas (13.8 percent) and in nonmetropolitan (rural) areas (13.3 percent), and lower for households in suburbs/exurbs and other metropolitan areas outside principal cities (9.4 percent).16 Regionally, the prevalence of food insecurity was significantly higher in the South (13.4 percent) than in the other three regions. The prevalence of food insecurity was significantly higher in the Midwest (11.7 percent) than in the Northeast (9.9 percent) or the West (10.7 percent). The prevalence of food insecurity in the Northeast was not statistically different from the West.

The statistics in table 2 show the prevalence of food insecurity across characteristics; these statistics can also be used to calculate the share that each group contributes to the population of food-insecure households. Among all food-insecure households in 2017, 19.3 percent were female-headed house-holds with children and 15.7 percent were married-couple households with children.17 About 60 percent of all food-insecure households were adult-only households with no children. Low-income households with reported incomes below 185 percent of the poverty threshold made up the majority of food-insecure households, 55 percent. Households with reported incomes at or above 185 percent of poverty made up about 27 percent of all food-insecure households in 2017.

The prevalence of very low food security in various types of households followed a pattern similar to that observed for food insecurity (table 2). Percentages were lower than the 2017 national average of 4.5 percent for married couples with children (2.0 percent); multiple-adult households with no children (3.3 percent); households with elderly persons (3.1 percent); elderly living alone (3.7 percent); White, non-Hispanic households (3.6 percent); households headed by non-Hispanics of other, or multiple, races (3.6 percent); households with incomes above 185 percent of the poverty line (1.8 percent); households in suburbs and exurbs outside principal cities within metropolitan areas (3.6 percent); and households in the Northeast (3.3 percent).

The prevalence of very low food security was significantly higher than the national average (4.5 percent) for the following groups:

• Households with children headed by a single woman (9.0 percent)

• Women living alone (7.0 percent) and men living alone (6.5 percent)

• Black, non-Hispanic households (8.5 percent) and Hispanic households (5.5 percent)

• Households with incomes below 185 percent of the poverty line (12.6 percent)

• Households located in principal cities (5.4 percent) and outside metropolitan areas (5.4 percent)

• Households in the South (5.1 percent).

16Revised metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) and principal cities within them were delineated by the Office of Manage-ment and Budget in 2013, based on revised standards developed by the U.S. Census Bureau in collaboration with other Fed-eral agencies. The revised delineations were implemented beginning with the 2014 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement. Food security prevalence statistics by area of residence for 2014 and later are comparable, but are not precisely comparable with corresponding statistics from earlier years. Principal cities include the incorporated areas of the largest city in each MSA and other cities in the MSA that meet specified criteria based on population size and commuting patterns.

17For example, the fraction of food-insecure households that are female-headed households with children can be calcu-lated as (2,898/15,018) = 0.193. Similarly, the fraction of food-insecure households that are married-couple households with children is (2,361/15,018) = 0.157.



In 7.7 percent of households with children, one or more child was food insecure (table 3).18 Among household categories, the percentage of households with food-insecure children was lower in married-couple households (4.3 percent); White, non-Hispanic households (5.6 percent); households headed by non-Hispanics of other, or multiple, races (5.8 percent); households with incomes above 185 percent of the poverty line (2.8 percent); and metropolitan households located in suburbs and exurbs outside of principal cities (5.9 percent). The percentage of households with food-insecure children was higher for female-headed households (16.1 percent); Black, non-Hispanic households (13.1 percent); Hispanic households (10.7 percent); low-income households with incomes below 185 percent of the poverty line (17.9 percent); households in principal cities (9.7 percent); and households in nonmetropolitan areas (9.3 percent).

Compared with the prevalence for all households with children (0.7 percent), very low food secu-rity among children was less prevalent in married-couple families (0.3 percent) and in households located outside principal cities in metropolitan areas (0.4 percent). Very low food security among children was more prevalent in households headed by a single woman (1.7 percent) and households with incomes below 185 percent of the poverty line (1.9 percent).

For most population subgroups in 2017, year-to-year changes in the prevalence of food insecurity were not statistically significant.19 There was a statistically significant decline in food insecurity for households residing outside metropolitan areas (nonmetropolitan) from 15.0 percent in 2016 to 13.3 percent in 2017 (fig. 4). There were no statistically significant increases in food insecurity.

The prevalence of very low food security (fig. 5) declined significantly from 2016 to 2017 among all households with children (from 4.8 percent in 2016 to 4.1 percent in 2017), households with children under age 6 (5.0 percent to 4.0 percent), married-couple families with children (2.5 percent to 2.0 percent), female-headed families with children (10.5 percent to 9.0 percent), men living alone (7.5 percent to 6.5 percent), and households living in nonmetropolitan areas (6.6 percent to 5.4 percent). There were no statistically significant increases in very low food security.

Prevalence of Food Insecurity by State

The prevalence of food insecurity varies considerably from State to State. In addition to household-level characteristics such as income, employment, and household structure, the prevalence of food insecurity is also affected by State-level characteristics such as average wages, cost of housing, unemployment and State-level policies that affect access to unemployment insurance, the State Earned Income Tax Credit, and access to/participation in nutrition assistance programs (Bartfeld et al., 2006; Bartfeld and Men, 2017). Prevalence rates for 3 years, 2015-17, were averaged to provide more reliable statistics at the State level (table 4). Estimated prevalence rates of food insecurity during this 3-year period ranged from 7.4 percent in Hawaii to 17.9 percent in New Mexico; esti-mated prevalence rates of very low food security ranged from 2.9 percent in Hawaii to 7.1 percent in Alabama and Louisiana.20

18Households are classified as having food insecurity among children if they report two or more food-insecure conditions among children in response to questions 11-18 in box on page 3.

19Estimates of food insecurity and very low food security for 2016 were published in Household Food Security in the United States in 2016 (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2017).

20A map of the States showing the prevalence of food insecurity for 2015-17 is available for download on the ERS website.



Table 3 Prevalence of food security and food insecurity in households with children by selected household characteristics, 2017

Category Total1Food-secure households

Food-insecure households2

Households with food-insecure

children3

Households with very low

food security among children


All households with children 37,942 31,975 84.3 5,967 15.7 2,926 7.7 250 0.7

Household composition:With children < 6 yrs 16,200 13,551 83.6 2,649 16.4 1,273 7.9 82 0.5Married-couple families 24,744 22,383 90.5 2,361 9.5 1,062 4.3 63 0.3Female head, no spouse 9,561 6,662 69.7 2,899 30.3 1,542 16.1 164 1.7Male head, no spouse 3,057 2,455 80.3 602 19.7 263 8.6 NA NAOther household with child4 581 476 81.9 105 18.1 59 10.2 NA NA

Race/ethnicity of households:White, non-Hispanic 21,451 18,891 88.1 2,560 11.9 1,206 5.6 101 0.5Black, non-Hispanic 5,065 3,745 73.9 1,320 26.1 661 13.1 59 1.2Hispanic5 8,101 6,395 78.9 1,706 21.1 866 10.7 81 1.0Other, non-Hispanic 3,325 2,943 88.5 382 11.5 194 5.8 NA NA

Household income-to-poverty ratio:Under 1.00 4,940 2,795 56.6 2,145 43.4 1,134 23.0 134 2.7Under 1.30 6,779 4,096 60.4 2,683 39.6 1,415 20.9 157 2.3Under 1.85 10,744 7,017 65.3 3,727 34.7 1,927 17.9 205 1.91.85 and over 19,646 18,351 93.4 1,295 6.6 541 2.8 NA NAIncome unknown 7,553 6,607 87.5 946 12.5 459 6.1 NA NA

Area of residence:6

Inside metropolitan area 32,902 27,888 84.8 5,014 15.2 2,458 7.5 210 0.6In principal cities7 10,401 8,432 81.1 1,969 18.9 1,006 9.7 96 0.9Not in principal cities 17,770 15,650 88.1 2,120 11.9 1,040 5.9 75 0.4

Outside metropolitan area 5,041 4,088 81.1 953 18.9 468 9.3 40 0.8

Census geographic region:Northeast 6,291 5,402 85.9 889 14.1 415 6.6 NA NAMidwest 7,917 6,699 84.6 1,218 15.4 607 7.7 70 0.9South 14,427 11,848 82.1 2,579 17.9 1,210 8.4 102 0.7West 9,308 8,027 86.2 1,281 13.8 694 7.5 44 0.5

NA = Not reported; fewer than 10 households in the survey with this characteristic had very low food security among children.1Totals exclude households for which food security status is unknown because they did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale. In 2017, these exclusions represented 109,000 households with children (0.3 percent of all households with children). 2Food-insecure households are those with low or very low food security among adults or children or both.3In some food-insecure households with children, only adults were food insecure. Households with food-insecure children are those with low or very low food security among children.4Households with children in complex living arrangements, e.g., children of other relatives or unrelated roommate or boarder.5Hispanics may be of any race. 6Metropolitan area residence is based on 2013 Office of Management and Budget delineation. Prevalence rates by area of residence are compa-rable with those for 2014 and later but are not precisely comparable with those of earlier years. 7Households within incorporated areas of the largest cities in each metropolitan area. Residence inside or outside of principal cities is not identi-fied for about 14 percent of households with children in metropolitan statistical areas.




Figure 4 Prevalence of food insecurity, 2016 and 2017

0 10 20 30 40


*

*

All households

Household composition:

With children < 18 yrs


Married-couple families

Female head, no spouse

Male head, no spouse

With no children < 18 yrs

More than one adult

Women living alone

Men living alone

With elderly

Elderly living alone

Race/ethnicity of households:

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Other, non-Hispanic

Household income-to-poverty ratio:

Under 1.00

Under 1.30

Under 1.85

1.85 and over

Area of residence:

Inside metropolitan area

In principal cities

Not in principal cities

Outside metropolitan area

Census geographic region:

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

2016

2017

* Change from 2016 to 2017 was statistically significant with 90-percent confidence (t > 1.645).

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2016 and 2017 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement.



Figure 5 Prevalence of very low food security, 2016 and 2017

2016

2017

0 5 10 15 20


*

*

*

**

**

All households

Household composition:



Married-couple families

Female head, no spouse

Male head, no spouse

With no children < 18 yrs

More than one adult

Women living alone

Men living alone

With elderly

Elderly living alone

Race/ethnicity of households:

White, non-Hispanic

Black, non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Other, non-Hispanic

Household income-to-poverty ratio:

Under 1.00

Under 1.30

Under 1.85

1.85 and over

Area of residence:

Inside metropolitan area

In principal cities

Not in principal cities

Outside metropolitan area

Census geographic region:

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

* Change from 2016 to 2017 was statistically significant with 90-percent confidence (t > 1.645).

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2016 and 2017 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement.



Table 4 Prevalence of household food insecurity and very low food security by State, average 2015-17

Number of householdsFood insecurity

(low or very low food security) Very low food security

StatesAverage 2015-171 Interviewed Prevalence Margin of error2 Prevalence Margin of error2

Number Number PercentPercentage

points PercentPercentage

points

U.S. 126,279,000 118,213 12.3 0.19 4.8 0.12AK 267,000 1,389 11.6 1.64 3.7 * 0.90AL 1,961,000 2,332 16.3 * 1.88 7.1 * 1.15AR 1,214,000 2,143 17.4 * 1.97 6.5 * 1.31AZ 2,650,000 1,851 13.1 1.47 5.7 0.98CA 13,967,000 9,034 11.2 * 0.76 4.1 * 0.44CO 2,359,000 1,327 9.2 * 1.50 3.8 0.99CT 1,420,000 1,012 12.2 2.00 4.7 1.40DC 321,000 2,609 11.2 1.15 4.5 0.87DE 381,000 1,290 11.1 1.54 3.5 * 0.92FL 8,373,000 4,978 11.9 0.83 4.2 * 0.55GA 4,015,000 2,783 13.0 1.40 4.4 0.62HI 485,000 1,504 7.4 * 1.30 2.9 * 0.74IA 1,297,000 1,464 10.5 * 1.60 4.3 1.07ID 636,000 1,848 11.0 1.53 4.0 0.82IL 5,039,000 3,460 11.2 1.04 4.7 0.66IN 2,650,000 2,024 13.6 * 1.26 5.7 0.94KS 1,188,000 1,565 13.3 2.27 5.6 1.33KY 1,777,000 1,586 14.7 2.86 6.1 1.55LA 1,837,000 2,816 17.3 * 1.32 7.1 * 0.78MA 2,791,000 2,310 10.2 * 1.21 3.8 * 0.77MD 2,294,000 1,408 10.4 * 1.73 4.3 1.19ME 574,000 1,195 14.4 2.66 6.4 * 1.61MI 4,033,000 2,610 13.6 1.41 6.0 * 0.92MN 2,209,000 1,571 9.5 * 2.06 3.7 1.10MO 2,470,000 1,818 12.8 2.02 4.8 1.07MS 1,167,000 2,445 17.2 * 1.58 6.6 * 0.87MT 446,000 2,620 11.4 1.04 4.6 0.84NC 4,096,000 2,655 14.4 * 1.69 5.6 1.10ND 319,000 1,887 9.0 * 1.10 3.5 * 0.75NE 759,000 1,443 13.5 1.73 5.4 1.19NH 538,000 1,688 9.4 * 1.46 3.4 * 0.80NJ 3,389,000 2,270 8.6 * 1.13 3.0 * 0.63NM 833,000 2,296 17.9 * 1.38 6.6 * 1.19NV 1,131,000 1,503 12.4 1.83 5.1 1.17NY 7,888,000 4,584 10.9 * 0.91 3.9 * 0.48OH 4,664,000 3,268 13.7 * 1.33 6.1 * 0.81OK 1,570,000 1,781 15.0 * 1.85 6.4 * 1.41OR 1,645,000 1,761 12.9 1.45 5.4 1.11PA 5,199,000 3,130 12.1 1.25 4.0 * 0.70RI 437,000 1,053 12.4 2.02 5.6 1.32SC 2,053,000 1,880 11.7 1.74 4.2 0.93SD 353,000 1,455 11.4 1.82 4.3 1.12TN 2,673,000 2,377 12.9 1.41 5.7 * 0.87TX 10,177,000 5,998 14.0 * 0.93 5.8 * 0.66UT 1,001,000 1,604 10.7 2.07 3.9 1.69VA 3,208,000 2,258 10.1 * 1.17 4.4 0.86VT 260,000 1,752 9.8 * 1.25 3.6 * 0.77WA 2,888,000 2,203 10.8 * 1.21 4.1 0.76WI 2,380,000 1,937 10.0 * 1.41 3.8 * 0.84WV 762,000 2,604 14.9 * 1.80 6.2 * 0.75WY 233,000 1,834 13.2 1.79 5.1 1.07

*Difference from U.S. average was statistically significant with 90-percent confidence (t > 1.645). Standard error of differences assumes that there is no correlation between national and individual State estimates.1Totals exclude households for which food security status is unknown because household respondents did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale. These exclusions represented about 0.3 percent of all households in 2015, 0.3 percent in 2016, and 0.3 percent in 2017.2Margin of error with 90-percent confidence (1.645 times the standard error of the estimated prevalence rate). Standard errors were estimated using balanced repeated replication (BRR) methods based on replicate weights for the CPS Food Security Supplement.Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2015, 2016, and 2017 Current Population Survey (CPS) Food Security Supplements.



The margin of error for State food insecurity rates should be considered when interpreting these statistics, especially when comparing prevalence rates across States. The margin of error reflects sampling variation—the uncertainty associated with estimates that are based on information from a limited number of households in each State. The margins of error presented in table 4 indicate the range (above or below the estimated prevalence rate) that is 90 percent likely to include the true prevalence rate. For example, considering the margins of error, it is not certain that the prevalence of very low food security was higher in Alabama and Louisiana than in the States with the next nine highest prevalence rates.

Taking into account margins of error of the State and U.S. estimates, the prevalence of food insecu-rity was higher (i.e., statistically significantly higher) than the national average in 11 States (AL, AR, IN, LA, MS, NC, NM, OH, OK, TX, and WV) and lower than the national average in 15 States (CA, CO, HI, IA, MA, MD, MN, ND, NH, NJ, NY, VA, VT, WA, and WI).21 In the remaining 24 States and the District of Columbia, differences from the national average were not statistically significant. The prevalence of very low food security was higher than the national average in 12 States (AL, AR, LA, ME, MI, MS, NM, OH, OK, TN, TX, and WV), lower than the national average in 13 States (AK, CA, DE, FL, HI, MA, ND, NH, NJ, NY, PA, VT, and WI), and not significantly different from the national average in 25 States and the District of Columbia.

State-level rates of food insecurity and very low food security for 2015-17 are compared with 2012-14 and 2005-07 averages in table 5. The prevalence rates for the immediately preceding 3-year period, 2012-14 are from Household Food Security in the United States in 2014 (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2015). The 2005-07 rates are from Household Food Security in the United States, 2007 (Nord et al., 2008) and are presented as a baseline to assess changes in State-level food security conditions over the past decade.22

There was a statistically significant percentage-point increase (5.6) in the prevalence of food inse-curity from 2012-14 to 2015-17 in 1 State (NM), while food insecurity declined significantly in 18 States (AZ, CA, CO, FL, GA, HI, ID, MO, MS, NJ, NV, NY, OH, OR, TN, TX, VT, and WA) and the District of Columbia (table 5). During the same period, the prevalence of very low food secu-rity increased significantly in 1 State (NM) and declined significantly in 12 States (CA, CO, FL, GA, HI, MO, NH, NJ, NY, OH, VT, and WA). There was a statistically significant percentage-point increase in the prevalence of food insecurity from 2005-07 to 2015-17 in 18 States, with no statistically significant declines. The prevalence of very low food security increased significantly from 2005-07 to 2015-17 in 19 States, with no statistically significant declines. Changes not marked as statistically significant (*) in table 5 were within ranges that could have resulted from sampling variation (that is, a non-zero difference between sample estimates, based on the house-holds that happen to be chosen for the sample, which is consistent with no actual change in food security in the State’s general population).

21Standard error of difference assumes that there is no correlation between national and individual State estimates.

22Prevalence rates for 1996-98 reported in Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Hunger, by State, 1996-1998 (Nord et al., 1999) are not directly comparable with the rates reported here because of differences in screening procedures in the CPS Food Security Supplements from 1995 to 1998. Statistics for 1996-98, adjusted to be comparable with those for recent years, are presented in Statistical Supplement to Food Security in the United States in 2010, table S-4. Standard errors of State-level estimates for 2005-07 were calculated using jackknife replication methods with “month-in-sample” groups considered as separate independent samples (see Nord et al., 1999).



Table 5 Change in prevalence of household food insecurity and very low food security by State, 2015-17 (average), 2012-14 (average), and 2005-07 (average)1

States

Food insecurity (low or very low food security) Very low food security

Average 2015-17

Average 2012-14

Average 2005-07

Change 2012-14

to 2015-17

Change 2005-07

to 2015-17

Average 2015-17

Average 2012-14

Average 2005-07

Change 2012-14

to 2015-17

Change 2005-07

to 2015-17

————— Percent ————— Percentage points ————— Percent ————— Percentage points

U.S. 12.3 14.3 11.0 -2.0* 1.3* 4.8 5.6 4.0 -0.8* 0.8*AK 11.6 12.0 12.4 -0.4 -0.8 3.7 4.3 4.8 -0.6 -1.1 AL 16.3 16.8 11.9 -0.5 4.4* 7.1 7.2 4.3 -0.1 2.8*AR 17.4 19.9 14.4 -2.5 3.0* 6.5 8.1 4.9 -1.6 1.6 AZ 13.1 15.4 12.0 -2.3* 1.1 5.7 6.2 4.6 -0.5 1.1 CA 11.2 13.5 10.2 -2.3* 1.0 4.1 5.1 3.5 -1.0* 0.6 CO 9.2 13.6 11.0 -4.4* -1.8 3.8 5.2 4.6 -1.4* -0.8 CT 12.2 13.9 8.8 -1.7 3.4* 4.7 6.0 3.2 -1.3 1.5*DC 11.2 13.2 11.9 -2.0* -0.7 4.5 4.9 3.8 -0.4 0.7 DE 11.1 12.1 8.6 -1.0 2.5* 3.5 4.6 3.3 -1.1 0.2 FL 11.9 13.8 9.0 -1.9* 2.9* 4.2 5.5 3.4 -1.3* 0.8*GA 13.0 15.7 13.0 -2.7* 0.0 4.4 6.2 5.0 -1.8* -0.6 HI 7.4 12.3 8.4 -4.9* -1.0 2.9 4.0 2.9 -1.1* 0.0 IA 10.5 11.4 11.7 -0.9 -1.2 4.3 4.6 4.5 -0.3 -0.2 ID 11.0 14.1 11.4 -3.1* -0.4 4.0 5.3 3.4 -1.3 0.6 IL 11.2 11.7 9.5 -0.5 1.7* 4.7 4.4 3.5 0.3 1.2*IN 13.6 14.6 10.2 -1.0 3.4* 5.7 6.4 3.6 -0.7 2.1*KS 13.3 15.9 13.0 -2.6 0.3 5.6 6.4 4.7 -0.8 0.9 KY 14.7 17.5 12.7 -2.8 2.0 6.1 7.0 4.5 -0.9 1.6 LA 17.3 17.6 11.7 -0.3 5.6* 7.1 7.1 4.6 0.0 2.5*MA 10.2 9.6 8.0 0.6 2.2* 3.8 4.1 3.2 -0.3 0.6 MD 10.4 12.5 8.6 -2.1 1.8 4.3 4.8 3.4 -0.5 0.9 ME 14.4 16.2 13.3 -1.8 1.1 6.4 7.5 5.9 -1.1 0.5 MI 13.6 14.7 11.8 -1.1 1.8 6.0 6.3 4.5 -0.3 1.5*MN 9.5 10.4 9.5 -0.9 0.0 3.7 4.2 3.7 -0.5 0.0 MO 12.8 16.8 12.9 -4.0* -0.1 4.8 7.9 4.9 -3.1* -0.1 MS 17.2 22.0 17.4 -4.8* -0.2 6.6 7.3 7.0 -0.7 -0.4 MT 11.4 11.5 9.5 -0.1 1.9* 4.6 5.4 3.8 -0.8 0.8 NC 14.4 16.7 12.6 -2.3 1.8 5.6 6.4 4.0 -0.8 1.6*ND 9.0 8.4 6.5 0.6 2.5* 3.5 2.9 2.2 0.6 1.3*NE 13.5 13.9 9.5 -0.4 4.0* 5.4 5.5 3.4 -0.1 2.0*NH 9.4 10.0 7.7 -0.6 1.7* 3.4 4.7 2.3 -1.3* 1.1*NJ 8.6 11.7 8.8 -3.1* -0.2 3.0 4.9 2.7 -1.9* 0.3 NM 17.9 12.3 15.0 5.6* 2.9* 6.6 4.6 4.9 2.0* 1.7 NV 12.4 15.2 10.4 -2.8* 2.0 5.1 6.3 4.0 -1.2 1.1 NY 10.9 14.4 9.9 -3.5* 1.0 3.9 4.9 3.3 -1.0* 0.6*OH 13.7 16.9 12.2 -3.2* 1.5 6.1 7.5 4.5 -1.4* 1.6*OK 15.0 16.5 13.0 -1.5 2.0 6.4 6.6 4.7 -0.2 1.7*OR 12.9 16.1 12.4 -3.2* 0.5 5.4 6.3 5.5 -0.9 -0.1 PA 12.1 11.3 10.0 0.8 2.1* 4.0 4.6 3.4 -0.6 0.6 RI 12.4 12.7 10.9 -0.3 1.5 5.6 4.7 3.9 0.9 1.7*SC 11.7 13.9 13.1 -2.2 -1.4 4.2 5.3 5.0 -1.1 -0.8 SD 11.4 11.9 9.7 -0.5 1.7 4.3 4.8 3.6 -0.5 0.7 TN 12.9 16.3 12.8 -3.4* 0.1 5.7 6.2 4.2 -0.5 1.5*TX 14.0 17.2 14.8 -3.2* -0.8 5.8 6.2 5.0 -0.4 0.8 UT 10.7 13.3 12.5 -2.6 -1.8 3.9 4.7 5.1 -0.8 -1.2 VA 10.1 10.1 8.0 0.0 2.1* 4.4 4.3 3.0 0.1 1.4*VT 9.8 12.6 10.2 -2.8* -0.4 3.6 6.0 4.6 -2.4* -1.0 WA 10.8 13.7 10.1 -2.9* 0.7 4.1 5.5 3.5 -1.4* 0.6 WI 10.0 11.4 9.0 -1.4 1.0 3.8 4.9 3.5 -1.1 0.3 WV 14.9 15.3 10.7 -0.4 4.2* 6.2 5.9 4.0 0.3 2.2*WY 13.2 14.0 9.9 -0.8 3.3* 5.1 5.3 3.3 -0.2 1.8*

*Change was statistically significant with 90-percent confidence (t > 1.645). 1Percentages exclude households for which food security status is unknown because household respondents did not give a valid response to any of the questions in the food security scale.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey Food Security Supplements.



Household Spending on Food

This section provides information on how much households spent on food, as reported in the December 2017 Food Security Supplement. Food insecurity is a condition that arises from lack of money and other resources to acquire food. In most households, the majority of food consumed by household members is purchased, either from supermarkets or grocery stores, to be prepared and eaten at home; some food also comes from cafeterias, restaurants, or vending machines to be eaten outside the home. The amount of money a household spends on food thus indicates how adequately the household is meeting its food needs.23 When a household reduces food spending below some minimum level, such as USDA’s Thrifty Food Plan, because of constrained resources, disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake may result.

Methods

The household food expenditure statistics in this report are based on usual weekly spending for food, as reported by respondents after reflecting on the household’s actual food spending during the previous week. Respondents were first asked to report the amounts of money their households had spent on food in the week prior to the interview, including any purchases made with SNAP benefits (formerly called food stamps) at:

• supermarkets and grocery stores;

• stores other than supermarkets and grocery stores, such as meat markets, produce stands, bakeries, warehouse clubs, and convenience stores;

• restaurants, fast-food places, cafeterias, and vending machines; and

• “...any other kind of place.”24

Total spending for food, based on responses to this series of questions, was verified with the respon-dent, and the respondent was then asked how much the household usually spent on food during a week.25 ERS analyses have shown that usual food expenditures estimated from data collected by this method were consistent with estimates from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES)—the

23Food spending is only an indirect indicator of food consumption. It understates food consumption in households that re-ceive food from in-kind programs, such as the National School Lunch and School Breakfast Programs, WIC, meal programs for children in childcare and for the elderly, and private charitable organizations. Purchases with SNAP benefits, however, are counted as food spending in the CPS Food Security Supplement. Food spending also understates food consumption in house-holds that acquire a substantial part of their food supply through gardening, hunting, or fishing, as well as in households that obtain groceries from friends or relatives or eat more meals at friends’ or relatives’ homes than they provide to friends or rela-tives. Food spending also understates food consumption in geographical areas with relatively low food prices and overstates consumption in areas with relatively high food prices.

24For spending in the first two categories of stores, respondents were also asked how much of the amount was for “non-food items such as pet food, paper products, alcohol, detergents, or cleaning supplies.” These amounts are subtracted from total spending at each of these stores to arrive at spending for food.

25Beginning with the 2015 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, food-spending amounts are categorized in public-use data. Categorizing the dollar amounts reduces the risk of disclosure and is now standard for data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau. ERS analysis suggests this change has little effect on the estimates of median food spending reported here. The tables presented in this section are based on the categorical food-spending data and are comparable to the 2016 esti-mates but are not precisely comparable with estimates published in prior annual food security reports. Changes in food spend-ing from 2016 described in the text are based on comparable estimates of 2016 categorical food-spending data published in Coleman-Jensen et al. (2017).



principal source of data on U.S. household expenditures for goods and services (Oliveira and Rose, 1996; Nord, 2009b).

Food spending was adjusted for household size and composition in two ways. First, we divided each household’s usual weekly food expenditure by the number of household members, yielding the “usual weekly food spending per person” for that household. The second adjustment accounts more precisely for the different food needs of households by comparing each household’s usual food spending to the estimated cost of the Thrifty Food Plan for that household in December 2017.26 The Thrifty Food Plan (TFP)—developed by USDA—serves as a national standard for a nutri-tious, minimal-cost diet. It represents a set of “market baskets” of food that people in specific age and gender categories could consume at home to maintain a healthful diet that meets current dietary standards, taking into account the food consumption patterns of U.S. households (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, 2007).27 Each household’s reported usual weekly food spending was divided by the household-specific cost of the TFP, based on the age- and gender-specific cost of the TFP for each household member and the number of persons in the house-hold (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, 2018).28

The medians of each of the two food-spending measures (spending per person per week and spending relative to the cost of the TFP) were estimated at the national level and for households in various categories. Medians are reported rather than averages (means) because medians are not unduly affected by the few unexpectedly high values of usual food spending that are believed to be reporting or data entry errors. Thus, the median better reflects what a typical household spent.

About 6.8 percent of households interviewed in the CPS Food Security Supplement did not respond to the food-spending questions (or reported zero usual food spending) and were excluded from the analysis. As a result, the total number of households represented in tables 6 and 7 is somewhat smaller than that in tables 1 and 2, and food-spending estimates may not be fully representative of all households in the United States.29

Food Expenditures by Selected Household Characteristics

In 2017, the typical U.S. household spent $50.00 per person each week for food (table 6). Median household food spending relative to the cost of the TFP—which adjusts for food price inflation and adjusts more precisely for the food needs of persons in different age-gender categories—was 1.24, essentially unchanged from 1.22 in 2016 (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2017). That is, in 2017, the typical household spent 24 percent more on food than the cost of the TFP for that household.

26The cost of the TFP is revised each month to account for inflation in food prices. For this report, TFP costs are estimated by ERS separately for Alaska and Hawaii, using adjustment factors calculated from USDA’s TFP costs for those States for the second half of 2017. USDA’s TFP costs for Alaska and Hawaii are available on USDA’s Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion website.

27The TFP, in addition to its use as a research tool, is used as a basis for setting the maximum SNAP benefit amounts.

28The cost of a TFP for a household is calculated under the assumption that all household members purchase and prepare food together.

29Households that were unable or unwilling to report food spending were less likely to be food insecure than those that did report food spending (8.2 percent compared with 12.1 percent). Food spending may, therefore, be slightly underestimated from these data.



Table 6 Weekly household food spending per person and relative to the household cost of the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP), 2017

CategoryNumber of

households1

Median weekly food spending

Per personRelative to cost

of TFP

1,000 Dollars Ratio

All households 117,398 50.00 1.24

Household composition:With children < 18 yrs 35,851 40.00 1.12At least one child < 6 yrs 15,312 37.50 1.15Married-couple families 23,497 40.00 1.17Female head, no spouse 8,970 37.50 1.04Male head, no spouse 2,843 40.00 1.04Other household with child2 539 40.00 1.09

With no children < 18 yrs 81,548 60.00 1.32More than one adult 49,109 50.00 1.21Women living alone 17,852 60.00 1.37Men living alone 14,587 80.00 1.56

With elderly 33,702 50.00 1.19Elderly living alone 12,354 60.00 1.29

Race/ethnicity of households:White, non-Hispanic 78,088 50.00 1.32Black, non-Hispanic 14,990 50.00 1.11Hispanic3 15,852 45.00 1.13Other, non-Hispanic 8,468 50.00 1.20

Household income-to-poverty ratio:Under 1.00 11,878 40.00 0.98Under 1.30 16,009 40.00 0.98Under 1.85 25,279 40.00 0.991.85 and over 66,634 60.00 1.39Income unknown 25,485 50.00 1.19

Area of residence:4

Inside metropolitan area 100,407 50.00 1.28In principal cities5 34,071 50.00 1.29Not in principal cities 51,198 50.00 1.29

Outside metropolitan area 16,992 50.00 1.13

Census geographic region:Northeast 20,243 50.00 1.32Midwest 25,511 50.00 1.19South 44,698 50.00 1.20West 26,946 50.00 1.29

1Totals exclude households that did not answer the questions about spending on food or reported zero usual food spending. These exclusions represented 8.0 percent of all households.2Households with children in complex living arrangements, e.g., children of other relatives or unrelated roommate or boarder.3Hispanics may be of any race. 4Metropolitan area residence is based on 2013 Office of Management and Budget delineation. 5Households within incorporated areas of the largest cities in each metropolitan area. Residence inside or outside of principal cities is not identified for about 15 percent of households in metropolitan statistical areas.Note: These estimates are based on categorical food spending data rather than on continuous data that were used in 2014 and earlier years. Beginning with the 2015 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, food spending amounts are categorized in public-use data. ERS analysis suggests that this change has little effect on the estimates of median food spending reported here.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement. .



Households with children under age 18 generally spent less for food, relative to the household cost of the TFP, than those without children. The typical household with children spent 12 percent more than the cost of the TFP on food, while the typical household with no children spent 32 percent more. Median household food expenditures relative to the cost of the TFP were lower for households with children headed by single women (1.04) and single men (1.04) than for married couples with children (1.17). Median food expenditure relative to the cost of the TFP was highest for men living alone (1.56).

Median food expenditures relative to the cost of the TFP were lower for Black non-Hispanic (1.11) and Hispanic households (1.13) than for White non-Hispanic households (1.32). This pattern is consistent with the lower average incomes and higher prevalence rates of food insecurity for these racial and ethnic minorities.

As expected, households with higher incomes spent more money on food than lower income house-holds.30 The typical household with income below the poverty line spent about 2 percent less than the cost of the TFP, while the typical household with income above 185 percent of the poverty line spent 39 percent more than the cost of the TFP. Sub-TFP food spending may be inadequate since the TFP was designed to be a minimal-cost nutritious diet.

Median food spending relative to the cost of the TFP was lower for households in nonmetropolitan areas (1.13) than for those inside metropolitan statistical areas (1.28). Regionally, median spending on food relative to the cost of the TFP was lower in the Midwest (1.19) and South (1.20) than in the West (1.29) and Northeast (1.32).

Food Expenditures and Household Food Security

Food-secure households typically spent more on food than did food-insecure households. Median food spending relative to the cost of the TFP was 1.28 among food-secure households, compared with 1.04 among food-insecure households (table 7). Taking into account estimated food need, the median food-secure household spent approximately 23 percent more for food than the median food-insecure household in 2017 (estimated as 1.28/1.04=1.23).31

30However, food spending does not rise proportionately with income, so high-income households actually spend a smaller proportion of their income on food than low-income households.

31The pattern of higher food spending among food-secure households compared with food-insecure households was also found in USDA’s National Household Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey (FoodAPS) data (Tiehen et al., 2017).



Table 7 Weekly household food spending per person and relative to the cost of the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) by food security status, 2017

CategoryNumber of

households1

Median weekly food spending

Per personRelative to cost

of TFP

1,000 Dollars Ratio

All households 117,398 50.00 1.24

Food security status:Food-secure households 103,061 50.00 1.28

Food-insecure households 14,201 40.00 1.04

Households with low food security 8,789 40.00 1.06Households with very low food security 5,412 40.00 1.01

1Total for all households excludes households that did not answer the questions about spending on food or reported zero usual spending for food. These represented 8.0 percent of all households. Totals in the bottom section also exclude house-holds that did not answer any of the questions in the food security scale.Note: These estimates are based on categorical food spending data rather than on continuous data that were used in 2014 and earlier years. Beginning with the 2015 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, food spending amounts are categorized in public-use data. ERS analysis suggests that this change has little effect on the estimates of median food spending reported here.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement..



Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs and Food Security

Households with limited resources use a variety of methods to help meet their food needs. Some participate in Federal food and nutrition assistance programs or obtain food from emergency providers in their communities to supplement the food they purchase. Households that turn to Federal and community food and nutrition assistance programs typically do so because they are having difficulty meeting their food needs. The use of such programs by low-income households provides insight into the extent of these households’ difficulties in obtaining enough food. The relationship between food security status and use of food and nutrition assistance programs also provides insight into the ways low-income households cope with difficulties in acquiring adequate food.

This section presents information about the food security status of households that participated in the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs: SNAP, the National School Lunch Program, and WIC (see box, “Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs,” p. 29). It also provides information about the extent to which food-insecure households participated in these programs. Total participation in the Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, participation rates of eligible households in those programs, and characteristics of participants in the programs are not described in this report. Extensive information on those topics is available from USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS).32

Statistical Supplement tables S-11 to S-16 provide information on food spending by participants and low-income nonparticipants in selected Federal and community food and nutrition assistance programs and about the extent to which households obtained assistance from community food pantries and emergency kitchens (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).

Methods

The December 2017 CPS Food Security Supplement included questions about the use of Federal food and nutrition assistance programs. All households with reported annual incomes below 185 percent of the Federal poverty threshold were asked these questions. To minimize respondent burden, households with annual incomes above that range were not asked the questions unless they indicated some level of difficulty in meeting their food needs on the first of the two preliminary screener questions asked of all households (listed in footnote 6, p. 4). The questions analyzed in this section are:

• During the past 12 months…did anyone in this household get SNAP or food stamp benefits?33

Households that responded affirmatively were then asked:

• In which months were SNAP benefits received?

• On what date did you last receive them?

32Additional research findings on the operation and effectiveness of these programs are available from the ERS website.

33The Food Stamp Program was renamed the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in October 2008. Both names were mentioned in the survey question, as well as the State’s name for the program in States that used a different name.



The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) administers 15 domestic food and nutrition assistance programs. The three largest programs are:

• The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly the Food Stamp Program. The program provides monthly benefits to eligible low-income households to purchase food items at SNAP-authorized retailers. SNAP is available to all individuals who meet financial and nonfinancial eligibility criteria. In an average month of fiscal year 2017 (October 1, 2016, through September 30, 2017), SNAP provided benefits to nearly 42.2 million people in the United States (about 13 percent of individuals). The average benefit was about $126 per person per month, and Federal expenditures for the program were nearly $68 billion that year.

• The National School Lunch Program. The program operates in over 100,000 public and nonprofit private schools and residential childcare institutions. All meals served under the program receive Federal subsidies, and free or reduced-price lunches are available to low-income students. In fiscal year 2017, the program provided lunches to an average of 30.0 million children each school day. Two-thirds (67 percent) of the lunches served in 2017 were free, and an additional 7 percent were provided at reduced prices.

• The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). The program is a federally funded preventive nutrition program that provides grants to States to support distribution of supplemental foods, healthcare referrals, and nutrition education for low-income pregnant, breastfeeding, and nonbreastfeeding postpartum women; for infants in low-income families; and for children in low-income families who are younger than age 5 and who are found to be at nutritional risk. Most State WIC agencies provide vouchers that participants use to acquire supplemental food packages at authorized food stores. In fiscal year 2017, WIC served 7.3 million participants per month at an average monthly cost for food (after rebates to WIC from manufacturers) of about $41 per person.

(For more information, see Oliveira, 2018.)

Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs

Information from the three questions was used to identify households that received SNAP benefits in the 30 days prior to the survey.34

Additional questions about Federal food and nutrition assistance programs analyzed here are:

• During the past 30 days, did any children in the household…receive free or reduced-price lunches at school? (Only households with children between the ages of 5 and 18 were asked this question.)

• During the past 30 days, did any women or children in this household get food through the WIC program? (Only households with a child under age 5 or a woman age 15-45 were asked this question.)

34The CPS household does not always match the SNAP unit. In some households, only some members are eligible for SNAP (Czajka et al., 2012; Scherpf et al., 2015).



Prevalence rates of food security, food insecurity, and very low food security were calculated for households reporting use of each food and nutrition assistance program and for comparison groups of nonparticipating households with incomes and household compositions similar to those of food assistance recipients. Statistics for participating households excluded households with annual incomes above the ranges specified for the comparison groups.35 The proportions of food-insecure households participating in each of the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs—SNAP, the National School Lunch Program, and WIC—were calculated, as well as the proportion that participated in any of the three programs. These analyses were restricted to house-holds with annual incomes below 185 percent of the poverty line because most households with incomes above this range were not asked whether they participated in these programs.

Food Security of Households That Received Food and Nutrition Assistance

The relationship between food security and the use of food and nutrition assistance programs is complex. There are reasons to expect that households that report using food and nutrition assis-tance programs in a one-time survey can either be more food secure or less food secure than low-income households not using those programs. Since the programs provide food and other resources to reduce the severity of food insecurity, households are expected to be more food secure after receiving program benefits than they were before. On the other hand, it is the more food-insecure households—those having greater difficulty meeting their food needs—that seek assistance from the programs.36 In 2017, an estimated 50.1 percent of households that received SNAP benefits were food insecure, as were 41.7 percent of households that received free or reduced-price school lunches and 38.2 percent of those that received WIC benefits (table 8).

The prevalence of very low food security among households participating in SNAP was more than double that of nonparticipating households in the same low-income range (22.0 percent versus 9.8 percent). For households that received free or reduced-price school lunches, the prevalence of very low food security was also double that of nonparticipating households with school-age children in the same income range (13.2 percent versus 6.6 percent).

A possible complicating factor in interpreting table 8 is that food insecurity was measured over a 12-month period. An episode of food insecurity may have occurred at a different time during the year than the use of a specific food and nutrition assistance program. A similar tabulation using a 30-day measure of food insecurity largely overcomes this potential problem because measured food insecurity and reported use of food and nutrition assistance programs are more likely to refer to concurrent conditions when both are referenced to the previous 30 days. That tabulation shows patterns of food insecurity and the use of food and nutrition assistance programs that are similar to those in table 8, although 30-day food insecurity prevalence rates were lower than the corresponding 12-month rates (see Statistical Supplement table S-15, Coleman-Jensen et al., 2018).

35Some program participants reported annual incomes that were higher than 12 times the program eligibility criteria, which are based on monthly income (relative to poverty). They may have had monthly incomes below the monthly eligibility threshold during part of the year, or subfamilies within the household may have had incomes low enough to have been eligible.

36This “self-selection” effect is evident in the association between food security and food program participation observed in the food security survey. Participating households were less food secure than similar nonparticipating households. More complex analysis, using methods to account for this self-targeting, is required to assess the extent to which the programs improve food security (see Gregory et al., 2015, for a review of this literature and these methods; also see Mabli et al., 2013; Nord, 2013; Nord, 2012; Nord and Prell, 2011; Ratcliffe and McKernan, 2011; Nord and Golla, 2009; Yen et al., 2008; Wilde and Nord, 2005; Gundersen and Oliveira, 2001; Gundersen and Gruber, 2001; Nelson et al., 1998). Overall, these studies find that SNAP improves food security.



Table 8 Percentage of households by food security status and participation in selected Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, 2017

CategoryFood

secure

Food insecure

AllWith low food

securityWith very low food security

PercentIncome less than 130 percent of poverty line:Received SNAP1 benefits previous 12 months 49.9 50.1 28.1 22.0Received SNAP benefits all 12 months 51.2 48.8 26.1 22.7Received SNAP benefits 1 to 11 months 47.2 52.8 32.4 20.4

Did not receive SNAP benefits previous 12 months 76.6 23.4 13.6 9.8

Income less than 185 percent of poverty line; school-age children in household:Received free or reduced-price school lunch previous 30 days 58.3 41.7 28.5 13.2Did not receive free or reduced-price school lunch previous 30 days 74.2 25.8 19.2 6.6

Income less than 185 percent of poverty line; children under age 5 in household:Received WIC2 previous 30 days 61.8 38.2 27.9 10.3Did not receive WIC previous 30 days 72.0 28.0 22.1 5.9

1SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, formerly the Food Stamp Program.2WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants, and Children.


Participation in Federal Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs by Food-Insecure Households

About 58 percent of food-insecure households reported receiving assistance from one or more of the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs during the month prior to the December 2017 food security survey (table 9). SNAP provided assistance to 43.1 percent of food-insecure households; children in 30.5 percent of food-insecure households received free or reduced-price school lunches; and women or children in 9.4 percent of food-insecure households received WIC food vouchers.37 An estimated 56.3 percent of households classified as having very low food secu-rity reported participating in one or more of the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, with the largest share (46.5 percent) participating in SNAP.38

37These statistics may be biased downward. It is known from comparisons between household survey data and admin-istrative records that food program participation is underreported by household survey respondents, including those in the CPS (Meyer and George, 2011; Parker, 2011; Meyer et al., 2009). This is probably true for food-insecure households as well, although the extent of underreporting by these households is not known. Statistics are based on the subsample of households with annual incomes below 185 percent of the poverty line. Not all of these households were eligible for certain programs. (For example, many households without pregnant women or children and with incomes above 130 percent of poverty would not have been eligible for any of the programs.)

38The statistics in table 9 were also calculated for households that were food insecure during the 30-day period prior to the survey. In principle, that analysis is preferable because food security status and use of programs are more certainly contempo-raneous than when food insecurity is assessed over a 12-month period. However, the results differed only slightly from those in table 9 and are not presented in a separate table. In 2017, an estimated 59.6 percent of households that were food insecure during the 30-day period prior to the survey participated in SNAP, free or reduced-price school lunch, or WIC during that same period. Among households that experienced very low food security in the 30-day period prior to the survey, 55.9 percent participated in SNAP, free or reduced-price school lunch, or WIC during that same period.



Table 9 Participation of food-insecure households in selected Federal food and nutrition assistance programs, 2017

Program

Share of food-insecure households that participated in the program during the previous 30 days1,2

Share of households with very low food security that participated in the

program during the previous 30 days1,2

PercentSNAP3 43.1 46.5Free or reduced-price school lunch 30.5 23.3

WIC4 9.4 6.6Any of the three programs 58.4 56.3None of the three programs 41.6 43.71Analysis is restricted to households with annual incomes less than 185 percent of the poverty line because most households with incomes above that range were not asked whether they participated in food assistance programs.2These statistics understate the extent of food and nutrition program participation because program participation is underreported by household survey respondents, see footnote 37.3SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, formerly the Food Stamp Program.4WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants, and Children.




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Nord, Mark. 2013. Effects of the Decline in the Real Value of SNAP Benefits From 2009 to 2011. ERR-151, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nord, Mark, Margaret Andrews, and Steven Carlson. 2008. Household Food Security in the United States, 2007. ERR-66, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nord, Mark, Margaret Andrews, and F. Joshua Winicki. 2000. “Frequency and Duration of Food Insecurity and Hunger in U.S. Households.” Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Dietary Assessment Methods, Tucson, AZ, Sept. 17-20, 2000.

Nord, Mark, and Gary Bickel. 2002. Measuring Children’s Food Security in U.S. Households, 1995-9. FANRR-25, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nord, Mark, and Alisha Coleman-Jensen. 2014. “Improving Food Security Classification of Households With Children,” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 9(3):318-33.

Nord, Mark, and Anne Marie Golla. 2009. Does SNAP Decrease Food Insecurity? Untangling the Self-Selection Effect. ERR-85, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nord, Mark, and Karla Hanson. 2012. “Adult Caregiver Reports of Adolescents’ Food Security Do Not Agree Well with Adolescents’ Own Reports,” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 7(4):363-80.

Nord, Mark, and Heather Hopwood. 2007. “Recent Advances Provide Improved Tools for Measuring Children’s Food Security,” Journal of Nutrition 137(3)533-36.

Nord, M., K. Jemison, and G.W. Bickel. 1999. Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Hunger by State, 1996-1998. FANRR-2, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Nord, Mark, and Linda S. Kantor. 2006. “Seasonal Variation in Food Insecurity Is Associated with Heating and Cooling Costs Among Low-Income Elderly Americans,” Journal of Nutrition 136(11):2939-44.



Nord, Mark, and Mark Prell. 2011. Food Security Improved Following the 2009 Increase in SNAP Benefits. ERR-116, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Oliveira, Victor. 2018. The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2017 Annual Report. EIB-190, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Oliveira, Victor, and Donald Rose. 1996. Food Expenditure Estimates From the 1995 CPS Food Security Supplement: How Do They Compare With the Consumer Expenditure Survey? Staff Report No. AGES9617, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Parker, Julie. 2011. “SNAP Misreporting on the CPS: Does it Affect Poverty Estimates?” Social, Economic, and Housing Statistics Division Working Paper No. 2012-1, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau.

Rabbitt, Matthew P., and Alisha Coleman-Jensen. 2017. “Rasch Analysis of the Standardized Spanish Translation of the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module,” Journal of Economic and Social Measurement 42(2):171-97.

Ratcliffe, Caroline, and Signe-Mary McKernan. 2011. “How Much Does the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Reduce Food Insecurity?” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 93(4):1082-98.

Ryu, Jeong-Hee, and Judith S. Bartfeld. 2012. “Household Food Insecurity During Childhood and Subsequent Health Status: The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort,” American Journal of Public Health 102(11):e50-e55.

Scherpf, Erik, Constance Newman, and Mark Prell. 2015. Improving the Assessment of SNAP Targeting Using Administrative Records. ERR-186, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

Tiehen, Laura, Constance Newman, and John Kirlin. 2017. The Food Spending Patterns of SNAP Households: Findings From USDA's FoodAPS. EIB-176, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. 2018. Official USDA Food Plans: Cost of Food at Home at Four Levels, U.S. Average, December 2017. (Issued Jan.).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. 2007. The Thrifty Food Plan, 2006. CNPP-19.

Wilde, Parke, and Mark Nord. 2005. “The Effect of Food Stamps on Food Security: A Panel Data Approach,” Review of Agricultural Economics 27(3):425-32.

Wilde, Parke E., Robert E. Zagar, and Mark Nord. 2010. “In Longitudinal Data from the Survey of Program Dynamics, 16.9% of the U.S. Population Was Exposed to Household Food Insecurity in a 5-Year Period,” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 5(3):380-98.

Yen, Steven T., Margaret Andrews, Zhuo Chen, and David B. Eastwood. 2008. “Food Stamp Program Participation and Food Insecurity: An Instrumental Variables Approach,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(1):117-32.

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