topic x 1 - open university malaysia · topic 1 communication: an overview w 5 (d) meanings any act...

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Communication: An Overview

X INTRODUCTION

This topic aims to give you an overview of communication in general. It highlights different definitions of communication as offered by experts in the field. The topic also touches on types and models of communication. It then zooms in on oral communication, in particular, the forms it normally takes.

Why do we need to study communication? From the time we were born, we communicated with the world (Figure 1.1). Even as babies, we babbled, cried, screamed and gurgled our way into our parentsÊ hearts. Then, as we grew up, we learnt words and began to communicate through language. Communication comes naturally to most of us except those who are physically challenged.

Figure 1.1: Even

babies communicateSource health-in-

action.org

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define what is meant by communication;

2. List the main types of communication;

3. Describe three models of communication; and

4. Explain the different forms that oral communication can take.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

X TOPIC 1 COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW 2

Communication, just like love, makes the world go round. Studying about communication enables us to improve our skills at interacting with people. Professionally, people who are good communicators tend to do better in their careers. The good news is, effective communication is a skill that can be acquired if you make an effort to study the fundamentals of communication theories and principles.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is an essential part of our lives. We communicate everyday ă with different people, at different times, in different ways. We communicate with ourselves in our thoughts. We also communicate with our family, friends, people at work, and people we meet, socially or professionally. At times, we may even need to communicate with a larger audience such as members of the public.

Now, put on your thinking cap. Before looking at what experts have to say about communication, try and formulate some ideas about the nature of communication by drawing upon your prior knowledge. Reflect on these questions:

(a) What do you think communication is?

(b) Is it something static or does it involve a process?

(c) What happens during communication?

(d) Can a person communicate with himself?

(e) How many people does it take to communicate?

(f) In what ways can you communicate with another?

(g) Are geographical boundaries barriers to communication?

(h) How does information technology affect the nature of communication?

1.1


TOPIC 1 COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW W 3

The answers to all of these statements should be „Yes‰. Read on to find out more.

1.1.1 Defining Communication

Carl Rogers (1952) (Figure 1.2) says that:

„Real communication occurs ... when we listen with understanding ă to see the expressed idea and attitude from the other personÊs point of view, to sense how it feels to him, to achieve his frame of reference in regard to the things he is talking about.‰

ACTIVITY 1.1

Respond to each of the following statements with Y (yes) if you agree with it or N (no) if you disagree.

_______1. Communication can involve only one person.

_______2. Communication involves two or more people.

_______3. In order for communication to take place, there must be a source (or speaker) and a receiver (or listener).

_______4. In a communication act, the speaker can become the listener and the listener, the speaker.

_______5. You can communicate by speaking, writing letters or memos, sending faxes and e-mails.

_______6. You can communicate via facial expressions and body movements.

_______7. You can communicate without having to be physically present in a particular country.



This is particularly apt in the case of oral communication as oral communication is not just speaking and articulating your thoughts well but also involves listening to what has been said and interpreting the message accurately as intended by the speaker.

Figure 1.2: Carl Rogers

Source: psychology4a.com

Elizabeth Tierney (1998) describes communication as a process which begins when you have a message that you want to deliver to an audience. Your audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to your message. That response may lead you to react and give another message. This process may then go on and on.

The message can be anything that you wish to communicate to an audience. It may be an idea, a thought or a feeling that you wish to share with someone else. It can range from a simple greeting to a friend to a lengthy report at a formal meeting where many people may be present. What is important is that there is a sender and a receiver of the message.

According to Julia T. Wood (2009), „Communication is a systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.‰

The key terms in this definition are:

(a) Process ă it is ongoing, continuous and always changing.

(b) Systemic ă It happens within a system of interconnected parts that affect each other.

(c) Symbols ă These are what people use to represent things e.g. all language, non-verbal behaviours, art, and music.



(d) Meanings ă Any act of communication involves two essential aspects ă the literal message and the relationship between those who communicate with each other.

Joseph Devito (2009) says that:

„Communication occurs when one person (or more) sends and receives messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect, and provide some opportunity for feedback.‰

He lists six elements which are present in all communication acts.

(a) Context All communication takes place within a context that includes at least four

sub-contexts:

(i) Physical The real environment in which communication takes place, e.g. a

classroom, lecture hall, office, a public place.

(ii) Social-psychological For example, the status/relationship among the senders and receivers,

the roles and communication games that people play, cultural rules and the friendliness/unfriendliness or formality/informality of the situation.

(iii) Temporal The time context in which communication takes place like the time of

day or night, as well as historical time, e.g. 20th or 21st century.

(iv) Cultural The values, behaviour and beliefs of the society.

(b) Source-receiver There is a source (speaker) and a receiver (listener). You send a message

whenever you speak, write, gesture or smile. You receive a message when you listen, read or smell something. As you send, you are also receiving your own message, e.g. you can hear yourself talk and move. At the same time, you are also receiving the messages sent by the other person.

(c) Message/s May be verbal or non-verbal.



(d) Channels This refers to the medium through which the communication passes ă vocal

(speech), visual (gestures, words, pictures), olfactory (smells), and tactile (touch).

(e) Noise Anything that interferes with you receiving a message.

(f) Effect/s Communication affects people in many ways ă intellectual effects (changes

in thinking), affective effects (changes in attitudes) and psychomotor effects (changes in behaviour).

1.1.2 Types of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are three types of communication:

(a) Oral Communication In oral communication, information, thoughts and ideas are conveyed via a spoken language (see Figure 1.3). Basically, this takes place in the following ways:

(i) Face-to-face conversations;

(ii) Meetings;

(iii) Voice mail messages;

(iv) Teleconferencing;

(v) Oral presentations; and

(vi) Public speaking.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

1. Give four definitions of communication.

2. Based on any one of these definitions, briefly describe (from real life) an example of a communication experience that has taken place.



Very often, spoken messages are sent very quickly and feedback received almost immediately. However, there is little or no chance to reflect on what is said.

Figure 1.3: Oral communication

Source: 4-hontario.ca

(b) Written Communication In written communication, we exchange information using the written language, that is, words and sentences (refer to Figure 1.4). This can take place via:

(i) Letters;

(ii) Faxes;

(iii) Memos;

(iv) E-mail;

(v) Reports;

(vi) Minutes of meetings;

(vii) Tables;

(viii) Diagrams;

(ix) News releases;

(x) Charts; and

(xi) Graphs;

Written communication provides documentation and proof of the exchange of information. The drawback is that immediate feedback is not always possible.

Figure 1.4: Written communication

Source: a08.ngu.edu



(c) Non-verbal Communication In non-verbal communication, no words are used (refer to Figure 1.5). Feelings are expressed and conveyed through facial expressions, gestures and body movements. A certain look or gesture can speak a thousand words. Non-verbal communication, also known as body language, can be a very powerful form of communication and often includes the following (Camp & Satterwhite, 2002):

(i) Appearance;

(ii) Posture;

(iii) Eye contact;

(iv) Nervousness;

(v) Grooming; and

(vi) Dressing.

In face-to-face interactions, oral communication often goes hand-in-hand with non-verbal communication. Effective communicators combine these two modes of communication to reinforce their message.

Body language can be very powerful in supporting what you say. For example, when you thank somebody, a grateful look will re-inforce your feelings very strongly. Likewise, you may tell your boss that you are not tired but your body language betrays you if you keep on nodding and falling asleep.

Figure 1.5: Non-verbal communication

Source: grahamwatsondesign.com

ACTIVITY 1.2

In the scenarios below, what type of communication would you use? State the reason for your choice. Jot down your answers in a notebook and discuss these during your next tutorial session.

1. You receive a message on your telephone answering machine, asking you to call up a client to set an appointment to meet him.

2. You need to make a speech on „Helping Needy Students‰ at a Parent-Teachers Association meeting in a school.

3. You are at a television studio. You receive a message on your handphone to go to the next room immediately to appear on a live international television show.



1.1.3 The Purposes of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are four main purposes in communication:

(a) To inquire ă This involves obtaining information in various ways, for instance, by asking questions or through formulating questionnaires.

(b) To inform ă This entails the dissemination of information using different channels of communication.

(c) To persuade ă This aims to influence people and bring them round to your way of thinking.

(d) To develop goodwill ă This involves maintaining and forming cordial and harmonious relationships with people you are communicating.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:

(a) Linear model;

(b) Interactive model; and

(c) Transactional model.

1.2

SELF-CHECK 1.2

1. Differentiate between to inquire, to inform, to persuade and to develop goodwill.

2. In your opinion, which of the purposes of communication mentioned above is the most prevalent in your workplace? Give reasons for your answer.



1.2.1 Linear Model

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens. LaswellÊs (1948) model was based on the five questions below, which effectively describe how communication works:

Shannon and WeaverÊs (1949) model includes noise or interferences that distort understanding between the speaker and the listener. Figure 1.6 shows a linear model of communication.

Figure 1.6: A linear model of communication

Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth.

1.2.2 Interactive Model

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.



Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.

This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (see Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: An interactive model of communication


1.2.3 Transactional Model

The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.



There are three implications in the transactional model:

(a) „Transactional‰ means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well.

(b) In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source.

(c) Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

Figure 1.8 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account „noise‰ or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicatorsÊ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

Briefly describe the main features of the following models of communication:

(a) Linear model.

(b) Interactive model.

(c) Transactional model.



Figure 1.8: A transactional model of communication


FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication has been described as the process of people using verbal and non-verbal messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels and media. It encompasses various sets of skills including the ability to speak coherently and persuasively, understanding of communication theory and processess, knowledge of verbal and non-verbal cues, audience analysis, listening skills as well as communication ethics.

1.3

ACTIVITY 1.3

Using the models described in this topic, analyse the communication that takes place in your family. Which model best reflects the communication between family members?

Jot down notes and present your analysis to your tutorial group members when you next meet. You may want to show pictures of your family members when you make your presentation.



In this section, we will describe seven forms of oral communication:

(a) Intrapersonal communication;

(b) Interpersonal communication;

(c) Small group communication;

(d) Public communication;

(e) Mass communication;

(f) Corporate communication; and

(g) Intercultural communication.

1.3.1 Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself under certain circumstances ă for example, when you need to make an important decision or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether intrapersonal communication is just another way of describing the thinking process. In a way, that would be correct.

Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which relies on language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean „soliloquy‰ where the character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have transpired (see Figure 1.9). Intrapersonal communication often increases self-awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical thinking skills.

Figure 1.9: Shakespearean soliloquy

Source: literaryzone.com



1.3.2 Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This form of communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal. Impersonal communication is when you talk with a person you do not really care about ă there is often a coldness or an indifference in your attitude when you engage in this kind of communication.

Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people you meet in a social context. The most personal type of communication occurs when you talk with people who are close to you, for example, your best friend, family members and colleagues. Such relationships are interdependent, meaning that the actions of one party very often directly affects the other party. Interpersonal communication can take place face to face as well as through electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms, e-mail and Twitter.

1.3.3 Small Group Communication

Small group communication takes place in a group, usually comprising five to 10 people. This form of communication serves relationship needs (like companionship, family bonding and affection or support) as well as task-based needs, for example, deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in the workplace.

In academic institutions, students often form small groups which meet regularly for study discussions or to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace, small groups may meet to discuss issues related to work, or for problem-solving or team-building purposes. Learning to communicate effectively in teams contributes to success and advancement in many careers. Small group communication allows you to interact with others, be it at home, in school, at the workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas, solve problems and share experiences.

1.3.4 Public Communication

Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few people to thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually to inform or to persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A

Figure 1.10: Small group communication Source: csus.edu



teacher may address an assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school rules. A politician may make speeches on how he will be dealing with certain issues in order to win their votes. An executive may give a business presentation to get more sales. It is important to understand some of the basic principles of effective public speaking so that you are able to influence, persuade as well as entertain your audience when you communicate with them.

1.3.5 Mass Communication

Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many receivers all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos and television. Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and blogs can be very powerful indeed as information is disseminated instantly.

1.3.6 Corporate Communication

Corporate communication is communication that takes place among members of an organisation, within that organisation. Interacting in teams, conferencing with co-workers, talking with a supervisor or manager, giving employees explanations and directions, interviewing and making presentations are some examples of corporate communication. Effective corporate communication skills enhance corporate image and impact positively on morale, commitment, and productivity in corporations.

1.3.7 Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is communication between people of diverse cultures and ethnicities. The world is increasingly becoming a global village and every country has people of various ethnicities. Thus, it is important to note differences in the communication practices of different cultures if intercultural harmony, as well as understanding is to be maintained. For example, in many Asian countries, students will seldom contradict or disagree with a teacher in the classroom as this shows disrespect. In Western academic institutions, however, it is the norm for students to think for themselves and engage their teachers in debate and discussion. It is important to make efforts to recognise and respect the communication practices of people from different cultures and nationalities.



ACTIVITY 1.4

Audio 1.1: Forms of CommunicationListen carefully to each of the five conversations in the audio provided. Identify the form of communication that is taking place. Write down your answers in the space provided next to the numbered dialogue. Choose from the suggested answers below:

Intrapersonal Public Mass Intercultural

Interpersonal Small group Corporate

Dialogue 1: _____________ Dialogue 2: _____________ Dialogue 3: _____________ Dialogue 4: _____________ Dialogue 5: _____________

SELF-CHECK 1.4

Describe the different forms of communication below:

1. Intrapersonal communication

2. Interpersonal communication

3. Small group communication

4. Public communication

5. Mass communication

6. Corporate communication

7. Intercultural communication



x There are many definitions of communication.

ă Carl Rogers (1952) defined communication as listening with understanding to what has been said and interpreting the message accurately as intended by the speaker.

ă Elizabeth Tierney (1998) defined it as a process which comprises the following steps ă you have a message you want to deliver, you send it out, your audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to your message.

ă Julia Wood (2009) defined it as a systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.

ă Devito (2009) said that communication occurs when one person (or more) sends and receives messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect, and provide some opportunities for feedback.

x The linear model of communication views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens.

x The interactive model views communication as a process in which the speaker and listener take turns speaking, listening and giving feedback to each other.

x The transactional model views communication as an ongoing and continuously changing process which takes into consideration the effects of noise, time, and systems. In this model, communicators can send and receive messages simultaneously.

x Oral communication can be in the form of intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, public, mass, corporate, and intercultural communication.



Corporate communication

Feedback

Interactive Model

Intercultural communication

Interpersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication

Linear Model

Mass communication

Message

Noise

Non-verbal communication

Oral communication

Public communication

Receiver

Small group communication

Source

Speaker

Symbols

Systemic process

Transactional Model


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