timespan 1855 (death of nikolas i) - 1881 (assassination ... · in 1861 alexander issued his...

RUSSIA 1855 - 1914

How effectively did the reforms of Alexander II solve the internal problems of Russia?

The reforms of Alexander II

Timespan 1855 (death of Nikolas I) - 1881 (assassination of A II)

REFORMS:· The abolition of serfdom - not immediate, the peasants still dependent of the

commune. Econommically the serfs were worse off.· Local government reform - some powers distributed to the local community.

· Reform of the judicial system - Russia one small step towards a state governed by

law.· Economic and financial reforms

· Education reforms

· Reforms of the armed forces

· The nationalities - liberalism towards the finns, russification of the poles.

Titel: nov 10-13:41 (Sida 1 av 65)

Internal problems of Russia 1855-81:


How well were the problems solved:


The Crimean War made Alexander II realize that Russia was no longer a great

military power. His advisers argued that Russia's serf-based economy could no

longer compete with industrialized nations such as Britain and France.

"It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it

will begin to abolish itself from below.

In 1861 Alexander issued his Emancipation Manifesto that proposed 17

legislative acts that would free the serfs in Russia. Alexander announced that

personal serfdom would be abolished and all peasants would be able to buy

land from their landlords. The State would advance the money to the

landlords and would recover it from the peasants in 49 annual sums known as

redemption payments.


How far is it true to say that Russia was transformed into a modern country between 1855 and 1900?

Problems: the definition of modern. Transformation has to be discussed as it took place. In a conclusion the student has to decide if the result was a modern country.

Timespan; The rule of Alexander II, Alexander III and start of Nicholas II.

Titel: dec 2-20:24 (Sida 5 av 65)

Background: The humiliating defeat in the Crimean War. The war thought Russia a lesson. West European efficiency and industrialisation

defeated the stagnated and old fashioned Russian Empire. This alarmed the Russian government and the new ruler. Russia had to be

reformed in order to compete with the west.Social reform was also inevitable to prevent revolution by the

peasantry.


By the end of the 16th century the Russian peasant came

under the complete control of the landowner and during

the middle of the 17th century serfdom became

hereditary. Their situation became comparable to that of

slaves and they could be sold to another landowner in

families or singly.

By the 19th century it was estimated that about 50 per

cent of the 40,000,000 Russian peasants were serfs. Most

of these were the property of the nobility but large

numbers were owned by the Tsar and religious

foundations.

Russian serfdom


Rural Russia: Land tenure in Feudal Russia was arranged by cherespolositsa, where land on each fief was divided into long narrow

strips. Serfs tended two strips side by side: one for the landlord, the other for themselves.

After serfdom was abolished in 1861, the land serfs had once cultivated for themselves became owned by a peasant commune, the Obshchina ,

formed from those peasants on the same fief. The landlords retained the lands that were not used for maintaining the life of the serfs (eg. they kept the majority of the land), still in strips side to side with the

communal land. The landlords also retained all of the forested and pastoral land.

While the serfs had once been able to graze their animals (commonly a cow and horse) on pastoral land, now their animals had no where to

graze. The newly "emancipated" peasants were also stranded from the most prized commodity of Russia throughout most of the year:

firewood.

Titel: nov 8-1:36 PM (Sida 9 av 65)

From this relationship between landowner and peasant was born the kulak ,

who imposed on the peasantry a tax to use their pasture. The communes

responded by lying fallow some of their land and turning it into pasture. Their

remained, however, the strips of the landlord's land throughout their community.

The kulak here established a system of tolls for each animal that crossed over

their land (areas now called vavilony – "babylons"). In order to have wood for

winter, peasants had little choice but to work the kulak's land in return for a

payment fee that would allow them to cut timber from the kulak's forest.

The hated Kulaks as seen in Stalin's propaganda.


Distressed by the suffering of the serfs and the selfishness of the

nobles Alexander II forbad landowners to move serfs to poor lands

or to dispose of them by giving them to the army.

The serfs on royal estates were liberated in 1858 and in 1861

Alexander II signed the EMANCIPATION ACT.

http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Eman.html

Here you can read the whole declaration


· No intention of introducing a modern system of money relationship

into the countryside or a class of capitalist farmers.

· No equality before the law

· No real economic freedom to develop individual lands.

· The nobles remained priviliged increasing their share of the wealth

from 1861-1914.


· 1864 - next major reform; the creation of the Zemstvos - elected

local governments.

· 3 categories of voters for councils chosen for 3 years.

· Local assemblies

· Provincial assemblies

· Urban councils

· Regional and provincial nobles of the highest rank chaired the

rural assemblies. The wealthy and the titled had more voting power

· Those who paid a higher tax had a greater representation

· The councils main purpose were to make improvements.

Zemstvo building


· Army- and financial reforms;

· Universal conscription 1874 - increase of the army, six years

service with a vast reserve replaced the old serf army based on a

25-year service.

· The Prussian army acted as a model for the new Russian army.

· Economic reforms attempted to stabilise the currency and

encourage foreign investments.

· The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 revealed the limitations of the

new armies and caused a financial crisis and a loss of foreign

confidence.


REFORMPOLICYAlexander II assembled the diet in 1863 which resulted inn a period of

development and reforms.· The Dietreform of 1869

-The diet had to assemble every 5, later every 3 year.

-Expanded representation-Expanded powers

REFORMS IN FINLAND


THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF FINLAND.Background;

· the industrial revolution, late 18:th century (Britain, Belgium, Sweden)

· liberalism of AlexanderII


The industrial breakthrough didn't take place before the 1860's. The transition was quite slow and concerned almost

only the woodworking industry.

FORESTRY· Watermills (16:th century)· Tarproduction, the most important

product of export· Steampower, restricted until 1857

due to fear of efficiency· Paperproduction, 1842 (Frenckell)· Saima channel (1856)· Industrial towns, Kemi, Kotka· Government of forestry 1859· Worldexhibitions from 1867,

exhibition of industry and art in Helsinki 1876

The Finnish pavillion in Paris 1900. Gesellius, Lindgren and

Saarinen.


THE RAILWAY· Helsinki-Hämeenlinna 1862· Riihimäki-St:Petersburg 1870· Trackwidth-russian


ECONOMIC REFORMS· Right to take initiative in legislative

matters 1886· Decentrilisation, the cities and

municipilities received most of the clerical duties (education, healthcare, infra structure) but also the right of

taxation· The language reform(1863) -

Finnish an official language within 20 years.

· Stock companies (1864)· Law of free enterprice - the right to

buy/sell everywhere (1879)· Law of banks (1864)

-made it possible to start bankingactivity. Necessary to

acumulate investments.· The Finnish National Bank

-National currency 1860

Suomen Pankki (The central Bank) headquarters,

built 1882.


Lev Bronstein, or Trotskij before the founding the

socialist party, when he was considered a Narodnik.


Birth of Revolution: From this conflict in rural society, Russia's

first revolutionary organisation formed in the 1860s: the

Narodniks . These groups were mostly made up of students

without a clear direction, save to overthrow the monarchy and

landlords, and distribute land among the peasantry. In the spring

of 1874, the conflict between the kulaks and peasantry brought

turbulence to Russia's urban centres, and the Narodniks left the

cities for the villages, going "among the people" (hence their

name), attempting to "teach" the peasantry to revolt under their

guidance. They found almost no support.

The policefile of Stalin


The Tsarist police (Okhrana) responded to the movement with steeled

repression: political action was not an option for the "emancipated"

peasantry. Revolutionaries and peasant sympathisers were beaten,

imprisoned or exiled to Siberia. As peasants were arrest and exiled or

imprisoned, kulaks gained their land, putting the peasant communes under

increasingly heavy burdens. In 1877, the Narodniks came to their height

with thousands of revolutionaries and peasants in support. The movement

was again brutally crushed.

Responding to brutal repression of the open, spontaneous forms of

organisation thereto taken, Russia's first organised revolutionary party

formed: People's Will ( Narodnaia Volia ), with a new revolutionary

programme: terrorism.

[...] Terrorism would be incorporated into the tactics of the Socialist-

Revolutionary Party after the People's Will was dissolved in the early 1880s,

and used throughout the following 40 years against the Monarchy and later

the Soviet government


Opposition against Alexander II

THE DIVISION OF OPPOSITION

· The division probably preserved the autocracy until

1905.

· The only uniting element was the opposition against

the regime.

· Socially, geografically, economically divided.

· 'Divide and rule'.


Execution of terrorists after the assassination

of Alexander II.


· Serfdom vanished but the Russian agricultural traditions remained.

· The Mir (commune) based on collective farming and common

desicions.

· The payments restricted the individual enterprise of the peasants.

· Productivity and investment were low, famines a constant threat.

The situation of the Russian liberated serfs was very

much like the liberated american slaves in the USA

after the civil war.


PROBLEMS· The former Serfs bound by high taxes, low incomes and the annual payments to the former

owners.· This hindered investments which would have been needed to modernize the farming.· The peasants were also hindered by the MIR (villagecommunity);· No chance to decide waht, when and how to farm (collective decisions). The Mir a collection of

households, not individuals.· Movement restricted by a passport system. This stopped the industrial development as it

hindered migration and therefore urbanisation.


1877

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 brought an economic recession which

inflated the roubles and strengthened the central control of Russia's

economy.


THE SITUATION FACING ALEXANDER III IN 1881

DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1855· Serfdom abolished· The Zemstvos offered consultation

and political experience.· Financial reforms and a Public budget· Judicial independence and trial by jury

indtroduced· Military reforms, conscription

NO CHANGES SINCE 1855

· Autocracy dominated

· The powers of the traditional

institutions like nobility and church

as strong as ever.

· Vaste estates dominated the

agricultural sector.

· The rich got richer and the poor

poorer

· Tradition and conservatism

dominated, liberalism weak.


Alexander's dilemma:

· Wanted a traditional Russia; no opposition, strict

control over peasant communities, no democracy BUT· No return back to a pre-industrial past. Russia needed to be a great

power. Towns, industries and communications had to grow AND· With growth came dangers as new ideas, which easily spread with

efficient means of communication.

The Borki train disaster occurred on October 29

[O.S. October 17] 1888 when the imperial train

carrying Tsar Alexander III of Russia and his

family from Crimea to Saint Petersburg derailed

at high speed. Twenty-one people died at the

scene and two later. According to the official

version of events, Alexander held the collapsed

roof of the royal car on his shoulders while his

family escaped the crash site uninjured.

Alexander's death 1894 has partly been blamed

on the injuries he received in the accident.


SIMILARITIES OF THE REIGNS OF ALEXANDER II AND ALEXANDER III

· Both believed in autocracy but had different strategies to preserve it; A II

by moderate reform, A III by repression.

· Neither was consistent; The reforms of II were restricted while A III

didn't entirely abandon concession and reform.

· Both keen imperialists and expanded the Empire.

· Both encouraged economic and military development and neither really

came to terms with the possible concequences.


IMPROVEMENTS OF ALEXANDER III· Peasant payments to the State were reduced.· A peasant land bank was established, capital for improving

investements.· Some taxes abolished· Working conditions for women and children regulated (the idea

from Bismarck's Germany).· The first collection of Russian art founded.

The State Tretyakov Gallery is the national treasury of Russian fine art and one of the greatest museums in the world. The Gallery's collection consists entirely of Russian art and

artists who have made а contribution to the history of Russian art or been closely

connected with it. The collection contains more than 150 000 works of painting, sculpture and graphics, created throughout the centuries by successive generations of Russian

artists.


SETBACKS· Anti-semitism ('Let us never forget that it was the Jews who crucified

Jesus.' Banned from education and harrassed - emigration.· Russification - ethnic minorities threatened and rights restricted.· Press-cencorship· Control of the peasants increased by the appointments of land

captains and giving the landlords more powers.· Increase of closed trials for political offences (terrorism)· The powers of the Zemstvos reduced· Religious tolerance reduced· Universities under stricter control.


OPPOSITION, 1881 - 1905

· Marxist ideas resulted in the establishment of different socialis

groups; Thr Socialist Revolutionary Party 1900, Mensheviks and

Bolsheviks.

· The political oppositional groups often quite small, led from abroad

and divided on matters as use of violence.

· Russification resulted in growing nationalism and opposition.

· Industrialisation awoke urban opposition in the industrial centres

E Schauman and Bobrikoff

Lenin


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DvTRh9C2GxY&feature=related

Rasputin, pt 2/3http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxAUQnh8-4o&feature=related

Rasputin pt 3/3

Russian cartoon, showing how

Rasputin dominated the

Russian court in 1916.


CHANGE OF RUSSIAN POLICY · 'The armed peace'· Growing German threat (1890)· Imperialism· Balkan-'the powder keg of Europe'· Russian nationalism· Growing opposition in Russia


THE FIRST RUSSIFICATION PERIOD

The intention was to weed out the elements of "Finnish separatism" by

depriving the country of its special status and absorbing it into the Empire.

· Nikolaj II appointed the passionately pro-Russian General Nikolay

Bobrikov as Governor-General of Finland in 1898.

· Bobrikov's first move was to merg the Finnish military with the Russian

army.

· When this run into problems the russification started (The February

Manifesto 1899)

· Adoption of the Russian languaga for use in the senate, government

offices and schools, the opening of all official posts in Finland to Russian

citizens, and extension of the legal code of the Russian Empire to the

Grand Duchy.


The Tsar issued a decree on the 15th February 1899 which the Finns saw as an

attempt to seize power from the Diet.

With the Febrarymanifesto the Russian Tsar and Duma gained the powers to the

legislation of so called nation-wide laws and it was the Tsar who had the powers

to decide which laws were to be interpreted as nation wide ones.

The Februarymanifesto gave rise to a vast outcry. At the beginning majority of

the Finns thought that the Grand Dutch had been fooled and the Finns raised a

Great Petition (with more than ½ million names of a population on 2 million). The

petition was submitted to the Tsar but he refused to accept accept it. The same

happened to the Cultural petition.


THE DIVISION OF

THE POPULATION

THE 'CONCILIATION LINE'· Advocated tactical collaboration with

Russia and wished of returned autonomy as a reward of good

behaviour

THE CONSTITUTIONALISTS· Urged resistance (legal) to

Russification measures· The 'Kagaal'· Boycott of conscription call-ups

ACTIVISM· As russification became harsher with

Bobrikovs dictatorial powers 1903 and Cossack riots in Helsinki 1902 a group

of radicals advocating violent resistance emerged (Nationalists and

socialists)


1900 - Through a postmanifesto Finland lost its own national stamps.

A languagemanifesto introduced Russian as administrative language in

higher offices and the teachinglessons in Russian in the schools increased.

Censorship was tightened and newspapers and magazines were forced to

close.

1901 - Through the conscriptionlaw the Finnish army was dissolved and

military service in the Russian army became compulsory (passive

resistance and increased emigration).

1903 - Bobrikov received dictatorial powers.


1904 - Bobrikov assassinated by Eugen Schauman.

1904-05 - The Russo-Japanese war.

The Russian defeat in the War resulted in the first revolutionary attempt in

Russia. After the Bloody Sunday a general strike spread throughout Russia

and to Finland were it became a protestmovement against the oppressive

policies.

During the year of 1904 the political situation changed drastically in

Finland. The unrest and opposition increased. Russia dragged itself into a

war with Japan and Bobrikov was assassinated by Schauman.


The Parliamentary reform 1906

This represented a major step towards democratization of the Finnish

society. ● The outdated concept of the four estates was replaced with a unicameral Parliament

with 200 members elected for 3 years.

● Suffrage was universal and equal and the minimum voting age was set at 24 years.

● The elections were secret and proportional (d'Hondt's principles)

The outcome of this reform was that Finland developed a modern style partysystem in

which the existing parties were joined by the Swedish People's Party and the Agrarian

Party.


REPRESSION· Extension of police powers

· Censorship

· Limitation of peasant freedom

· Modification of the freedom of the zemstvos and municipal dumas-the power of

the wealthier classes increased.· Russification


INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION· Between 1893-1900 the industrial output doubled

· Foreign investments (France after 1890)

· S Witte increased state investments in industrial projects.

· Railway expansion of astronomous dimensions

PROBLEMS· Agricultural stagnation and poverty

· Industrial proletariat living in appalling conditions

· A population growth (74-133, 1860-1900)


'Repression and reaction were the particular marks of the rule of

the last Tsar, Nicholas II'. Discuss the validity of this verdict on his

reign to 1914.


To what extent the system caused its own downfall.Nicholas II was in favour of preserving the Tsarist state intact as he had inherited it, he

was prepared to repress any attempt to undermine the autocracyThe role of his advisers

The family tragedy with Michael (hemophelia), the Tsarina and Rasputin.Nicholas wasn't prepared to take over as a ruler when he had to.

The Russo-Japanese war 1904-05The Bloody Sunday, the greatest act of repressive stateterrorism on the own

people.


But at least after 1905 one can easily find arguments against the statement as well:The democratic reforms which Nicholas was forced to carry out after the revolution of 1905 -

universal male suffrage, the elected Dumas, the returned rights of the ethnic minoroties.The reform policy of Witte and Stolypin - boosted the economic development.

The impact of the Great War


If Russia wouldn’t have been pulled in to the Great War would the system

have survived. It wasn’t the strength and unity of the opposition which

brought the downfall it was the defeats in the war and the unpopularity of

the imperial house. Without a war there would probably not have been any

revolution.


How extensive and how effective in promoting change was the

opposition to the Tsarist system in Russia from c. 1881 to 1914?


Define ‘opposition’The opposition which brought the downfall wasn’t organised, united or planned. The Russo-Japanese war 1904-05 had already clearly warned the rulers that a major conflict with defeat

could shake the existing powerstructure of Russia.Opposition to the Tsar:

a. Political groupsSocialists - divided in

- Social Revolutionaries- Mensjeviks- Bolsjeviks- Anarchists

- Liberals

- Cadets


b. Non-political groups -The farmers

-The industrial workers -The Bourgeois

-The landless peasants -The poor Nobility -The poor priests

-The ethnic minorities


Most groups divided and unorganised. The political parties often small and with

minimal resources to premote any change in practice. The secret police

controlled most of the political groups. E.g. the socialists party which was

founded in London and of which most leaders were forced to imprisonment or

or activity in exile.

The non-political groups were only united by their opposition towards the

existing order or part of the rule carried out e.g. the russification policy.


THE EVENTS 1904-1905The Russo-Japanese war and the Bloody Sunday had an enormous impact as these proved that the Empire could tremble. The events resulted in spontaneous protests so big that they paralysed the regime. The successes of the opposition weren’t longlasting

as the oppositional groups were so divided but e.g. the events in Finland were revolutionary. All oppositional elements had been given a proof of possible change but this needed a major crises in which Russia was part of. When the First World War started this was the signal many of the oppositional elements had been waiting for.


Conclusion: Most of the oppositional groups were unsuccessful in promoting lasting change in Russia but those who aimed in replacing the old powerstructure with a new one would be successful. In the struggle againt the russification policy the successes of 1905-06 showed the non-russian elements that unity existed and change was possible.The only political groups which promoted change from within were the quite conservative

cadets and ‘Octobrists’. These parties had minor successes in reforming e.g. the economic legislation of Russia (wexsternisation).


timespan 1855 (death of nikolas i) - 1881 (assassination ... · in 1861 alexander issued his...

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