The Springs and Seeps of Tennessee

What are Springs and Seeps?Below the Earth's surface,sometimes just inches, sometimemiles, deep, lies 97 percent of ourfreshwater. This water may havecome from the last rain- or snowfall,or it could have been hidden deep inthe earth for a million years.Occasionally, rock formationsintersect this vast undergroundnetwork of reservoirs, permittingthese hidden pools of water to onceagain see the light of day. The spotswhere water flows back to thesurface are typically known as seepsor springs.

Springs usually emerge from a singlepoint, while seeps emerge over alarger area, having no well-definedorigin. Whether the surface waterflow is a seep or a spring isdetermined by the geology of the siteand the water pressure below thesurface. Seeps generally have a lowerflowrate than springs and only rarelyhave a volume large enough to form astream. Springs, on the other hand,can be the source of a small trickle, astream, or even a sizable river. Thepoint where a spring's water meetsthe surface is called an emergence, arise, or a boil. The flow directly belowthis point is called a run. Just as onthe surface, underground water flowsdownhill. The force of this flowdepends on the elevation difference

between the point where the waterenters the ground and the pointwhere it comes to the surface. Thesereentry points are usually throughporous layers of sand or gravelsandwiched between harder, lesspermeable, layers of soil or rock orthrough cracks and fissures in theunderlying rock. Seep and springwater may remain underground formany years, or even centuries, beforeit resurfaces. During this timeunderground it reaches atemperature much cooler than typicalsurface waters in the summer andmuch warmer in the winter. This is asignificant characteristic of springsand seeps that is important to theplants and animals that dependon them.

Why Are Springs and Seeps

Important?Springs are vital headwaters of manyof our rivers. They provide importanthabitat for wildlife and plants. Theirprotection and maintenance ensureclean water for wildlife, plants, and us.Springs are important to wildlifeduring the winter because theirmovement often keeps the water fromfreezing. Springs often may providethe only available source of drinkablewater. Seeps are an importantwetland type in Tennessee. Theyprovide habitat for many wetlandplant and animal species. Only

3 percent of the Earth's fresh wateris found in streams, lakes, andreservoirs. The remaining97 percent is underground. Groundwater is the safest and most reliablesource of available freshwater. It isthe primary water source for50 percent of the Americanpopulation. In rural areas,95 percent of the people depend onground water for their water supply.

Rare and Unique Plants and AnimalsSprings vary by their rate of flow,whether the water is acidic or basic,whether it is hard or soft, and thesurface factors into which theyemerge. One of the major factorsinfluencing plants and animals atthese sites is the amount of sunlightthat reaches the springs. Shadedsprings are relatively unproductive,and the food chain in them is based ondetritus. Open, sunny springs, on theother hand, can be very productive,supporting a variety of algae andaquatic plants; many snails,crustaceans, fishes, turtles, and frogs;and a plethora of invertebrates.

Seeps also are quite variable,primarily with respect to slope, soiltype, and volume of flow. AB withsprings, the amount of sunlightreaching the seeps has a major effecton the plant and animal communitiesthat live there. Shaded seep

communities are also mostly detritus-based, with the primary energy inputcoming from the leaves and otherorganic matter that falls into theseeps. The typically permeable andsaturated soils can support someplant life and often support somecrustaceans, such as crayfishes, andoccasionally a frog or salamander.

Open seeps support a greater varietyof plant life, including grasses, sedges,and club moss. Given the properconditions, they can also supportcarnivorous plants, such as pitcherplants and sundews. The greater thediversity of plant life in the seep, thegreater the diversity of animal speciesthat can be supported by theseep ecosystem.

Several rare, threatened, andendangered species are found only inseeps and springs. Species like thefederally endangered royal snail,which is found in only two spring runsin the entire world, are dependant onthe water quality and constant flowand temperature of the springs thatsupport them. The federallyendangered Tennessee yellow-eyedgrass and the State's rare large-leaved grass-of-Parnassus bothdepend on limestone-rich seepagewater from the calcareous rocks andbasic soil particular to this seep type.Other rare species, such as theblackwater darter, Barren'stopminnow, flame chub, and trispotdarter, are all similarly dependent onthe unique conditions of the seeps,springs, and spring runs they inhabit.In addition, many species ofsalamanders are found in springs andseeps; some of them, like the springsalamander, are not found in anyother type of habitat.

Threats to Springs and SeepsThere are many threats to these rareTennessee ecosystems. Spreadingurbanization has left many springsand seeps buried below housing andindustrial development. Logging androad construction, without the propercontrol of erosion, have led the onceproductive springs and seeps tobecome choked with sediment.Clearing vegetation from around aspring not only increases thesediment but also can result in thetemperature of the water going up tothe point where the unique creaturesit supports can no longer live there.Many seeps and springs are also lost

to impoundments, like farm ponds,which alter the flow ofwater. Theintroduction or invasion of exoticpests, such as the noxious weedHydrilla and the zebra mussel, alsothreatens spring and seeps and theirdistinctive inhabitants.

Often the water source itself is injeopardy. Excessive waterwithdrawal can lower the water tableto a point where seeps and springsno longer flow. We are increasinglyseeing our ground water, whichincludes springs and seeps, degradedby toxic pesticides, fertilizers, andother waste to the point where thewater is no longer safe to drink andis lethal to many plants and animals.Often the pollutant sources are manymiles away from where theproblem "surfaces."

What is Being Done to Protect

These Rare Places?Federal, state, and private agenciesare working together to protect andconserve these rare places. TheNature Conservancy is working toprotect the headwaters of KelleyCreek in Williamson County,Tennessee. This pristine HighlandRim stream harbors a number ofsensitive species and naturalcommunities, including a highlyimperiled calcareous seep;its limestone-rich ground waterprovides habitat for rare species likethe large-leaved grass-of-Parnassus.

You Can Help Protect and Restore

Springs and SeepsProtect springs and seeps fromchemical pollution, erosion fromroads and other construction, anddredging and filling. Support theorganizations that are working toprotect and restore them. Tell yourfriends and family about theimportance of springs and seeps.

Seeing is Believing!Springs and seeps are found acrossthe state. An excellent example ofsprings exist within the ShortSprings State Natural Area in CoffeeCounty. You can also visit the GreatSmoky Mountains National Park orthe Big South Fork National Riverand Recreation Area.

Royal Snail(Pyrgulopsis ogmorhaphe)

Remember, what we put onthe land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tellafriend about the royalsnail. Protect water quality.Participate in a local streamcleanup. Use biodegradablesoaps. Plant or maintainnative vegetation alongsidesprings and streams.Conserve water. Take pridein Tennessee's wildlife!

StatusThe royal snail was listed as

endangered on May 18, 1994.

DescriptionThe royal snail is a tiny creature,

smaller than a pea, usually less than

5 millimeters long. Its thin, pale shell

is whorled and cone-shaped and

blends in well with the

surrounding environment.

HabitatThe royal snail is dependent on spring

ecosystems; it is known from only two

spring runs on public land in Marion

County, Tennessee. Both springs

flow out of caves and are part of the

Sequatchie River system. Royal

snails are usually found in moist

calcium-rich ooze and on leaves and

twigs in quiet pools downstream from

the spring source.

Role in the EcosystemVery little is known about this rare

snail; its reproductive behavior and

food requirements are a mystery.

Snails are used as food by other

animals, including rodents and

other snails.

Life HistoryRoyal snails are believed to have a 1-

year, or annual, life cycle, meaning

that an individual snail reaches

maturity, reproduces, and dies all

in 1 year.

ThreatsThe royal snail is threatened by the

potential degradation and alteration

of the water and/or habitat of the

spring runs it inhabits. Water quality

in the spring runs may be impacted

by siltation, poor land-use practices,

increased development, logging,

stream alteration, contamination from

coal mines and septic systems, road

and bridge construction, other forms

of nonpoint source pollution, and the

lowering of the water table. Because

the snail inhabits such a limited area,

a toxic spill or vandalism could easily

cause its extinction. The invasion of

nonnative species into either of the

spring runs it inhabits is also a threat,

as nonnative weeds and zebra mussels

could reduce suitable habitat and

disrupt the natural

food chain.

RecoveryRecovery goals include protecting and

maintaining populations of the royal

snail and its habitat.

•Actual

Size

Tennessee Yellow-eyed Grass(Xyris tennesseensis)

Remember, what we put onthe land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about Tennesseeyellow-eyed grass. Protectwater quality. Participate ina local stream cleanup. Usebiodegradable soaps. Plant ormaintain native vegetationalongside springs andstreams. Conserve water.Take pride in Tennessee's

StatusTennessee yellow-eyed grasswas listed as endangered on.July26, 1991.

DescriptionTennessee yellow-eyed grass growsfrom 2 to 3 feet in height. Twisted,deep green leaves grow from thebase of the plant and range from 5 to17inches long. Long, slender stalksgrow from the middle of these leavesand support conelike clusters ofsmall, pale yellow flowers. Theflowers unfold in the morning andwither away by the afternoon.Flowering occurs from Augustthrough September.

HabitatTennessee yellow-eyed grassdepends on the spring and seepecosystems along Tennessee'swestern highland rim in LewisCounty. The plant occurs in seep-slopes, springy meadows, or on thebanks of gravelly shallows of smallstreams. It requires soils that aremoist year-round, where calcium-richrocks are at or near the surface.Tennessee yellow-eyed grass is foundliving alongside ferns, grasses, andsedges. The surrounding forestsinclude oak, pine, willow,alder, andhickory trees.

Role in the EcosystemIt is an important component of thebiodiversity of the spring and seepecosystem. The greater the diversityof species in an ecosystem thehealthier the ecosystem.

ThreatsTennessee yellow-eyed grass isthreatened by habitat destruction,competition with other plants,diversion of seeps or groundwater,development, road construction, androad improvement measures. Thisrare plant is also threatened by poorwater quality caused by increasederosion and nonpoint source pollution(pollution that comes from a varietyof sources).

RecoveryMost populations of Tennesseeyellow-eyed grass are found onprivately owned land. The TennesseeDepartment of Environment andConservation and The NatureConservancy work with landownersto help them protect and manage thisrare plant. The National Park Serviceprotects a small population on federalproperty with assistance from theTennessee Department ofEnvironment and Conservation.

Slackwater Darter(Etheostoma boschungi)

Remember, wlwt we put onthe land rrwy eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about the slackwaterdarter. Protect water quality.Participate in a local streamcleanup. Use biodegradablesoaps. Plant or rrwintainnative vegetation alongsidesprings and streams.Conserve water. Take pridein Tennessee's wildlife.

StatusThe slackwater darter was listed asthreatened on September 9, 1977.

DescriptionThe slackwater darter is a small fishthat grows to be about 3 inches long.It has a large head and a blunt snout.Its back and sides are brown withmany dark specks, and three darksaddlelike markings run across itsback. The undersides of femaleslackwater darters are white, whilemales have yellow undersides. A blue-black stirps runs downward fromeach eye. The fins are dusky yellow.Males become bright orange duringthe breeding season, and their dorsal(or top) fin becomes bright blue.

HabitatThe slackwater darter is dependenton the spring and seep and riverineecosystems. It is currently knownfrom only five streams that feed intothe southern bend of the TennesseeRiver in Lawrence and WayneCounties, Tennessee. It is also foundin several Alabama counties. Theslackwater darter requires two typesof habitat to survive. Nonbreedinghabitat consists of streams from 2 to40 feet wide. Here, the fish is found inareas of slow current near the streambank over decaying leaves, twigs, orsilty gravel, silt or mud. Idealbreeding habitat consists of smallseepage streams where shallow waterflows gently through open fields orwoods near the nonbreeding habitats.

Life HistoryAdult slackwater darters move intobreeding habitat from early Februarythrough mid-March. In March,females will have as many as 1,000eggs, which become attached to thespring and seep vegetation. Maleslackwater darters guard the eggsuntil they hatch; the adults and theiryoung return to nonbreeding habitatin May. Slackwater darters feed onsmall insects and crustaceans.

Role in the EcosystemNongame fish species like theslackwater darter are a criticalecological link in the food chain. Theyfeed on insects and serve as prey forsport fishes, birds, and other wildlife.They are also important indicators ofwater quality and ecosystem health.

ThreatsSlackwater darters once likely existedin many streams that flow into theTennessee River. Extensive clearingof forests for agriculture and otherpurposes has drastically altered thequality of the streams in this region.Pollution affects many streamreaches, and silt levels in the waterhave increased. Silt can smother fisheggs and kill the insects that are animportant food source for the fish.Because these fish occur in only a fewstreams, they can be easily lost topollution. Habitat destruction has alsoaffected the slackwater darter, asmany small seepage streams thatonce served as breeding habitat forthis tiny fish have been ditched,drained or buried.

RecoveryProtection of the slackwater darter'sbreeding habitat is critical torecovery. The National Park Service,the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,the Tennessee Department ofEnvironment and Conservation, andthe Tennessee Wildlife ResourcesAgency have joined forces to protectimportant breeding sites.