Section OneBackground Infannation

Background Information

Species StatusBy definition, a species is a grou,pof genetically related organismsthat reproduce with one another toproduceferti1e offspring. Typically,

members of a species are very similarin physical structure and behavior.Members of one species will notreproduce with members of otherspecies due to differences in a varietyof things, including behavior, physicalappearance,odor,songsivocatization,habitat preference, and the timing oftheir reproductive cycle. Eachspecies has different needs andhabits that set it apart and make itunique, and today, many species arein jeopardy.

Each individual plant or animalwithin a species contains a differentmix of genes, a variation known asgenetic diversity. This diversityallows a species to adapt to localenvironmental conditions and changesin the climate over time. Apopulation is the number of aparticular species that exists in adefined area. When a populationloses too many individuals, thespecies is at risk of becoming moregenetically uniform and thereforeless adaptable. A species that hasbeen reduced to a fraction of itsoriginal population loses much ofwhat once made it unique. Aspopulations decline, the threat ofextinction increases. Extinctionoccurs when a species is no longer inexistence anywhere in the world. Itis important to monitor wildlifepopulations to determine their healthand to ensure that a species does notbecome extinct.

Extirpation occurs when a species iseliminatedjrom a significant portionof its range but still survives in otherareas. Some species may no longerbe found in certain areas of theiroriginal range. Such species may be

believed to be extirpated from aspecific area. For example, theperegrine falcon, Falco peregrinus,was completely absent or extirpatedfrom Tennessee and other parts ofthe country for many years.Reintroduction projects conducted bythe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(Service) and other conservationagencies have established populationsof this species back into many areas ofits historical range, including partsof Tennessee.

The federal government defines anendangered species as any speciesthat is in danger of extinctionthroughout all or a significantportion of its range. A threatenedspecies is defined as any species thatis likely to become an endangeredspecies within the near future.Designating a species as endangeredor threatened means there is stilltime, time to reverse the decline ofpopulations and prevent the speciesfrom becoming extinct. Ifappropriate actions are taken,threatened and endangered speciescan thrive once again. Threatenedand endangered both receive thesame amount of protection. Theterms are simply a measure of howimperiled the species are forprioritizing recovery work.

HabitatHabitat is defined as the place wherea plant or animal lives or the placeone would go tofind it. The health ofa species depends largely on thehealth of its habitat. A healthyhabitat consists of food,water, shelter(or cover), and space in anarrangement that meets the species'needs. An example of a habitatsuitable for humans is a house,complete with sinks, beds, and arefrigerator stocked with food.Everything a human basically needsis in this house. Within the naturalworld many of us are familiar with thehabitat of the Northern river otter,Lutra canadensis. This Tennessee

resident lives in rivers andbottomland hardwood forests. Itshabitat is suitable and healthy whenthe rivers are clean and can providefish to eat and appropriate places forconstructing den homes along theriverbanks. Just as human health islinked to a healthy, clean home, ahealthy otter population is dependenton clean, healthy rivers.

EcosystemsTennessee has an amazing variety ofdifferent ecosystems, frommountaintop high-elevation forests tomysterious underground caves. Anecosystem consists of all the livingparts (plants and animals) and

nonliving parts (such as soi~ air, andwater) in any size area, interactingand linked together by energy andnutrient flow. The uniquecombinations of these interactionsmake each ecosystem distinctive. Forexample, cave ecosystems include thecave and its geological make-up, thewater, lack of sunlight, and organicmatter entering the cave, as well as allthe plants and animals that inhabitthe cave. A change in anyone part ofthe cave ecosystem will affect all theother parts.

Ecosystems vary greatly in size -from a smalll/2 acre mountain bog tothe large watershed the bog is part of.Ecosystems exist wherever plants,animals, and people have aninterdependent relationship withinthe context of their physicalenvironment. It is important toremember that small ecosystems arelocated within larger ecosystems.This means that what happens withinone system affects what happens inevery other system, with varyingdegrees of impact.

Today, natural resources managerspractice ecosystem management forlong term, sustainable natural

resource conservation. This meanslooking at the big picture, beyondboundaries, and working closely withall land managers, both public andprivate. It means thinking of variousresources as inter-relating parts ofsystems rather than as individualcomponents to be managedseparately. We all live in ecosystemsand are part of the interdependentweb of life. Everyone has a stake inworking for diverse, healthy,sustainable ecosystems.

"These species are ofaesthetic, ecologica~educationa~ historica~recreati~ and scientificvalue to the Nation andits people."- Endangered Species Act

Why Should We Work toProtect Wildlife?

Wild creatures and places haveinspired human creativity forcenturies. From paintings to poemsand books to songs, we have alwaysbeen deeply affected by the beauty ofnature. Yet few of us realize howuseful and necessary the livingnetwork around us really is. While apoet may compare the beauty of aflower to a loved one, a scientist mayisolate a life-saving chemical fromthat very same plant. Read on andlearn about some of the many wayswild creatures and plants are part ofour lives.

Medicinal ValuesMany of us are familiar with theperiwinkle, Vinca minor. This prettyground cover decorates manylandscaped lawns. Components ofthis plant's close relative, Vinca rosea,are used in chemotherapy medicinesfor leukemia and other types ofcancer. Few people realize that theendangered Tennessee coneflower,Echi'tUJ£eatennesseensis, is one of avariety of plants known simply as"Echinacea," well known for theirability to bolster the immune system.Coneflowers of the genusEchinacea have provided over 200pharmaceutical products. More than300 of Tennessee's 1,500plants areused for medicinal purposes, andabout 100have commercial value.The fact is, over 40 percent of theprescription drugs available in theUnited States contain at least oneingredient found in nature. We havetapped only 5 percent of the earth'splant species for their possible valueas medicines. Remember, aspirinoriginated from the willowtree;penicillin, from a mold. Fromantibiotics to toothpaste, theingredients that help keep us healthyoften were not developed in alaboratory; they came from thenatural world!

Industry

Humans do not rely on naturalingredients for health purposes aloCarageenan, a thickening agent foin ice cream and candy bars, is

ne.und

commonly derived from a type ofseaweed called Irish moss, Chorpuscrispus. Consider all the "natural"shampoos and beauty items availabletoday. Many products contain jojobaseed oil, derived from the jojobaplant, Simmondsia chinensis, arelatively obscure desert plant foundin the Southwest. The uniqueproperties of this oil closely resemblethose of the natural oils secreted byhuman skin. Such qualities havemade jojoba oil useful not only in skincare products but also in syntheticmotor and transmission oils. Jojobaseed oil has helped take the pressureoff the over-harvested sperm whale,Physeter macrocephalus, as similarlubricants were historically obtainedfrom this now-endangered species.

AgricultureWild species playa crucial role in theworld of agriculture. Many farmersnow use integrated pestmanagement, which views the farmand garden as an ecosystem. Thismethod uses natural predators as a"biological control" to reduce cropdamage caused by insects, withoutthe use of pesticides. Somegardeners, for example, introducelady bugs to gardens infested withaphids, as lady bugs are knownpredators of these tiny pests.

Wild creatures often playa quiet, yetsubstantial, role in pest management.Tennessee farmers are unknowinglyaided by many species of bats, one ofwhich is the endangered gray bat,Myotis griscesens. One bat can eatup to 3,000 insects a night! Biologistsestimate that insect-eating birdssaved farmers and timber owners$44 million in losses in the year 1921.Imagine the economic impact thesebirds have on modern-dayagriculture! In Minnesota alone, theDepartment of Natural Resourcesestimates that forest birds could beproviding more than $100millionperyear in economic benefits toMinnesota forests andtimber production.

Wild resources also play an importantrole in the development of ourcommon food crops. Humans havebred high-yielding crops forthousands of years, limiting thegenetic diversity in our food crops.The genetic make-up of our main fooditems is therefore essentiallyidentical. Such lack of diversity canresult in disaster, as just one pest ordisease that becomes unmanageablecan wipe out an entire crop. Somewild species are inherently moreresistant to diseases and pests.Scientists are seeking out wild strainsof many common food sources, suchas the endangered Texas wild-rice,Zizania texana, to use in thedevelopment of disease- and pest-resistant crops.

Many ofthe food crops we rely ontoday are not suited to diverseconditions and climates. To ensurethe success of a crop in a particularregion, geneticists can use plantsnative to the region to create suitablehybrids. For example, disease-resistant and highly productivehybrids that now dominate thesunflower industry were producedthrough breeding with wild species ofsunflower, Helianthus spp., several ofwhich are in danger of extinction,such as Tennessee's own Eggert'ssunflower, Helianthus eggertii.Seabeach amaranth, Amaranthuspumilus, is an endangered plantfound along the coast of NorthCarolina and New York. This plant isknown to contain high levels of lysine,an amino acid essential to the humandiet. Because of its tolerance to arid,

salty conditions, this plant mayprovide a valuable new food source formany parts of the world.

Economic ValueWe cannot have a healthy economywithout a healthy environment.Industry, health, and agriculture arenot the only facets of our economy tobenefit from wild resources. Wildlife-related recreation activities make asignificant contribution as well.According to the Service's 1996

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nationwide survey, nearly 40 percentof adults in the United States spent$101billion on wildlife-relatedpursuits. More than 29 percent ofthis amount was spent on activitiessuch as bird watching and wildlifephotography. The commercial valueof medicines that originate from wildorganisms amounts to some$10billion a year. The industrysurrounding one plant alone-American ginseng, Panaxquinquefolius-contributes$4 million annually to Tennessee'seconomy. The harvesting of commonspecies of freshwater mussels for thepearl trade has become a multi-million-dollar industry in Tennessee.Can we really afford to lose ourwild resources?

Imagine the PossibilitiesBiodiversity is the variety of lifein an area, including the differentgenes, species, plant and animalcommunities, ecosystems, and theirinteractions. The diverse life on ourplanet provides the basis for futurelife on earth. When we lose species,the benefits they could have providedare lost forever. Imagine thepossibilities contained within theearth's diverse resources. We haveinvestigated less than 5 percent ofour plant species for their possiblemedicinal value. Because of thedestruction of habitat, hidden valuesmay be lost before scientists can evendiscover them. Life on the earth isinterrelated and interdependent. Wecannot predict how the loss of evenone species will affect an ecosystemand the organisms that rely on thatecosystem, including humans. We areconnected to what happens to ourenvironment and its wild inhabitants.We drink the same water; we breathethe same air. By preservingbiodiversity, saving endangeredspecies, and improving the qualityof our environment, we aresaving ourselves.

What about Tennessee? Is the loss ofdiversity a local issue? Yes. Yearsago, Tennessee was home to a

variety ofplants and animals that arenow extirpated from the area. TheFlorida panther, Felis concolor coryi,once roamed the hills and valleys ofthe state. The palezone shiner,N otropis albizonatus, a unique fish,once swam and hid in the rivers ofTennessee. Both species have beenlost from our Tennessee ecosystems,perhaps never to return. Any speciesnow endangered or threatened in thestate could become extirpated, oreven extinct. It is important to ensurethat healthy habitats are available forall species throughout their ranges.When a local population is lost, theentire species is one step closerto extinction.

Causes of Declining Populationsand Extinction

Most threatened andendangered species typicallypossess several of thefollowing characteristics:

• Specialized Habitat

• Naturally Rare

• Long-distance Migration

• Low Number of Offspring

• Long Gestation Period

• Increased Sensitivity to

Environmental Changes

• Competition with Humans

for Habitat

Many species ofwildlife aregeneralists; capable of changingtheir habits and diets as necessary,their needs are not very specific. Thering-billed gull, Larus delawarensis,although typically a sea and riverforager, has adapted to "fishing"garbage out of landfills and picking upscraps from parking lots. Mostendangered and threatened species,however, are specialists; they oftenhave very particular needs and mayrequire a specialized habitat. Somespecies may be naturally rare. Forexample, Ruth's golden aster,Pityopsis ruthii, an endangeredplant, lives only near the Hiwasseeand Ocoee Rivers in Polk County,Tennessee. Living on boulders in andalong the riverbanks, it requires fullsunlight and regular flooding. Thisplant occurs nowhere else in theworld, and changes in these rivers(caused, in part, by road and damconstruction) have threatened itwith extinction.

Animals that migrate long distances,like peregrine falcons, can be moresusceptible to negative changes in theenvironment. They are exposed to avariety of threats during theirjourney, they need high energy fuel tosustain their migration, and they relyon multiple habitats, not just one.

Many endangered species have longgestation periods and have fewoffspring, like bats. Such

Eastern CougarFelis concolor couguar

characteristics make it difficultfor the species to recover fromenvironmental changes. Becausethe population is smaller and slow toreproduce, they become even morevulnerable to other environmentalchanges and are more effected bypredation and other natural disasters.Plants and animals located in areaspopular for development andrecreation are at greater risk due tohuman activities. Species viewed asa threat to humans, such as theendangered red wolf, are also athigh risk.

In summary, oneor any number ofthese characteristics in combinationcan increase sensitivity toenvironmental changes. For instance,muskrats which feed on freshwatermussels can severely impact small,isolated populations of endangeredand threatened mussel species, whilehaving little effect on healthy, largepopulations. In the past, thousands ofmussels paved our rivers. Today,because of habitat loss and waterpollution, rare mussel populations arerestricted in number and size. Thus,one dining muskrat could potentiallywipe out an entire population ofrare mussels.

Extinction is not a new phenomenon.For thousands of years new specieshave been evolving, slowly taking theplace of those that have becomeextinct. Speciation, the natural 15

process by which new species areformed, is always occurring. Thosespecies unable to adapt or evolve willbecome extinct. Natural occurrences,such as climate changes and volcaniceruptions, are known to have causedextinctions. However, the rate atwhich species are currently becomingextinct, or the number of species lostper year, is the highest it has been inover 65 millionyears. During the IceAge, only about three species werelost every 100years. Since thePilgrims arrived almost 400 yearsago, more than 500 species fromNorth America alone have becomeextinct. That is more than one speciesper year!

Human DisturbanceUnfortunately, many of the causes ofdeclining wildlife populations can bedirectly linked to human activities.The various components of ournatural communities interact in manyways to maintain a healthy ecosystem.All around us the signs of habitatdegradation and environmentalpollution tell the same story-ourwildlife species are running out ofhealthy, safe habitats. Even inTennessee, fragile ecosystems aredisappearing at an alarming rate;wetlands, caves, grasslands, andforests are being replaced withbuildings, parking lots, and roads.Habitat destruction is currently thegreatest threat to wildlife. Anotherform of human disturbance ispoaching. Poaching is the illegalhunting or taking offish and wildlife.Although legal hunting can be aneffective management tool, poachingand the collection and trade of rarewildlife for profit further jeopardizespecies allover the world.

Nonnative SpeciesOne of the fastest-growing threats toendangered and threatened species isthe spread of nonnative species. Anonnative species is one that evolvedin and is native to another region orcountry. Without natural enemies to

keep these populations in check,nonnative species can becomeinvasive, monopolizing the resourcesof native species and furtherthreatening already fragileecosystems. Kudzu, Puerariathenbergiana, a vine native to China,can grow up to a foot a day,overtaking and killing native plants.Scientists now estimate that Kudzucovers 7 million acres in thesoutheast. European starlings,Sturnus vulgaris, use valuablenesting cavities needed by native birdspecies, such as the Easternbluebird, Sialia sialis, and manywoodpecker species.

Nonnative zebra mussels,Dreissena polymorpha, were firstdiscovered in Lake St. Clair, nearDetroit, Michigan, in 1988. Believedto have arrived in the ballast watersof Eurasian tankers bound for theGreat Lakes, these small black-and-white-striped mussels are the onlyfreshwater mollusks, or mussels, thatcan firmly attach themselves to solidobjects. Since their arrival in theUnited States, they have attachedthemselves to rocks, dock pilings,boat hulls, water intake pipes, and,sadly, native freshwater mussels, asfar south as Louisiana. They nowinhabit 20 states in this country andtwo Canadian provinces, having beencarried from place to place on thehulls of fishing boats. The exoticmussels cover the shells of freshwatermussels, including severalendangered species. They interferewith their ability to open their shellsto feed and breath, effectivelysuffocating them. Zebra musselsreduce the amount of food availablefor native species, and they alsocause millions of dollars in damageas they attach to and clogwaterintake structures.

What's Being Done?

There are a variety ofdifferent state, federa~ andinternational laws in plaeetoday that serve to protectand restore wildlife in ourworld. One of the best waysto help endangered andthreatened species is to havean accurate understandingof these laws. By knowingthese laws, we can help thepeople who work to enforceand implement them. Wecan spread the word byeducating those aroundus so that they, too,can understand.

Federal ProtectionThe Endangered Species Act (Act)was signed into law by Congress andPresident Nixon in 1973. Thepurpose of the Act is to provide ameans "whereby the ecosystems uponwhich endangered and threatenedspecies depend may beconserved,and to provide a program for theconservation of such endangeredspecies and threatened species. "Ultimately, the goal of the Act is toachieve the recovery of endangeredand threatened species to the pointwhere they are no longer in danger ofextinction. The Act offers protectionto those species that are on theService's list of Endangered andThreatened Wildlife and Plants.

The Act sets forth specificprocedures, known as the listingprocess, which describe guidelinesfor designating a species asendangered or threatened. Theprocess involves an extensive reviewof the species' historical and currentdistribution, and threats to itscontinued existence are determined.This process takes up to a year ormore and encourages theparticipation of the general public, thescientific community, othergovernment agencies, and foreigngovernments. Only after this processis complete can a species be placed onthe Service's list ofEndangered andThreatened Wildlife and Plants.Plants and animals from the UnitedStates and other countries are eligiblefor listing.

The Act protects endangered andthreatened species and their habitatsthrough several measures. Under theauthority of the Act, all federalagencies are prohibited from fundingor carrying out any program or actionthat would jeopardize a listed speciesor its habitat. The Act also enablesthe Service to develop and carry outrecovery plans. Recovery plans aredocuments preparedfor listed speciesthat detail the specific tasks needed to

recover those species. Citizensare not held responsible for theactions outlined in a recovery plan.Federal, state, and nongovernmentalconservation agencies have accessto recovery plans to help themmanage for the protection ofendangered and threatened species.A recovery plan may involve thecreation or restoration of suitablehabitat for a listed species. The plancould callfor the captive breedingand reintroduction of a listed speciesback into the wild as well as otheractions deemed necessary for thespecies' recovery.

The Act regulates a variety ofactivities that affect endangered andthreatened species. Importing andexporting listed species from theUnited States is unlawful without apermit. It is unlawful to "take" alisted species. To take is to harass,harm, pursue, hun4 sho04 wound,kill, trap, capture, or collcc4or toattempt to engage in any suchconduct toward, any threatened orendangered species. It is alsounlawful to sell or transport anendangered or threatened specieswithout a permit.

Under the Act, the Service isresponsible for birds, land mammals,amphibians, reptiles (including seaturtles on land), freshwater fishes,invertebrates, and plants. TheNational Marine Fisheries Service isresponsible for marine mammals, seaturtles in the water, and certainanadromous fishes (fish species thatutilize both freshwater andsaltwater systems).

Worldwide ProtectionSeveral pieces of legislation operateon an international level to conserveendangered and threatened species.These laws focus primarily on theillegal trade of endangered andthreatened species. Illegal hunting,or poaching, occurs worldwide, andmany endangered and threatened

species are killed and sold. Seaturtles are killed, and their shells areused to make jewelry. Crocodiles andother reptiles are killed and used inthe production ofwatchbands, shoes,purses, etc. The bog turtle, isthreatened by collection for the pettrade. Endangered and threatenedspecies and the products made fromthem are also imported and exportedunlawfully throughout the world.

The Act prohibits the import andexport of federally listed species fromthe United States. In addition, morethan 115nations are now regulatinginternational trade to prevent thedecline of species threatened withextinction under the Convention onInternational Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES). The Migratory BirdTreaty Act protects birds thatmigrate across international bordersFurthermore, the Lacey Act outlawsthe import, export, and sale, bothinterstate and international, ofwildlife and wild plants taken inviolation of international as well asstate law. Marine mammals, such asseals, whales, porpoises, walruses,and sea otters, are also protected bythe Marine Mammal ProtectionAct, which prohibits the import andexport of marine mammals andproducts made from themwithout authorization.

An important fact to remember is thalegislation is not set in stone. Everyfew years various laws and acts arebrought before Congress for review.The Act has been reviewed andmodified several times. Wildlife lawswill always need public support inorder to conserve and protect ourendangered and threatened wildlife.

State Protection

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State wildlife agencies workcooperatively with the Service toprotect and conserve wildlife.Tennessee has its own endangeredand threatened species legislation inaddition to the Act. The TennesseeWildlife Resources Agency maintainslists of species that are endangeredand threatened on both a state andfederal level. The TennesseeDepartment of Environment andConservation's Division of NaturalHeritage works to protectTennessee's ''natural biologicaldiversity through identification,conservation, and communication forthe enhancement of the quality of lifeand economy in Tennessee." Stateorganizations such as these and manylocal environmental education centersoffer outreach programs that affordus opportunities to help ourendangered and threatened wildlife,starting in our own communities.

You Can Make a Difference

The reality of the decline ofwildlife and plant species can seem quiteoverwhelming. With so many species in trouble all over the world, how cananyone make a difference? There are many ways in which people of all agescan help protect our wildlife,plants and wild places, and every little bit helps.Here's what you can do:

• Explore Tennessee's diverse ecosystems! Using the Tennessee WildlifeViewing Guide, take field trips to see the species and wild places that arenear you, some ofwhich are described in the ecosystem fact sheets.

• Avoid actions that could harm wildlife. Never litter or disturb plants,wildlife or their habitats. Always stay on trails and boardwalks in order toavoid trampling plants. Always watch wildlife from a respectful distance.Move slowly, quietly, and carefully when you are in a wild place.

• Learn more about agencies working to protect endangered andthreatened species. Check out the World Wide Web sites found at the end ofthis guide for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Tennessee WildlifeResources Agency, the Tennessee Department of Environment andConservation (and their Division of Natural Heritage), and the U.S. ForestService, as well as other helpful sites.

• Conduct research with regard to environmental and wildlife laws. Usethe list ofWorld Wide Web sites to find links to legislative indexes and homepages. The more you know about the laws that protect plants and wildlife, thebetter able you will be to followthem and help friends and family do the same.

• Reduce, reuse, and recycle. Ifwe become more responsible with ourresources, there will be more undisturbed, healthy habitat available forplants and wildlife. Participate in cleaning up local rivers, forests, or cities.Help keep the habitats that support us and our plants and wildlife cleanand healthy.

• Think globally; act locally. Keep worldwide biodiversity in mind as youwork to support your local ecosystems and wildlife.

• Enjoy the natural world! As you go about from day to day, remember thewonderful and unique wildlife and wild places around you. Enjoy, and shareenjoyment with others!