THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CH·ALLENGER...._ ._- -

NARRATIVE-. V·Ol. I.

. FIRST PART.

b:HG U FJL EJN.

REPORTON THE

SCIENTIFIC RESULTSOF THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGERDU R I NG THE YEA R S 1873-76

UNDER THE COMMAND OF

CAPTAIN GEORGE S. NARES, R.N., F.R.S.

AND THE LATE

CAPTAIN FRANK TOURLE THOMSON, R.N.

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF

THE LATE

Sir C. WYVILLE THOMSON, Knt., F.R.S., &c.REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

DIRECTOR OF THE CIVILIAN SCIENTIFIC STAFF ON BOARD

AND :-lOW OF

JOHN MURRAYONE OF THE NATURALISTS OF THE EXPEDITION

NARRATIVE-VOL. I.

FIRST PART.

"'\\ .. I>ubltsbeb bp etbet of ~et ;fflajestp'g ~obetnment

1885

JOHNSON REPRINT CORPORATION JOHNSON REPRINT COMPANY LIMITED111 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10003 Berkeley Square House, London, W.1

First reprinting, 1965, Johnson Reprint CorporationPrinted in the United States of America

EDITORIAL NOTES.

THE Hydrographic Part of the Narrative of the Cruise of H.l\i.S. Challenger

would have been written by Captain Sir George S. Nares, K.C.B., had he

remained in command of the ship during the whole of the voyage.

When the Expedition reached Hong Kong in December 1874, Captain

Nares was recalled to take command of the last British Arctic Expedition,

and he then placed his Journals in the hands of his successor in the Challenger,

-the late Captain Frank 'I'ourle 'I'hornson.

Captain 'I'homson was, however, of opinion that the description of th«

Hydrographic 'York of the Expedition should be undertaken by an officer who

had been with the Challenger from the beginning, and consequently Captain

Nares' Journals were, with the concurrence of the late Sir C. Wyville 'I'homson,

handed over to Staff-Commander T. H. Tizard, the Senior Surveying Officer

of the Expedition.

On the return of thc Expedition to England, Staff-Commander T. H.

Tizard was, on the recommendation of the Hydrographer to the Admiralty,'

temporarily employed in the Hydrogrnphic Office, for the purpose of preparing

for publication the Charts, Diagrams, and Hydrographic Notes for the

Narrative of the Cruise, and Commander J. L. P. Maclcar and Lieutenant

A. C. B. Bromlcy were also employed for a short time in preparing for

publication the Magnetical Observations. The Journals .of Captain G. S.

Nares were freely used by the Challenger Officers, and they had throughout

the assistance of the permanent Officers of the Hydrographic Department of

the Admiralty. This work was commenced in 1876 and completed in 187H,

1 Then Captain F. J. Evans, RX., c.n., ill succession (in 18i4) to Rear-Admiral G. H. Richards, C.B., under whoseauspices the Expedition was originally fitted out.

VI THE VOYAGE OF H.)!.S. CHALLENGER.

when the whole of the )Ianu~cript was placed in the hands of the late

Sir C. 'Vyville Tholl1son.

On the rk-ath of Sir C. 'Vvville Thomson in:l\farch 1882 I was entrusted~

lrv the Government with the direction of the whole of the work connected01

'wit h the pulilicution ()f the Official Reports on the Scientific Results of the

Expedition, and as the )[eteorological and Magnetical Observations had

been for several years in type , these were at once issued as Volume 1I.

of the Narrative, along witl: two Appendices: one on the Pressure Errors of

the Challenger 'I'hermoinctors, by Professor P. G. Tait, and the other on the

Petrology of St. Paul's H(jcks~ by the Abbe A. Renard.

In his Provisiouul Preface to the first volume of Zoological Reports, published

in 1880, HiI' Wyvillc says :-" The first volume will contain a short narrative

of the voyage, with all necessary hydrographical details; an account of the

appliances anrl methods of 01 iscrvation ; a running outline of the results of the

different obscrvatious ; and a chapter epitomising the general results of the

voyage. This volume will be illustrated by a general physical chart; a series

of charts of the ship's course; a series of diagrams of the vertical distribution

of tcmpcrature : aIHI some photographs of scenery. It will probably be in two

parts, and is being prepared by Staff-Commander Tizard, R.N., and myself."

Although the form awl f:ieope of the present volume was thus sketched

out, yet, owing to ill health and his many professional occupations,

HiI' Wyville was never able to make any progress with the preparation of the

Manuscript for the press; he had, however, selected and caused to be printed

the thirty-seven photographic plates which now accompany the text.

Under these circumstances I consulted with my former colleagues in the

Challenger, Staff-Commander T. H. 'I'izarrl, Professor H. N. Moseley, and

1\11'. J. Y. Buchanan, as to the best course to adopt, and it was finally

arranged that the first volume of the Narrative of the Cruise should be

undertaken by us jointly, and should embrace as far as possible a general

account of the Scientific Results of the Expedition-an arrangement which

has now been carried out.

NARR _-\.TIYE OF THE CRUISh. Vll

The various Abstracts indicating the nature and extent of the investi­

gations and discoveries made by the specialists who have been engaged in

the preparation of the Official Reports will be found to constitute a prominent

feature of the volume ; these ha ye been prepared by the authors of the several

special Reports, or have been revised by them. Great care has been taken to

ensure that all statements of fact are correct, but when deductions are drawn

or opinions expressed in any of the paragraphs. within inverted commas, my

colleagues or myself do not necessarily endorse these, the author whose name

is attached to the paragraphs Leing responsible.

I have to acknowledge, without exception, my indebtedness to the contri­

butors to the Official Scientific Reports, whose names appear in Appendix VII.

to this volume. It would have been impossible to have compiled a general

account of the Scientific Hesults without their cordial assistance and

co-operation, at all times freely given , though often at considerable incon­

venience to the authors.

As in the previously published volumes of lh'ports the Fahrenheit Scale of

temperature has been used when not otherwise expressly stated.

The Abbe A. Renard, F.G.S., has named the rock specimens collected

at the various Oceanic Islands, and he has in most instances revised the

detenninations of the miuerals or crystalline particles found in the deposits.

Nearly all the woodcuts of scenery, and many of those of animals, arc frOlil

the sketches and drawings of Dr. J. J . Wild, who accompanied the Expedition

as Artist and Private Secretary to the Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff;

in 1884 Dr. Wild forwarded from Australia a large number of sketches taken

during the cruise, from which a selection was made.

I ·have had in my possession for reference the Official Journals of

Dr. Wild and the late Dr. Rndolf van Willcmocs-Suhm. Captain Pclham

Aldrich, Lieutenant Hcrbert Swire, Lieutenant Arthur Charmer, Fleet­

Surgeon Gem'ge Maclcan, and 1\1:1'. R. H. A. Richards placed journals 01'

sketch-books in my hands for reference; a few of the sketches have been

reproduced in this volume as woodcuts, and two of the coloured plates

VIII THE VOYAGE OF H.~l.S. CHALLE~GER.

of natives are from the sketches of Lieutenant Swire. I take this oppor­

tunity of acknowledging the friendly assistance which has been extended

to mc by all the Nnval Officers of the Expedition whenever information was

desired in conncctiou with th e Editorial Work. A similar acknowledgment

must he extended to Captain Sir Frcdcrick J. Evans, K. C.B., till lately the

Hydrographcr, anrl the Officers of the Hydrographic Department of the

Admiralty, to Sir .Ioscph D. Ho oker, K.C.S.I. , and the Botanists at the Royal

Herbarium, Kew, and to Professor Archibalrl Geikie, the Director-General of

the Geological Survey, as al so to T. Dig-by Pigott, Esq., the Controller, and

Gentlemen in the vari ous departments of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

To 'Dr. A. Gi.inther and the Naturalists in the British Museum I

return my thanks for the tr ouble th ey have at all times taken in deter­

mining' or assistin g' in the determination of specimens, and in furnishing

me with short Reports on the Incidental T errestrial Collections from

the Oceani c Islunds. To the Rev. O. P. Cambridge and many other

Naturalists and Scientific Men at home and abroad I am also indebted for

like information and services.

In the Editorial Work connected with the passing of the Official Reports

through the press, I ha vc for more than two years had the able assistance

of 1\11'. ,V. E. Hoylc, M.A ., M.R.C.S., and for a shorter period of 1\11'. Frank E .

Bcddard, 1\LA. In the general scient ific and oth er work of this Office valuable

assistance has also been rendered by Mr. James Chumley, 1\11'. Frederick

Pearccy, and 1\'11'. J a rn es l\Ionteith. In various ways while engaged in the

preparation of the Narrativc of the Cruise I have been assisted by Mr. Hugh

Hobert Mill, B.Sc., 1\1r. J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc., Mr. J. T. Cunningham, B.A.,

and 1\fr. H. Roscoc Dumvillc, B.A.

To the Artists, Engravers, Lithographers, and Printers who have been

engagcd in the work my thanks are also due. '

J OIIN MCRRAY.

CIIALI,EXGER O~'FICR, 32 QUEEN STREET,

.EDil'iBURGII, Gth Match 1885.

NARRATIVE

OF THE

CRUISE 0 F H. M. S. CHALL ENGER

WITH A

GEKERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESrLTS

OF THE EXPEDITION

B....

STAFF-CO:\DtA~DER T. H . TIZARD, R.N.; PROFESSOR H. N . ~10SELEY, F.R.S.;

~1R. J. Y. BCCHANAN, ~1.A.; A~D MR. JOHN MLTRRAY, PH.D.;

:\IE:\IBERS OF THE EXPEDITIO~.

Partly Illustrated by Dr. j. j. WILD, Artist to the Expedition.

PREFACE.

H.\D the responsibility of the production of the Narrative of the Cruise rested

with the same members of the Expedition from the commencement, a some­

what different method would probably have been followed in the preparation

of this volume. The arrangement of the matter and the style have been

largely determined by the circumstances arising out of the change of Captains

(luring the Cruise, the unexpected death of Sir C. 'VY'"ille Thomson in 1882,

and the necessity for publication before the completion of many of the

special Reports.

It is hoped, however, that the volume will be found to contain a faithful

record of the Work of the Expedition, and as complete an account of the

scientific results as is possible in the present state of the in vestigations,

A considerable part of Professor :\Ioseley's contribution to the Xarrative

is in the form of revised and modified extracts from Itis Journal, published

in 1877.1

With respect to the depths assi.!!-·ned to the Zoological specimens, it may be

well to state that the Naturalists of the Expedition have simply recorded

the greatest depth to which the dredge or trawl was believed to have

descended at each Station. It will he evident that the instrument may01

have been occasionally (lragged into slightly deeper U1' shallower water than

was recorded by the sounding line , and what is of greater consequence, the

trawl or dredge may have caught animals while sinking through the water

or being hauled up agam, In the great majority of case" there is little

1 Xotes by a Xaturnlist on the Challenger, London, 1877.

XlI THE VOYAGE OF H.1LS. CHALLENGER.

. )

difficulty III deciding which animals were dredged from the bottom and

which were caught by the instruments in the surface 01' subsurface waters.

With some Fish, Crustaceans, Meduse. and other groups, however, there is

considerable difficulty; in these cases the organisation is often a guide, and

the specialist who has made a careful study of the group to which the species

belongs, is best able to form an opinion as to the depth at which the

specimens were probably captured. These circumstances should therefore

always be borne in mind when the depths at which animals have lived are

being discussed, and only after careful consideration should it be inferred that

they were procured at the depths ascribed to them in the lists.

We desire on our own behalf, and on that of the members of the

Expedition generally, to offer most grateful thanks for the liberal hospitality and

ready assistance we received in all parts of the world, not only in the British

Colonies but also in Foreign Countries. It has not been possible to refer in

every instance to those who extended a friendly welcome to members of the

Expedition and added so much to the pleasure of the Cruise, but the

remembrances of many incidents and friendly acts appear, to the members of

the Naval and Civilian Staffs who survive, to grow brighter rather than more

aim with the lapse of time.

CON TEN T S.

FIRST PART.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOX8.

IXTRODrCTION.

Knowledge possessed by the Ancients concerning the Ocean, its Saltness and its Inhabitants-c­Researches during the Middle Ages, the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries-TheExpeditions of the Eighteenth, and the Arctic and Antarctic Expeditions of the early part of theNineteenth Century-The" Lightning" and " Porcupine" Expeditions-s-Correspond ence betweenthe Royal Society and the Admiralty with reference to the investigation of the Great Ocean Basins,

ClL\PTER 1.

I'.\GE·

xvii-xxix

xxxi-Iiv

Selection of H.)I.S. Challenger- Her Fittings-Description of th e Decks, \Y orkrooms, andLaboratories-List of Officers --Departure from Shccmcss-i-Arrival at P ortsmouth-i-A ppendices, 1-45

CIU.PTEH 11.

Departure from Portsmouth-Sounding and Dredging-i-Arrival at Lisbon-s-S oundings andDredgings off the Tagus-Gibraltar-Soundings and Drcdgings between Gibraltar and Madeira-i­The Pennatulida-Tencrife-Soundings and Dredgings in th e vicinity of the Canary Islands­Departure from Tenerife for the 'West Indies-Description of Method of Sounding, Dredging, andof making other Observations at Sea,

CH APTER Ill.

Oceanic Temperatnres-lIIodes of lletermination-Self-Registering Thermom eters of Six, Aime,Xegretti &; Zambra, and others-Electrical Thermometer-Sources of Error-Professor Tait'sExperiments-Piezometers-Compressibility of Water-Specific Gravity Determinations-c-Collec­tion of Samples of Water-Slip Water- Bottle-Buchanan's Water-Bottlo-c-Combined Water-Bottleand Sounding Rod-Method of Taking Temperatures.

CHAPTER IV.

46-82

~3-1::!()

Tenerife to St. Thomas-St. Thomas-St. Thomas to Bermuda-The Brachiopoda-c-Gulf WeedFauna-Description of Bermuda-Bermuda to Halifax-The Gulf Stream-Halifax to Bermuda-The Tunicata, 121-166

X 1\' THE YOYAGE OF H ..U.S. C'HALLE~GER.

CHAPTER V.

Bermuda to the Azores-The Ophiuroidea-The Azores-The Azores to Madeira-e-Madeira tothe Cape Verde Islands-Saint Vincent and San Iago,

CHAPTER VI.

P.-\GE

167-191

Cape Verde Islands to St. Paul's Rocks and Fernando X oronha-Balanoglossus-The Echi­noidea-Description of St. Paul's Rocks and Fernando Xoronha-Coast of Bra.zil-Bathypterois-Surface Fauna of Guinea and Equatorial Currents-The Radiolurin-s-Bahia, 192-236

CHAPTER VII.

Bahia to the Tristan da Cunha Group-s-Ipnops-c-Accouut of Trist un Island anti the Settle­ment-Inaccessible and Xightingale I slands-s-Tristan Group to the Capr-The Cephalopoda-i-TheHolothurioidea-The Cnpa-i-Peripatns-c-The Cetacen-s-The Chitons, 237-288

CHAPTER VIII.

Cape of Good Hope to Prince Edward and ~rarion I8Iant.ls-The Crinoidea and Myzostomida-The Crozet Islands-The Petrels-s-Arrivnl at Kergu elen, 289-331

CHAPTER IX.

Kerguelen Is!anrl-Proeeedings of the Expodition-i-History of previous Exploration-Geology, Meteorology, Zoology, and Botany of the Island-The Sphcniscidre, 332-366

CHAPTER X.

From Kerguelen to ~[<Donalll Islands and Heard Islnnd-s-Xotes on the reproduction ofcertain Echinoderms from the Southern Ocean-Heard Island to the Antarctic Circle andAustralia-Icebergs of Antarctic Regions, 367-414

CHAPTER XI.

History of Southern Exploration-c-Antarctic Temperatures-Density of the Sea "'ater southof the 60th parallel-Icebergs-Deposits-Surface Orgauisms-c-The Hexactinellidn-e-The Tetrac-tinellidn, . ·H 5-452

CHAPTER XII.

~[elbourne to Sydney-i-Sydney-c-Excursion to Qnecll~!ant.l-The Mnrsuplalia-c-Sydney to,,-ellington-Procalistes-'Vellington to the Kermadec an-I Friendly IslalllJ,,-Tungalabu, FriendlyI:slands to> the Fiji TS!:UllIs-The Fiji I,.lal\ll~, -l53-iiUl.l

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

SECOND PART.

CHAPTER XIII.

xv

P.'\OBFiji Islands to the New Hebrides Islamls-Halobates-Api-The Macrura-s-Raine Islalld-

Cape York-Arrau Islands-s-Ki Islanda-s-Banda Group, . 511-560

CHAPTER XIV.

Banda Islands-The Monaxonida-e-Banda to Amhoina-Thc Aclil1iaria--Amboinll-~Iimierj'

in Butterflies and Moths-i-The Brachyura-s-Amboinn to Temnte-c-Tcmate-c-The Medusre, 561-6Ua

CHAPTER XV.

Ternate to Samboaugnn-c-The Asteroidea-i-Samboangan to 110 Ilo-The .\mphipoda-Ilo Hoto Manila-The Lamellibranchiata-~Ianila to Hong Kong-The Aunclida-s-The Calcarea andKeratosa, . 604-64!>

CHAPTER XYL

Hong Kong to Manil« and Zebu-s-Mactnn and Zebu-e-Zcbu to Gamiguin Island and Sarnbo­angan-SaU!hOallgan-Samhoangau to Humboldt llay-Thc Pol.rzoa-Cc)Jhalouisclls-HllmuolUtBay-s-Humboldt' Bay to the Admiralty Islands-The Alcyonaria-i-Tbe Nudibranchintu, . 646-695

CHAPTER X\'IL

The Admiralty Islandsv-History of their Discovery-i-Dcscription of Xares Harbour-s-GeneralAppearance of the Islands and Botany-e-Xntivcs-c-Their Houses, Habits, Customs, Ornaments,Weapons, and Implements-Zoology-Polyncsian Races, . G!JG-733

CHAPTER ~TIII.

Admiralty Islands tu .lupan-s-Th e Schizopoda, Cumaccu, and Phyllocarida-i-Japan-c-TheJapan Stream-Japan to the Sandwich Islands-The Hydroiua-Honolulu-Hawaii-SanuwichIslands to Tahiti-Dr. Iludolf von Willemoes-Suhru-Tahiti-Strllctnre of C-oral Reefs-TheCorals, i ;~4-800

CHAPTER XIX.

Tahiti to Juan Fomandcz-c-Mangauese Xc.lulcs, Sharks' Teeth, Zeolites, and Cosmic Spherulesin the Deposits of the Central South Pacific-The Stomatopoda-c-Historical AWJUllt of .IuanFernandez-e-Physical Features-Botany and Zoology-The Nemertea-c-Juan Fernnudez to Vul-paraiso-i-The Foramiuifera->Va11'uraiso-The Copepoda and Ostracoda, 801-841>

xn THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLEXGER.

CHAPTER XX.PAGE

Yalparniso to Cape Tres Montcs-i-The Cirripedia and I'yr nogonida-c-Through the :\Ie~sier

Channel, Sarmiento Channel, and the Strait of :\Iagellan to the Falkland Islands-The Isopodn-i-The Falkland Islands-Fossils-Thr Scnphopoda and Gasteropodn-c-Tho Anomura, il!9-901

CHAPTER XXI.

Falkland Islands to ':\Iontr Yideo-The Dcop-Sen Fishos-s-Monte Yideo-s-The Gephvrca-e­:\1onte Yideo to Asccusion-i-Description of the Deposits-On Deep-Sea Deposits in Genrral­Ascension-Ascension to Porto Praya-c-Pelugic Diatoms-Infusoria-Pyrocystis-Coccospheresand Rhabdosphrres-Bathybins-Capr Vcr.le Islands to England-Synoptical Table of theVoynge-c-The Botany of the Expedition-s-Challenger Collections and Publications, 90:!-9!i

CHAPTER XXII.

Density of Sea Wutcrs-Composition of Ocean ".ater Salts-Geographical and Bathymetricall iistribution of Specific Gravity-Carbonic Acid, Nitrogen, and Oxygen in Sea ".nter-i-Discussiou"f Meteorological Observations as bearing on Oceanic Circulation, . 948-100:l

,\Pl'EXDICES.

10i:l

1005

102i-l0311033-1051

1017-10:!6

100i-l015

referring to the Results of1053-10631065-1Oi2

.\ppen,lix1. Explanation of :;;ymbols and Abbreviations used in the Chart:' and Diagrams,

11. Revised Table showing the positions of the Soundings obtained hy H. :\1.S. Challenger, theTemperature and Specific Gravity of the Surface and Bottom 'Yater, and the Stationswhere Serial Temperatures, Trawlings, and Dreugings were procured,

Ill. Report on the Chronometers supplied to, and the Meridian Distances obtained by If.~LS.

Challenger, between the 1st Decem her 18i2 and the 12th June 18i6, by Staff-Commander

T. H. Tizard, J1.X.IY. Report on the Health of the Crew of H.~1.S. Challenger, during the years 18i3-iG. By

Fleet-Surgeon George Maclcan, R.X.Y. 'Chemical Analyses,

Y1. Bibliography, giving the Titles of Books, Reports, an.l Memoirsthe Challenger Expedition,

\' 11. List of Reports on the Scientific Results of the Expedition,YIlI. Letters addressed by the Admiralty to the Captain of H.~I.S. Challenger, and the Director

of the Civilian Scientific Staff, after the Arrival of the Expedition in England,

I~"'Ex, 1075-1110

LIS T 0F ] LLUSTRAT ION S.

I. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES.

FIRST PART.P~~ U~

A. Challengerida (Phseodaria), 226B. Antarctic Icebergs, 429C. Antarctic Icebergs, 430D. An tarctic I cebergs, 432E. Va rious Dancing Costumes worn at Nakello, Fij i ; a Tongan to show the colour of the race, 503

SECOND PART.

F. Lutno Girl and I loy dan cing at Samhoangan, 662 .G. Admiralty Islands. Unusually large and highly decorated obsidian blad ed spears; obsidian

bladed spears of old pattern heads; spear head with blade of hard wood painted to resembleohsidinn, . . 710

H. Admiralty Island s. Th e head and shaft of a spear with the binding twine cut off to show th econstruction j front and back of th e socket; the blade (broken at th e point); two belts ofplaited work, 712

1. Admiralty Islands, Obsidian knife mad e by br eaking off the head of a spear; knife made forthat purpose only; shea th of Banana leaf for knife or spear; comb; bag, 716

K. Admiralty I slands. Decorated skull of Turtle hung up in club houses as a memento of the feast;views of a lime gourd for carrying lime to be chewed with Betel; sti ck for spooning out the

' lime j It small er gonrd, 718L. Admiralty Islands. Badges of distinction, consisting of a human humerus decorated with feathers

carried by warriors j front and baek views of same; a similar badge but without feathers, 720M. Admiralty Islands. A very fine bowl with lizards on the handles; a bowl in the form of a bird;

a bowl with human figures supporting the scrolls, . 722N. Deep-Sea Deposits, 926O. Deep-Sea Deposits, 816

n. PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES.

FIRST PART.

Frontispiece.-Christmas Harbour, Kerguelen.Plate

T. Rock with Glacial Markings, Halifax, Nova Scotia,n. Baobab Tree, San Jago,

(NARR. CRALL. EXP.-VOL. 1.-1885.) c

15R189

xviii THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLE.NGER.

PlateIII. St . Paul's Rocks,rv. St. l)an1's Rocks,

Y. St. Paul's Hocks,VI. St. l'au1's Rocks,

YH. Penguin Rookery, Inaccessible Island,YIII. Sea Cliff, Inaccessible Island,

IX . House-Building, Tristan du Cunha,X. Antarctic Ice,

XI. Autarctic Ice,XII. Antarctic Ice,

XIll. Antarctic I ce,XIV. Xests of the Wandering Albatross, ~rl\l'ion I sland,XV. View in K erguelen Isl and, with hummo cks of Azorella .~/)11/[J(J,

XVI. Vegetati on of Kerguelen Island (Pn'Il[/le(/ nut iscorlJll!im).XVII. Trap Hills, 1\erguel-n Island,

XVIII. Woou Scenery, Tonga,XIX. Fiji Canoe, .

SECOXD P .\IlT.

Frontispiece.-Crater of Kilauea, Mauna Loa.XX. Termites' Nests, Cape York, .

XXI. Nest of MI'!lapodi1C.~, Cape York,XXII. Palm-Leaf Huts, Cape York,

XXIII. Native Houses, Dobbo,XXIV. Native Hut, Wokan,XXV. Arran (Aru) Islanders,

XXVI. Village, Ki Doulan, .XXVII. Breadfruit Tree, Ki Doulnn, .

XXVIIL Bisayan Houses, Snmhoangnn,XXIX. Native, Admiralty I slands, .XXX. Native Village, Admiralty Island..,

XXXI. Lava Cascade, Kilanea, Muun« Loa,XXXII. Native House, Tahiti,

XXXIII. Vegetation, Juan Fernandez (Gltnnerapeltata),XXXIV. Glacier, Port Churruca,XXXV. nog Balsam (Bola» ylebaria), Falkland Islands,

IlL PLANS OF H.l\f.S. CHALLEXGER

As FITTED FOR A VOYAGE OF DEEP-SEA EXPLORA'l'IOS.

])lan

1. Showing Upper Deck and Main Deck,2. Showing Lower Deck and Hold, .

. .

PAGE

202204020620825025i25839840040240402940299300338484508

53253553654654855055555666070971476i784828870889

PAGE

2IS

NARRATIYE OF THE CRUISE.

IV. CHARTS SHOWIXG THE DREDGIXti AXD SOUXDIXG STATIO:NS.

xix

FlR::;T PART.

S~~ UU

1. Large Physical Chart of the 'Yorld, in pocket of cover to First Part.2. England to the Canary Islands, touching at Lisbon, Gibraltar, and Madeira; also towards England

from the Cape Verde Islands, touching at Vigo, 463. In the vicinity of Lisbon, . 484. In the vicinity of Madeira Island, . 525. In the vicinity of the Canary Islands, 546. Canary Islands to St. Thomas, St. Thomas to Bermudn, Bermuda to the Azores, Azores to :;\Iadeira,

and Mndeira to Cape Venle Islands ; also towards England from the Cape Verde Islands, 1247. In the vicinity of the Virgin Islands, 1308. In the vicinity of Bermuda, . 1409. Bermuda to Halifax, crossing the Gulf Stream in the meridian of 70° "T., and Halifax to Bermuda,

crossing the Gulf Stream in the meridian of 63° 'Y., 15310. In the vicinity of the Azores, 175l l. In the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, . 18212. Cape Verde Islands to Bahia, touching at St. Paul's Rocks and Fernando Noronha; also Ascension

to Cape Verde Islands, 19213. In the vicinity of St. Paul's Rocks, 201H. In the vicinity of Femando Noronha, 21015. In the vicinity of the Coast of Brazil, 21516. Bahia to the Cape of Good Hope, touching at the Tristan da Cunha Islands; also Monte Video to

Ascension, 24017. In the vicinity of the Tristan da Cunha Islands, 242Ht Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of 60° S., touching at the islands of Marion, Crozet, Kerguelen,

and Heard, 29019. In the vicinity of Prince Eelward and Marion Islands, 29620. In the vicinity of the Crozet Islands, 318~n. In the vicinity of Kerguelen Island, 33i22. In the vicinity of Heard Island, 37023. In the neighbourhood of the Antarctic Circle, between the 78th and 98th meridians of east longitude,

showing the position of Pack Ice and floating Icebergs encountered, 39724. From a position in lat. 59° 56' S" long. 99° 14' E. to Melbourne, 41025. Melbourne to Sydney, 45426. In the vicinity of Sydney, N.S.W., 46327. Sydney to Wellington, touching at Port Hardy and Queen Charlotte Sound j Wellington to Fiji

Islands, touching at Tongatabu ; and Fiji Islands tu Cape York, touching at Api Island andRaine Islet, 464

28. In the vicinity of Tongatabu, 47829. In the vicinity of Matuku Island, 48130. In the vicinity of Ngaloa Harbour, Fiji Islands, 507

SECOND PART.

31. Cape York to Hong Kong, touching at the Arrou Islands, Ki Islands, Banda Islands, A;m~inaIsland, Ternate Island, Samboangan, Ilo Ilo, and Manila j also Hong Kong to Yokohaina,touching at Manila, Zebu, Samboangan, Humboldt Bay, and the Admiralty Islands, 542

xx THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. OHALLENGER.

Sheet PAGJ,:

32. In the vicinity of the Arrou and Ki Islands, 54433. In the vicinity of the Banda Islands, 56234. Nares Harbour, Admiralty Islands, 69835. In the vicinity of Japan, 74836. Yokohama to the Sandwich Islands, 75037. In the vicinity of the Sandwich Isl ands, 76038. Sandwich Islands to Tahiti ; also Tahiti to Valparaiso, touching at Juan Femandez Island, i7239. In the vicinity of Tahiti, . 7i940. Valparaiso to Port Otway, . 85041. Port Otway through Magellan Strait, touching at Hale Cove, Gray Harbour, Port Grappler, Tom

Bay, Puerto Bueno, Isthmus Bay, Port Churruca, Port Famine, Sandy Point, and ElizabethIsland, 1:\62

42. Magellan Strait to the Falkland Islands and Monte Vid eo, . 90.J.43. In the vicinity of Ascension, 929

Ohart showing Distribution of Density in Surface Wat ers of th e Ocean, IOO.J.

V. DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

IN THE OCEAN.

FIRST PART.

Diagram1. Longitudinal section, Tenerife to Sombrero, 1222. Diagonal section, Bermuda towards New York; also Meridional section, Halifax to St. Thomas, 1343. Longitudinal section, Bermuda to the Azores and Madeira, . 1684. Longitudinal section, from a position in lat. 3° 8' N., long. 14° 39' W. to Pernambuco, 1945. Diagonal section, Abrolhos Island to Tristan da Cunh a Isl ands, 2386. Longitudinal section, Rio de la Pl ilta to Tristan da Cunha Islands and the Cape of Good Hope, 2i47. Meridional section, the Azores to the Tristan da Cunha Islands, 2768. Meridional section, Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of 46° S., 2929. Meridional section between the parallels of 50° and 65° S. lat., 408

10. Diagonal section, from a position in lat. 53° 55' S., long. 108 0 35' E. to Cape Otway, 41211. Longitudinal section, Sydn ey, N.S.W., to Porirua, Cook Strait, New Zealand, .J.6i12. Meridional section, Kand nvu Island to Cape Palliser, New Zealand, 4-i6

SECOND PART. .

13. Longitud-inal section, Fiji Islands to th e Barrier Reef, Australia, :i1914. Diagram showing the Distribution of Temperature in the Seas enclosed by the Islands of the Eastern

Archipelago, . 59315. Longitudinal section, Menngis Islands to the Admiralty Islands, 67R16. Meridion al section, Admiralty Islands to Japan, 73617. Longitudinal section, Japan to a position in lat , 3:>° 49' N., long. 180 0 W., 75418. Longitudinal section, from a position in lat. 35 0 49' N., long. 180° W. to a position in lat. 3809' N.,

long. 156 0 25' W., 75G19. Meridional section, from the parallel of 38° N. to the parallel of40° S., i5ti20. Longitudinal section, from a position in lat . 400 3' S., long. 132 0 58' W. towards Mocha Island, 80221. Meridional section, off the west Coast of South America, between the 33rd and 46th parallels, 85222. Meridional section, Falkland Islands to the parallel of 35° 40' S., 902

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

YI. WOODCUTR.

FIRST PART.Figure -

H.M.S. Challenger,1. The Steam Pinnace in Sydney Harhour,2. Zoological Laboratory on the Main Deck,3. 1lhe 1I0ldfast, '4. Hydraulic Compression Apparatus,5. Chemical Laboratory,6. Sea-going Sand-Bath,7. Carbonic Acid App aratus,8. Apparatus for collecting the Atmospheric Gases from Sea-".ater,9. H.M.S. Challenger at the New Mole, Gibraltar,

10. Two views of Umbellula thomsoni, Koll.,11. Santa Cruz, Tenerife,12. Dredging and Sounding arrangements on board the Challenger;13. Hydra Sounding Machine,14. Baillie Sounding Machine,15. The Accumulator,16. Diagram to illustrate the method of Sounding,17. The Cup Lead, .18. The Valve Sounding Lead,19. The Dredge,20. The Beam Trawl used in deep-sea work,21. Th e Sieves, . .22. Diagram illustrating the supposed action of the Deep -Sea Dredge,23. Ordin ary method of using the 'Tow-Net,24. A method of using the Tow-Net in deep water, .25. The Current Drag,26. Diagram to illustrate the action of th e Current Drag,27. Six's Deep-Sea Thermometer,28. Case for enclosing Six's (Miller-Casella) Thermometer,29. Negretti & Zambra's Deep-Sea Th ermometer; Ferguson's )Iorlification,30. Negret.ti & Zambra's Improved Standard Deep-Sea Thermometer,31. Magnaghi's reversing apparatus for Negretti & Zambra's Th ermometer,32. Siemens' Electrical Thermometer,33. Mercury Piezometer,34. Enlarged view, showing attachment of bulb to end of Piezometer,35. Water Piezometer,36a. Diagram for Water Piezometer,36b. Diagram for Mercury P.iezometer,37. Hydrometer,38. Method of using th e Hydrometer,39. The Slip Water-Bottle, .40. Instrument for slipping the Cylinder at int ermediate depths,41. Stop-cock Water-Bottle, in section, closed and open,42. Buchanan's Improved Stop-cock Wnter-Bottle, in section,43. Depth Gauge,44. Bucuanan's Combined Sounding Tube ann 'Vater.Bottle,

XXI

PAGE

14­R

7111214151747505357596062646969747a767779798081868690939496

104­104105108108109110III112113116116117

xxii THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Figure PAGE

45, 46, 47. Disengaging Apparatus for Buchanan's Water-Bottle, 11848. Peak of Tenerife from the N.W., 40 miles, 12149. Boarding the wreck of the" Varuna," off Cabrite Point, St. Thomas, 13050. Terebraiula u;yvillii, Dav., 13151. Terebraiulina loyvilli i, Dav., 13152. Discina ailantica, King, . 13153. Thermometer tubes broken by pressure at a depth of 3875 fathoms (Station 25), ' 13454. Stratified" iEolian " Rocks, Bermuda, 13755. "lEoliall" Limestone Beds in process of formation, Bermuda, 14156. Sand-Glacier overwhelming a Garden, Elbow Bay, Bermuda, 14257. Chimney of a Cottage which has been buried by a Sand-Glacier. Elbow Bay, 14358. Natural Swamp-Vegetation, Bermuda, 14459. Group of Palms on the croquet-lawn, Mount Langton, 14560. Papaw-trees (Carica papaya) in the Governor's garden at Clarence Hill, . 14761. Cedar Avenue, Hamilton, Bermuda, 14962. Land Nemertine, Teirastemma aqricola, Suhm (young male), 15063A. Female of Nebalia (Paranebalia) lotujipes, Suhm, 151

B. Male of the same, 151C. Phyllopod-like thoracic limb of ...Nebaiia geoffroyi, fromSuhm, . 152D. Corresponding limb of Nebalia (Paranebalia) lonqipes, from Suhm, 152E. Thoracic limb of Lophoqaster typicus, from Sars, 152

64. Octacnemus bythius, Moseley, 16265. Culeolus loyville.thomsolli, Herdman, 16366. The Branchial Sac of Culeolus wyville-thomsoni, Herdman, 16467, A. Sfyela squamosa, Herdman ; B. Sfyela bythia, Herdman, attached to a manganese nodule,

from 2600 fath oms, . 16468. Coryllascidia suhmi, Herdman, . 16569 Ophioglypha bullaia, Wyv. Thorns., 17070. Ophiomusium lymalli, Wyv. Thoms., 17171. Ophiomusium. pulchellum, Wyv. Thoms., 17372. Ophiomitra ehelys (Wyv. Thoms.), 17373. Ophiotholia supplicane, Lym., 17474. AralU::aria eookii; San Miguel, 17775. CnJptomeri.a japonica, San Miguel, 17876. Araucaria excelsa, San Miguel, . 17877. Orange Groves near Ponta Delgada, 17978. Fragment (head) of Balanoqloesus, n. sp., 19579. Salenia hastigera, A. Ag., 19680. Salenia oariepina, A. Ag., 19781. Aiirope rostrata, \Vyv. Thoms., 19882.. Pourialeeia phiale, Wyv. Thorns., 19883. CystecMnus wyvillii, A. Ag., 19984. Phormosoma luculenium, A. Ag., 19985. Pourialesia ceratopyga, A. Ag., . 20086. H.M.S. Challenger at St. Paul's Rocks, 20187. The Peak of Fernando Noronha, sketched from the deck of H.M.S. Challenger, Sept. 3rd,

1873, 21288. BathyptercM longipes, Giinth., 21789. Xiphacantha murrayana, n, Bp.,. 222

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUI~E.

Figure90. Lithoptera darwinii, n. sp.,91. Haliomma 1/Iyvillei, n, sp.,92. Hexancisira quadricuspis, n, gen, et sp.,93. Eureorfphalus lmxleyi, n. sp.,94. Cinclopuramie murrapana, n. gen. et sp.,95. Lithocoronie challenqeri, n, gen. et sp., .96. Cluthrocanium regime, n. sp.,97. Ipnops mlll'myi, Gunth., 1600 ' to 1900 fathoms,98. The Island of Trlstan da Cunha,99. Settlement of " Edinburgh," Tristan da Cunha,

100. Waterfall, Inaccessible Island, .101. Penguins at home,102. Head, foot, and wing of Ne sospiza acunhce, Cabanis,103. Head, foot, and wing of Nesocichla eremiia, Gould,104. Nightingale Island from the North,105. Nightingale Island from the South,106. Amphitretus pelaqicus, n. gen. et Bp.,107. Japetella prismatica, n. gen. et sp.,108. Bathyteuthis aby ssicola, n, gen. et sp.,109. Promachoteuthis meqapiera, n. gen. et sp.,110. Peniaqone wyvillii, Theel,111. Scotoplanes globosa, Tbeel,112. Pepchropotes lonqicauda, Theel, .113. Peripatus capensie (after Balfour),114. A right leg of Peripaius capensis,115. A left leg of Peripatus capensie,

116. Pentacrinus maclearanus, 'Vyv. Thotns.,117. Pentacrinus wyville-tho1llsOlli, Jelfreys,118. MetacrinlUJ wydllii, P. H..Carpenter,119. Rhizocrinus lofoteneis, M. Sars, .120. Bailnjcrinus campbellianus, 'Vyv. Thoms., M.S.,121. Batlnjcrinus gracilis, 'Vyv. Thorns.,122. Hpocrinue bethelliauus, \Vyv. Thorns.,123. Promachocrinus kerquelcnsis, P. H. Carpenter,124. Thuumatocrinus renoralus, P. H. Carpenter,125. Diagram showing the structure of Myzostoma (coloured),126, A. lIf!Jzostoma horoloqium, dorsal surface; B, the' same, ventral surface; C, Myzostoma quadri­

filum; D, Myzostoma folium ; E, Sielechopus hyocrini,

127, A. Arm swelling of Pentacrinus aliernicirrue, P . H. C., inhabited by Myzostoma pentacrini;B, swollen pinnule of the same, inhabited by Myzostoma deformdior ; C, arm swelling ofAniedon iniequalis, P . H. C., inhabited by lIfyzostoma tenuispinum .. D, malformed pinnule ofthe same, inhabited by Myzostoma toillemoesii ; E, cyst on the disk of Antedon radiosplna,P. H. C., inhabited by lIfyzostoma murrapi,

128. East Island, Crozet Group, aeen from H.M.S. Challenger, January 2nd, 1874,129. Base of Beak of Diomedea exulans,

130. Beak of Thalassaca glacialoides,131. Beak of Aeipeies aniarciicue,132. Diagram representing Mr. Forbes' view of the Classification of the Tubinares,133. Cape Challenger, Kerguelen Island, with Mount Ross in the distance,

XXlIl

PAGE

2222232232232232240225239241252255260261261264265271272272273277279281284285285304304­305305307307309312312314

315

317319325325325327343

xxiv

Figure13!.135.136.137.138.139.140.141.142.143.144.145.146.

147.148.14-9.150.151.152.153.154.155.156.157.158.159.160.161.162.163.164.165.166.167.168.169.170.171.172.

173.174.175.176.177.li8.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLE~GER.

M'Donald Islands and )Ieyer Rock, as seen from H.M.S. Challenger, 6th February 1874,Glacier, Coriuthian Bay, Heard Island, as seen from H.~1.S. Challenger, 6th February 187!,Sketch by )[1'. Buchanan of a rock embedded in the black sand, Heard Island,Sketch by )[1'. Buchanan of the mountainous promontory, Heard Island,Oladodactfla crocea (Lesson). Stnnley Harbour, Falkland Islands,Peolue eplu'pp i/e l', \\'yv. Thorns., Coriuthian Harbour, Heard Island,Psollls epltiplJlj er, \Yyv. Thoms.,Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Ag. Stanley Harbour, Falkland Islands,Goniocidaris canal iculata (Cidal'i;3 nutrir, Wyv. Thorns.), Tlalfour Bay, Kerguelen Island,Hemiaster CIH·t'I'II0;;IIS (Phil.), Accessible Bay, Kerguelen Island, .Hemiast er caverno;;lls (Phil.) j female,Hemiasier caL'el'IW,<lIo>' (Phil.) j male,Hemiaster ca l:el' l lOSIlS (Phil.) j showing the arrangement of the eggs in one of the marsupial

recesses,Leptfehaster kerquelensi», R A. Smith, off Cape )[aclear, Kerguelen Island,Hspneuaster nobili», Wyv. Thorns. Southern Ocean,Hinnenaeter nobilie, "·yv. Thoms. Southern Ocean,Ophiacantluc cicipura, Ljungman, Falkland Islands,Iceberg first seen, 11th February 1874,Iceberg seen 21st February 1874,Iceberg seen 23rd February 1874-,H. )1.S. Challenger after collision with an iceberg, 24th February 1874,Iceberg and Pack Ice, seen 28th February 1874,Iceberg and Pack Ice, Been 25th February 1814,Eehioetoma micripnus, Giinther; 2150 fathoms,Tieqeria pulchra, n. gen. et sp., .Caulophacus elej ans, n. gen. et sp.,Hijalonema eleqans, n. sp.,Poliopoqon amadoll, "TyV. Thoms.,Pheronema carpenleri (Wyv. Thoms.),Hyalonema lueitanicum, Bocage,Crateromorpha murriuji, n. sp., .Lefroyella decora, Wyv. Thoms.,Melittiaulu» raIllOSIlS, n. gen. et sp.,Section of the wall of Walteria j emmi1lgii, n. gen. et sp.,JI!/lillsia caIlocpatl:us, Gray,Characteristic forms of the dermal spicules of the four families of Lyssacina,Chamcteristic spicules of the l'"ncinataria,Schematic view of a section through the metatarsus of a typical mmumalian foot,Schematic view of a transverse section through the metatarsus showing the intrinsic muscles of

the left human foot,Procalistes (Ta ollills) suhmii, Lankester,Procalistes (Tao1lills) eulunii, Lankester, older specimen,XukaIofa, Tongatabu,The Island of ~Iatuku, from the entrance through the Barrier Reef,Fijian Xative with remarkable.head-dress, part of dancing costume,Queen of Rewa,

PAGE

369370373374381383::l83385:387388389389

389391393394:3.9.5397!02403404­!064074124-37438!38430440-HI!42443444­445

.J.l6H6Hi!.'l7

458470!7148148850!505

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUn;;E.

S ECOND P ART.

F igur eH.~I. S . Challenger-Shortening Sail to Sound,

1;9. H alobates uJiillerstv rffi , Frauenfeld ,180. Landing of nati ves at Api, New H ebride s,181. Willemcesia leptoda ctpla , Suhm; male, .182. P olydleles crucifera, Suhm,183. Enjaneicus Ctl3CUi', Spence Bate (from Suhm),184. Tluutn uistocheles zaleuea, Suhm; male,185. B enihesicinnus altus, n. sp.,186. Resid ent's Canoe, Banda,18i. Ampliilectne cha llenged, Ridley,188. A morp hina meqalirrliaphie , Carte r,189. Po bjsiphonia tuberosa, Hertwig, A, oral view; B, lateral view,190. Tentacles of Polsjeiplumia tuberosa, Hertwig,191. Arttult simulans, A. G. Butle r,192. Ophtli alm is lincea, Cramer,193. Alddis aJ"ltllS , Felder,194. Papilio alcid inus, A. G. Butler, .195. Hind wings of Phyllodes,196 . Cyrtomn ia m urrayi, n. gen. et sp.•19;. Plu fymaia wyv ille-thomsoni, n. gen. et sp.,198. P aracyclo'is milne-edtcardsi, n. gen. et sp.,199. I sland of Tid ore,200. Pectis antarctica , H aeckel,201. P eriphylla mirabilia, Haeckel,202 . Hpmenasier sacculatus , Sladen,203 . Pqthonaster murriuji, Sladen,204. Pararchaster pedicifer, Sladen,205. Porcellanaster aeruleus, Wyv. Thorns. A, abactinal aspect; B, actinal aspect,206. S tyracastel' liorridus, Sladen,207 . A ndania gigantea, Stebbing,208. A canih ozone tricarinata, Stebbing,209. Cystosoma nepiuni (Ouerin-Meneville) S uln n,210. Callocardia adamsii, n. sp.,211. Nuculina ocalis, SearIes "Wood,212 . A m ussium watsoni, n, sp.,213. Arca corpulenia, n. sp., .214. Horizontal section th rough both eyes of Genetyllis oculaia, n. gen. et Bp.,215. Syllis ramosa, M'Intosh,216. Trophonia urfuille], n. sp.217. Flabelligem (1) abys.~orum, n. sp. ,

218. Ei lkardia schu lzei, Polejaeff,219. Dredge used by the Nati ve F ishermen at Zebu for obtaining Eupledella,

220. New Volcano, Camiguin Island,221. Pile-Dwellings of Lutaos, Samboangan, .222. Spear Dance of two Lutaos, at Samboangan,223. Fareiminaria hexaqona, Busk,224. Farciminaria deli catissima, Busk,

(NARR. CHALL. EXP.-VOL. 1.-1885.)

. xxv

PAGE

5115135165225235245255285675705715;557658158158158258358959059159460160260860961061161361962162162/;625626626629631633634642651653658662610670

d

XXVi THE VOYAGE OF H.)I.S. CHALLENGER.

Figure225. Eareiminaria magna, Busk,226. Eareiminaria qracilis, Busk,227. Earciminaria cribraria, Busk,228. Eareiminaria pacifica, Busk,229. Fareiminaria brasiliensis, Busk, .230. Fragment of Polyzoarium of Ccpluilodiscus dodecalophus, M'Intosh,231. Ventral view of Ceplialodiecus dodeculoplius, M'Intosh, .232. Stone-bladed Chopper and Stone-headed Hammer in use at Humholdt Bay,233. The Village of Ungrau in Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, '234. Oallozostron mirabile, n. gen. et sp"235. Collozostron mirabile, n. gen. et sp., single polyps,236. BathYooroia profunrla, n. gen. et sp"237. Batlujdori« aU!J~1301'1l1tl, llergh,238. Bathyrlori8 alJ!J8s01'lIlfl, Bergh, hack view,239. Four Armlets of Troclius niloticus shells, Admiralty Islands,240. Pendent Nose Ornaments from the Admiralty Islands, made of ground Tridacna shell,241. Lime Spoon-stick with carved handle, from the Admiralty Islands,242. Earthenware pot with two handles, from the Admiralty Islands,243, Spherical earthenware pot, from the Admiralty Islands,244. Hand Fishing :xet, Admiralty Islands, .245. Admiralty Island Fish-hook made of TJ'oclllls shell,246. Admiralty Island Adze, with blade of Tercbra maculata shell,247. Admiralty Island Adze with blade of hoop iron, ..~48. Large Adze Blades of Tridacna andllippoplIs shells,249. Admiralty Island Axe Blade of volcanic rock,250. Knife made of a portion of Pearl Oyster shell,251. Short Darts with reed shafts and heads of hard wood,252. Large carved wooden Food Bowl without handles,253. Food Bowl with spiral, carved, and perforated handles,254. Double Bird Bowls carved in wood,255. Carved Wooden Bowl representing a Crocodile, .256. Admiralty Island Pan-pipes,257. Entrance to a Club House, Wild Island, Admiralty Islands, with carved and decorated.

posts,~;)8. Human hair supported in a rough bamboo hasket from a club house,259. Human hair in a net of string, .260. Gnaihopluuisi« oioa8, Suhm. Dorsal view,261. Gnathoplcausia oioas, Suhm. Lateral view,262. Gnaihophausia zotea, Suhrn,263. Euphnusia pellucida, Dana,264. Streptocaulus puicherrimus, Allman,265. Monocaulus imperaior, Allman,266. Honolulu and the Valley of Nuuanu,267. Mauna Kea, Hawaii,268. Falls of Waianuenne, near Hilo,269. Slope of the outer face of the Barrier Reef at Tahiti,270. Section of the Barrier Reef at Tahiti,271. Profile of the Reefs,272. Tahiti, .

rAG!>

ti'il671u-'),-6'i26766ii6i7686688690690691693694'i1OilOil~

713il:3'ilf>7lLiil6i16i17717718720721721722722723

door-725726726739740740741751752761766768777778780783

NARRATrV:E OF THE CRUISE.

Figure273. Diagram representing 11 Nurse-Stock of the Mushroom Coral. (Fungia) and enlarged view of

. the scar left on the end of the stock when a young coral has become detached.274. Portion of the hard coral skeleton of Millepora nodosa, .275. System of zooids of Millepora nodosa in the expanded condition.276. Cryptohelia pudiea, M.-Edw. and Haime,27·7. Deltocyathus iialicue, Pourtales, .278. Deltocyathtts italicus. Stellate variety of Pourtales,279. DeltocyathuB maqnificus, Moseley,280. Odontocyathus coronatus, Moseley,281. Stephanotrochus diadema, Moseley282. Stephanotrochus nobilis, Moseley,283. Flabellum alabastrum, Moseley, .284. Flabellum angulare, Moseley, .285. Flabellum apertum, Moseley,286. Lophohelia prolifera, M.-Edw. and Haime,287. Batlnjactie S'ymmetrica, Moseley,288. Stephanophyllia complicata, Moseley,289. Lepiopenus hypol!aJltts, Moseley, .290. Leptopenus hypocaJlus, Moseley, .291. Tooth of Carcharodon meqalodon, from 2385 fathoms,292. Petrous and tympanic bone of Zipllitts caoirosirie, from 2335 fathoms,293. Section of a Manganese Nodule. showing a tympanic bone of Mesoplodon in the centre, from

2600 fathoms,294. Oxyrhina (Oxyrhina iriqonodon, Agass.) tooth, from 2350 fathoms,295. Black Spherule with Metallic Nucleus from 2375 fathoms, South Pacific,296. Black Spherule with Metallic Nucleus from 3150 fathoms, Atlantic,297. Spherule of Bronzite from 3500 fathoms, Central South Pacific, .298. A Lamella of the Spherule repres ented in fig. 297,299. Cumberland Bay, Juan Fernandez,

300. } rt ••...,anmna, n. gen.,301.302. Pelagonemertes rollesioni, Moscley,303. Keramospluera murrayi, Brady, .304. Cymbalopora (Tretomphalus) bulloides (d'Orbigny),305. Hastigerina pelagica (d'Orbigny) (murrayi, Wyv. Thorns.), with floating apparatus,306. Hastigerina pelagica (d'Orbigny) (murrayi, Wyv. Thorns.), from the surface,307. Pulvinulina menardii (d'Orbigny), from the tropical deposits,308. Globigerina bulloides, d'Orbigny, from the deposits, tropical regions of the Atlantic,309. Globigerina bulloides, var. triloba (Reusa1, from the surface,310. Orbulina unioersa (d'Orbigny), from the deposits,311. Orbuliua unioersa (d'Orbigny), from the surface,312. Corycreuspellucidus, Dana; male and female,313. Pontosiraiiotes abylisicola, G. S. Brad)",314. Lertuea abyssicola, G. S. Brady, .315. Cythere dictyan, G. S. Brady,316. Krithe produeta, G. S. Brady317. Megalasllla striatum, Hoek,318. Scapellum eximium, Hoek, '.319. Verruca eulcaia, Hook, .

xxvii

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807808811 .811812812822

831

832834835836837838839840841842844845846847847.852853864 .

XXVlll THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Figure320. Scalpellum dar1lJinii, Hoek,321. ScalJ.)ellum regium (Wyv. Thorns.), Hook,322. Nymphon robueium , Bell,323, Coloeeendeis proboscidea (Sabine),324. Oorlumclius aucklandiai, Hoek, .325. Serolie bromleyana, Suhm,326. Neasell us kerquelenensis, n. gen. et sp.,327. Stanley, Falkland Islands,328. Guivillea alabasirina, Watson, .329 -. Tylaspi8 anomala, n. gen. et sp.,330. Ptyehogaster milne-edioardei, n, sp.,331. The Green Mountain and Extinct Craters, Ascension Island,332 . Frustule of Etmodiecus uujvilleanus, n. gen. et sp.,333. Fragment of frustule of Etmodiscus sp., .334. Oeratium (Pel-ulinium) tripos il~ catenii, after Murray,335. )336. rPyroeysti.s noctiluca, M urray,

337.338. Pyroeystis fusiformie, Murray,339. A Coccosphere, from the surface,340. Rhabdospheres, from the surface,

Two Diagrams representing, in a graphic form, the densities of the surface water observed OD thevoyage in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,

TAIL-PIECES.

FIRST PART.

Mermaids and tow-net,Introduction.-Hooke's Sounding Apparatus,

ChapterI. "Good luck to you all" (reproduced by permission of the proprietors of Punch),

II. Trawl, Dredge, Tow-Net, Sounding Machine, Water-Bottle, and Sieves,Ill. Anemometer, Thermometer, Current Drag, Sextant, and Carbonic Acid Apparatus,IV. Examining contents of Trawl, .V. Sifting Deposits,

VI. Emptying contents of Dredge, .VII. Traversing Penguin Rookery,

VIII. Emptying W ater-Bottle,IX. Shooting Party with Artist at Kerguelen,X. H.M.S. Challenger and I ceberg,

XI. Reading Deep-Sea Th ermometers,XII. Bird Skinning,

SECOND PART.

XIII. Shark on Board,XIV. Examining contents of Tow-Net,

PAGE

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NARRA1'IVE 011' THE URUUm.I

ChapterXV. Naturalist's Cabin,

XVI. Botanising;XVII. Favourites,

XV HI. Tihitian Girl,XIX. Capture of Albatross,XX. Naturalists' Workroom during a calm, .

XXI. Hulk of H. M.S. Challenger at Chatham,XXII. Reading Hydrometer,

(NARR. CHALL, EXP.-VOL. 1.-'--1885.)

XXIX

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ERRATA.

Page 199, in explanation of woodcut (fig. 83), for" w1J11ilii" read cc wyvillii."Page 436, line 7, for cc (Iluetoceras" read cc Uhatoeeroe:"Pages 470 and 471, brackets round Trionius instead of Procalisies in the explanation of woodcuts.Page 487, line 9 from bottom, for cc fig. 141" read cc fig. 176."Page 496, line 15 from bottom, for "Vitu" .read "Viti.'Page 521, line 15, for" Aph'!f1UJnus" read "·Aphyonus."Page 541, line 7, for" strata" read "strota."

INTRODUCTIU:\.

Knowledge possessed by the Ancients conceming the Ocean, it~ ~altllc" uml il~ Iuhubitnuts-c-Ileseurehes during theMiddle Ages, the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and ~eventeenth Ccnturies-i-Thc Expeditions of the Eighteenth Century,and the Arctic and Antarctic Expeditions of the early part of the Ninete enth Ccntl\l'y-The " Lightning >l and"Porcupine " Expeditious-i-Corrcspuudcncc between the Royal ::;uciety and the Admiralty with reference to theinvestigation of the Great Ocean Basins.

A BlUEF review uf the 'efforts made tu acquire a knowledge of the Ocean, uud u genera!account of the opinions held prior to the year 1872 as to the physical and biologicalconditions of the great ocean basins, may form an appropriate Introduction to tluNarrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. The objects which the promoters had illview when they urged Her Majesty's Governmcnt to fit out and despatch an Expeditionon a special scientific investigation of the depths of the sea will thus be indicated.

The sea and the life in its waters were little studied by the learned men of th.:ancient civilisations, which were clustered round the nearly tideless Meditcrrnncun.Their sea-lore consisted in great part of wildly l'xaggel'atcc1 descriptions of the morestriking marine phenomena woven into 1L vague mythology. The sea was an object ofterror, for navigation was uncertain in thc extremc : what lay beyond the Pillars ofHercules was veiled in mystery, and what lay beneath the surface of the waters crossedby the ancient navies was equally unknown.

The sea was not, 1:;0 far as is known, made the subje ct of dose attention untilAristotle (384-322 B.G.) brought his mind tu bear on it in common with the otherdepartments of natural history. Aristotle studied the physical conditions of the svu

as far as Ho man' without apparatus could study them. He thought that in the oceanthe water wus \\:~I.rmcr and salter ut the surface than at the hottom ; he considered thu t

as the sun's heat was always evaporutiug the water the sea would ultimately lJC

(:-;.\1111. UIIALL. ~;Xl'.-Y()I.. I,· ·_·lt{,o.;.:;.)

xxxu THE VOYAUE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

dried up.' Aristotle'» opinions regarding ocean physics must be viewed as mere specula­tions., but his researches on murine animals were of distinct scientific value. Hc namedand described more 01' less minutely ouc hundred and sixteen species of fishes, abouttwenty-four species of Crustaceans and Annelids, and some forty Molluscs and Radiates,"making It total of one hundred and eighty species inhabiting the JEgean Sea; and thestudent is still reminded of his study of the anatomy of Echinu» by the significantname " Aristotle's Lantern " applied to its masticatory apparatus.

After Aristotle 110 original inquirer into these matters appeared for lllany centuries.Pliny the elder (~3-79 A.D.), in his gossipy" Natural History," presents Aristotle's

discoveries modified by much subsequent superstition and trndition. He con?iselycatalogues marine animals into one hundred and seventy-six species, being four less thanthe number recorded by Aristotle in the JEgean Sea alone. Pleased with this enumera­tion, he then exclaims :-" Surely then everyune must allow that it is quite impossibleto comprise every species of terrestrial animal in one general view for the informationof mankind. Awl yet. lly Hercules l in the sea and in the Ocean, vast as it is, thereexists nothing that is unknown to us, and, a truly marvellous fact, it is with thosethings which Nature has concealed in the deep that we are the best acquainted! "

Pliny had to confess himself unable to give a detailed account of the depth of theocean, some parts he stated to he 15 stadia (over 1500 fathoms) deep, others'" immenselydeep, no bottom having been found;"3 but he makes up for this in a way by explainingvcry clearly" why the sea is salt." He says :-" Hence it is that the widely diffusedsea is impregnated with the flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet andmild being evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily accomplishes; while allthe more acrid and thick matter is left behind, on which account the water of thesea is less salt at sonic depth than at the surface." 4

In this explanation Pliny followed Aristotle, and helped to open up a magnificentarena for the hair-splitting scholastics of the Middle Ages to dispute in. Bishop'Vatson 6 says :-" There arc few questions respecting the natural history of the globewhich have been discussed with more attention, or decided with less sntisfactiou, thanthat concerning the primary cause of the saltness of the sea. The solution of it hadperplexed the philosophers before the time of Aristotle; it surpassed his own greatgenius, and those of his followers who have attempted to support his argumcnts havebecn betrayed into very ill grounded conclusions concerning it. Father Kireher," afterhaving consulted three' and thirty authors upon the subject, could uot help remarking,that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions of

1 Mereorolog., lib. ii. cap. iii.I De Animal. Hist., lib. iv, Clip. i.-vii.; Eng, transl, by Ogle, pp. 97-115, London, 1882.3 Hist. Nat., lib. ii. cap. eii. 4 tu«, lib. ii, call. c.6 Chemical Essays, vol. H. PI" 93, DJ, 2nd ed., 1782. 0 :\Iullllus Subtemuieus, Liher iii, chap. iii,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRFISE.•

XXXlll

men concerning the origin of its saline impregnation." It was not until the time of Boylethat the theory at present held rrgarding the origin of salt in the sea was propounded.

'I'he rage for gcographir.al exploration which set in after the discovery of Americanaturally brought the phenomena of the sea into greater prominenec. RiI' JohnHawkins' story, as told by Boylc, while almost poetical enough to P-llggt'Rt Coleridge'swell-known lines, I has yet a flavour of scientific observation about it. :-

" Were it not for the Moving of the Sen. hy the Force' of Winds, Tides unrl Currents,it would corrupt all the 'World. The Experience of which TRaw Ail/If) 1:'590, lying witha Fleet about the Islands of A zar(':>, almost Six Months, tlu- grl'atest Part of the tim« wewere becalmed, with which all the Sea became :';0 replenished with several r.;ortr.; of GcllieRand Forms of Serpents, Adders and Snakes. as secm'd Woudertul , ROn~t· green, Romeblack, some yellow. some whit«, some of divers Colours, and many of them had Life. nndsome there were a Yard and a half, and some two Yards long; which had I not seen, Icould hardly have believed; and hereof are Witnesses all the Company of the Ships,which were then present, so that hardly a Man could draw a Bucket of Water deal'of Borne Corruption." 2

The Science of the Sea may be said to elate from the seventeenth century. Themethods used were crude, but they sometimes contained the germs of great ideas; theresults arrived at were often erroneous, but they were steps in the right direction; andthe researches were animated by the true scientific spirit. tho spirit of observation andexperiment.

In his paper, Of the Saltness of the Sea,3 Boyle detailed a great number ofexperiments. He personally made tt series of ohservntions nil the water of the EnglishChannel, collecting it from various depths, :11Hl observing its specific gravity. Thesamples from beneath the surfaeo were probably procured hy menus of Hooke's water­bottle, an extremely ingenious valved box, which is fully el('f;('rihe(l and figured in oneof the early numbers of the Philosophical Transactions.' Boylo investigated the saltness ofthe water by a number of processPR : he tried the ostimnt ion of total solids hy directevaporation an(1 ignition, hut not h('ing satisfied with the result hr' ultimatoly tookthe density as nu index of the saltness, and determined this either by means of a glnsshydrometer, by weighing in a phial which was afterwards weighed when full of distilledwater, or by weighing a piece of sulphur in distilled water and sea water consecutively.

" As for the different degrees of the saltness of the sea," Rays Boyle, " I shall deliverwhat. I have 'been'informod of as briefly as I can. And first, it hath been observed, by one

I "The very.deep dill rot: 0 Christ !That ever this should he !Yea, slimy things did crawl with leg!'Upon the slimy sea."

2 Boyle's Works, epitomized by Boulton, vol. i. p. 281, London, 1699. 3 Ibid ., p. 2;4.4 Phil. Trasu., vol. ii. p. 442, 1667. (The figure is reproduced ill the tailpiece to this Introduction.)

XXXIV THE VOYAOE OF H.l\J.S. CHALLENGER

to whom I gave n glass conveniently shaped to try the specific gravity of the water, thatit grew heavier and heavier ns he came nonrer the line , till within about 30° latitude ; fromwhence to Jnmaica he observed no nlteration in th« specific gravity in the least. And illconfinnntiouof this r urn likewis e informed, hy one, who for his own sat isfact ion weighedthe water, both under th e Acquirioctial ann at Cape of Good Hope', and found that the'wr-izht of both was the same. To which may be added that it is commonlv observed ato ' . .:Mozambigue, one of the hottest places in the world, that the sea' is so salt there, that itboars up the ehips (\ considerable height out of 't he water, more than in other places;and that the water may he much salter in one place than another, by having more saltdissolved in it , does not only appear from what hath been said, hut also from what isfrequently observed in the different strengths of brine-pits."!

About this time Hook e invented a machine for ascertaining the depth of .the seawithout a line ." Tt consisted of a sphere of light. wood carefully pitched and varnished,which was sunk by means of a leaden sphere attached to it by n spring hook. 'When itreached the bottom the catch was relensed hy the impact, the lead ball remained, and thefloat rose to the surface. The depth was calculated, by means of a certain formula, fromthe time which elapsed between letting it go and again seeing the float; and the machineanswered well in shallow and still water. Hooke himself pointed out that in a currentit would not show the true depth, hut that the arrangement would be ext remely valuableas a means of detecting under currents, and measuring th eir direction and velocity. Theirlcn of self-dctuching weights was not revived for two hundred years, when Brooke'ssounding machine was invented.

The early volumes of the Philosophical Trnusnctions ahound in records of work doneon subjects connected with the R£'a . In 1680 a "Person of Honour who was becalmedoff of Pantnlara near Sicily" amused himself hy «nlculat.ing the pressure at great depthshy sinking a bottle "stopp'd with an exceBent. good, tender cork " fixed in by variousdcvices : he obtained some interesting results."

These researches are now only of interest as showing how active a part was takenin marine physics in the early days of the Royal Society. .

The phosphorescence of the sea attracted much attention about the beginning of theeighteenth century. The beautiful display seen on moving an oar through the wateron a calm dark autumn night, the milky way of powdery light starred here and therewith g]o]Jf\S of soft brilliance, and the grand effect of a. swell breaking on a. rocky beach inshowers of luminous spray, were examined by several investigators, 'and reasons the mostvarious were assigned for the appearance. Newton suggested that the ligtJ,t was producedhy the coutiuual agitation of the water,' some observers thought it a:.:phosphorescence of

1 Boulton's Boyle, vol. i. p. 282.~ Lowthorp's Abridgment, Phil. Trou».. vol. H. p.25i. (Figured ill tailpiece to this 'Iutroduetion.):l Phit. TI'OIl~., "01. i. p. 50.1. t Optic...;; Bk. iii. p. 314, li30.

~AnJlATIYE OF THE CRUIRE. xxx'"

decomposition like that uf rotten wood, others held it to be a bituminous substanceendowed with a self-shining power/ and others considered that it was produced in someunknown manner by living creatures.

The specinlization of research ill the modern sense was unknown to the philosophersof the seventeenth «enturv, and when in the eighteenth the ohscrvationnl and experimentalsciences hegnn to separate out and develop, each in its own direction, marine resvnrch

was, for a time, practically neglected. The chemist was busy iuvestigating the richesof the eurth and fighting oyer theories; the natural philosopher was studying light, heat,sound, electricity, ann motion; the geologist was at work on the rocks and in the mines;the naturalist studied th e terrestrial animals and plants of hi~ own and distant countries,those living in the sea or on the seashore receiving less attention. The attention ofnavigators was fully taken up with the perfecting of their science, the development ofnautical astronomy, the study of the forces which control the magnetic needle, thediscovery of the longitude, the search for new lands and new routes,

Deep soundings in several parts of the ocean were recorded about the middle of the«ightcentb century, but considerable caution must be used in discussing these, as themethods in use at that time were not such m; to make any depth exceeding a fewhundred fathoms a matter of certainty. In 1749 Ellis sounded in 891 fathoms off thenorthwest coast of Africa, and observed the temperature at that depth. Before theinvention of the self-registering thermometer, the temperature below the surface wasascertained by taking a sample of water from the required depth in a bottle or valvedhox made of as imperfect heat-conductors AA possible, and noting the temperature whenbrought on deck; this, at the best, was unsatisfactory.

In 1558 appeared the fourth book of Gesncr's work on the History of Animals/ whichiR devoted to the nature of fishes and marine animal», and John Jonston," who studied atSt. Andrews in 1619, published in 1649 a treatise on aquatic animals, while other authorsof less note contributed to the slowly incrensing knowledge of littoral and pelagic animalsand plants during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.

The honour or first employing the dredge as a means of scientific investigation is claimedfor two Italian nntumlists-c-Marsili and Donati-who about 1750 used an ordinary oysterdredge for obtaining specimens in shallow water. In 1779 Otho F. Mtiller, a Danishzoologist, invented a special naturalistsdredge, a net attached to a Rquare iron frame,and with this arrangement he studied the marine fauna of the coast of Denmark to adepth of ~o fathoms. The rich variety of form and colour, the enormous abundance ofliving creatures of all kinds, seemed like the revelation of a new world. It may heimagined how those old explorers felt who first caught sight of the wonders hidden by

I Encyelopedie Mtitlu)(lique, nrt. Mer, t, ii. p. 744,1786.~ Historiee Animalil111l, Liber iv., Tiguri, 1558.~ Hlstorin- natnralis de Pi~d1'1H1 et Celi~ Libri \'.; ,I.. Exnnguibn.• nquaticis Libri TY" Fmncf', lG-I9, A1Il~t., 165i.

XXXVI THE VOYAOE (H' H.)!.::;. CHA LLE~l: ElL

the waves on reading Edward Forties' enthusiastic description of his first deep-water

rlredging:-" Beneath the waves there are mnny dominions yet to be visited ana kingdoms to be

discovered, and he who venturously bring..;; 11p from the abyss enough of their iuhabitnntsto display the physiognomy of the' country, will taste that ('up of delight, the sweetnessof whose draught those only who have mad e a discowry know. Well do I remember tlu­first day when I saw the dredg« hauled up after it had been <1l'agging ulong the seabottom, at a depth of more than 100 fathoms. Fishing lines had now and then entangledcreatures at as great, an (1 greater depths, hut these were few and far between, anrl onlyserved to whet our curiosity, without atlordiug the information we thirsted for. Theywere like the few stray bodies of strange red men whir-l: tradition reports to huvo beenwashed on the shores of the 01<1 World, before the discovery of the New, nnd whichserved to indicate the existence of unexplored realms inhabited by unknown races, butnot to supply information about their character, habits, andextent. But when a wholedredgcful of living creatures from th« unexplored depth appeared, it was us if we halllighted upon a city of the unknown peopl e, and were uhlo, through the numbers andvarieties taken, to understand what manner of beings they were. Well do I rememberanxiously separating eyery trace of orgauic life from th e envelopiug mud, and gnzingwith delighted eye on creat ures hitherto unknown, or on groups of living shapes, thetrue habitats of which had never been ascertained before. nor had their aspect, wlu-nin the full vigour and beauty of life. I'Wl' before (lrlightl'{l th e eye of a naturnlist,And when, at dose of day, our active labours over, w« counte r] the bodies ofthe slain, or curiously watched the proceedings of thos \' whom '\'I' had selected asprisoners, and confined in crystal vases, filled with a limited allowance of their nativeclement, our feelings of exultation wl'~'e as vivid, and surely us punlouable, ns thetriumphant satisfaction of some old Spanish "Couquisntudor,' musing over his siege ofa wondrous Astlan ' city, and reckoning th« number of puintvcl Indians he had broughtto the ground hy the prowl'ss of his stalwar t ann." ~

Dredging in shallow water WiIS found to he so \'ns)', aud its results so interesting, andoften so unexpected, that it soon became popular nmong nuturalists, and assiskd inturning their attention more particularly to mnrino 1&.

The increased interest in tilt' hiologicnl conditions was accompanied by a more careful

study of the physical and chemi cal problems presented by Rea water. A great 111all)'analyses were made towards the end of last century, hut the methods then employedwere too imperfect to yield results of much scientific value, and the principle on whichthey were conducted was erroneous. It was assumed that a proximate analysis of thesalts in sea water could he made by weighing the amount of ear-h particular salt that could

I Astlnn wns the country from which, according to native trmlition, the Azter« ramo,~ ~atural Hi~tory of European Seas, p, 11, .1859.

::".-\ IUL\TlVE O~' THE UHUI:-;E, XXXVll

be separated frum tlu- water, awl thus these uualyses gave long and vcr)' eourlicting lists,all claiming tu present the precise quantity of sulphate and muriate of soda, of sulphateand muriate of magnesia, and of sulphate nud muriato of lime, in the water. It was notuntil 1818 that. the diflcrcnt proportions ill which these salts were procured wereconclusively shown to be due, not, necessarily, to any difference in the sea water, but toditlereuces in the methods of uuulysiug it. . In that year Dr. John Murruy of Edinburghpublished all extremely valuable research 011 the water of the Firth of Forth; I he showedthat hy treating portions of the snme sample of water in different ways, widelydifferent quuutities of the various salts might be ohtuincd, and that the only satisfactorymethod uf proceeding was to determine each base uud each acid scparutcly, The attemptto discover whether the composition of sea water differed at different places wusfrequently mnde, but the conditions of observation were unsatisfactory. The samplescould not be relied upon a:; properly collected or preserved, and much uncertaintyremained on the subject,

Perou, a French uuturalist who went round the world in th e year XII. of theRepublic (1805), made a number of observations on the temperature of the ocean atdifferent depths. He was strongly impressed by the importance of oceanic research, andwrote :-" Of all the experiments in Natural Philosophy there are few the results of whicharc more interesting or more curious than those which form the subject of this memoir,The meteorologist must derive from th em valuable data in regard to atmosphericobservations in the middle of th e oceau : they may furnish to th e uaturulist knowledgeindispensably neees:;;(\ry in regard to the habitation of the different tribes of marineanimals ; and thc geologne and philosopher will find in them the most certain facts inregard to the propagation of heat in the middle of the seas, and of the physical state ofthe interior parts of the globe, the deepest excavations uf which eau scarcely go beyondthe surface. In a word, there is no science which may not derive benefit from theresults of experiments of this kind. How much then ought we tu be surprised thatthey have hitherto excited so little attention ! "2

Peron's results were vcr}' erroneous; he imagined that the bed of the ocean wascovered with eternal ice, and that, as a consequence, life was impossible there. Fromthe state of deep-sea research at the time this theory was quite plausible andrequired to be refuted before it was rejected, Sir John Ross's great Arctic voyagein 1818 furnished complete and most satisfactory evidence that Peron's deductions werewrong. Apart from the exploring work and the very valuable magnetic observationsof Ross's expedition, it stands out ill history as the first in which satisfactory souudingswere made and samples of the bottom obtained. Ross luul invented an arrange­ment, which he called the "Deep-sea Clnmm," for gripping a. portion of the bottom and

I TraIts. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii, 11. 205, 1818.2 ,Journalde Physique, t, lix, p. 361, an. xiii. j Phil. Jlay., ser, 1, vol. xxi, \'. 129, 1805.

XXXVlll THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALI,ENGER.

bringing it up safely.' He attached this to the line on a number of occasions, and

succeeded in hringing up as much as 6 Ibs, of mud from the great depth of 1050 fathoms

in Baffin Bay; and 011 September l st, 181£1, in Possession Bay, "soundings were

obtained correctly ill 1000 fathoms , consistiug of soft mud, ill which there were worms,

and entangled 011 the souudiug-Iine, at the depth of 800 fathoms, a beautiful Caput­Medusa:" 2 thus proving that there was unimal life on the bed of the ocean notwith­

:-;tallding the durkness, stillness, silence, awl enormous l'rei'i:mre produced by more than a

mile of supcrincumbcnt water. Starfishe:-; were frequently found attachedto the line at

depths of over 800 fathoms from the surface, hut these discoveries wer~ strangely lost

sight of for mallY yeHl'';. The zoological collections nuulc Oll this voyage must have been

of great scientific value, and it is much to be regretted that, 011 their arrival ill this

country, a large number of the specimens were ill a stutc uuf t for identification. The

scientific work of the cruise had becu entrusted to Sir Edward Subiue, who, while anxious

to do justice tu the whole circle of the sciences, naturallv devoted himself most to his

own department of physical nnrl mugueti« observations. Sir John Ross keenly felt t ln­

want of a uuturalist. He writes :-

"An endless variety of the class Aculeulue were brounht home , and scut to the. r 0

1\1 useum, but in a state :-;0 much contracted by the spirit as to render it impossible for

J?r. Leach to make out their gellel'a. Observations 011 these animals whilst living

accompanied by accurate druwing», arc quite nccessnryto render the preserved specimens

of any degree of use; uud it j:-; to he regretted that 110 Naturalist capable of performiug

these iudispcnsablc part» of his duties uccompunied the Expeditioll." :;

Considerable attention was ulso paid to meteorology and ocean physics, and the record

of' the voyage includes H number of tables of continuous meteorological observations.

the density of the surface water was observed daily, and occasionally that at a depth of

80' fathoms.' Deep-sea temperatures were taken at short intervals of time and of depth

by means of a self-reuistcrinn thermometer with a urotected bulb rcscmblinv that devised. . 0 0 r' 0

by Sir Williarn Thomsou Ii and Professor "T.A. Miller half a century later."In his second Arctic voyage, from 1829 to 1833, Sir John Ross continued his scientific

observations, aud frequently dredged in shallow water, his limit of depth being 70

fathoms.' The large zoological collections were unfortunately lost to science, as they had

to be 'abandoned with the" Victory," aud since there was no naturalist on the expedition

the loss was complete.

The researches of Mr. Darwin during the voyage of H.l\LS. "Beagle" (1831-:36),

remarkable in so many respects, are to be noted in this connection chiefly for his olJsl'r~

1 Voyage of Discovery in His ~la.ie8tY·8 Ships 11Isabellu ' und "Alexander," Appendix, 1'. CXXXV, London, 1819.~ Ibid., p. 178. 3 Ibid., Appendix, pp. lxiii, lxiv.4 Ibid., Appendix, three large plates..; Depths of the Sea, P: 293, 1874 j Proc. Roy.Soc. Edin., vol. ii, pp, 267-271,1851. 6 Depths of the :-:iea, I), 2\)(1.7 Xal'l'l\tivc Ill' 11 Seeuml Yoyage in Search of a Northwest Passage, Apptmdix,l" lxxxi, 1.011,1011, lHa5.

~AlmATlYE OF THE CRUISK XXXIX

vntions on the bathymetrical limit of reef-forming corals, and on the structure and originof coral reefs and islands.

About this time appeared Sir John Dalycll's interesting investigations on Scottishzoophytes and the first microscopic researches of Ehrenberg upon living and fossilmarine orgnnisms. The microgeologic studies of the latter, pointing out the relation be­tween. modern marine deposits and geological formations, added a new interest to theinvestigation of marine life. In 1837 Mr Alan Stevenson applied the method stillin use for ascertaining the direction and velocity of marine under-currents.'

The next great advance in marine zoology was the invention of Ball's dredge in 1838.The special features of this dredge were such as to give it at once the first place as nnaturalist's appliance, and after the lapse of nearly half a century it remains practicallyunexcelled,

The great importance of dredging as a means of zoological research was recognised ill1839 by the British Association, which appointed a committee" for researches with thedredge, with n view to the investigation of the marine zoology of Great Britain, theillustration of the geographical distribution of marine animals, and the more accuratedotcnuinatiou of the fossils of the Pliocene period under the superintendence of Mr.Urny, Mr. Forbes, Mr. Goo.lsir, Mr. Patterson, Mr. Thompson of Belfast, :Mr. Ball ofDublin, Dr. Grorge Jolmston, Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, awl Mr. A. Striokland." 2

From the number of eminent' men on this committee valuable reports were lookedfor, and not in vain. One alone, Professor Edward Forbes, did more than any of hiscontemporaries to advance marine zoology. He conducted long and patient investiga­tions into the bathymetricnl distribution of life in various seas; and by the fascinationof his literary style he invested his reports with an interest that carried the knowledgeof his work far beyond the limits usually set to the labours of specialists. Forbes' ideas011 many points are no Ionger entertained; had he lived longer 'he' himself -woulddoubtless have been the first to discover and proclaim the falsity of many 'of them."To Forbes is due the credit of having been the first to treat these -questions in' a broadphilosophical sense, and to point out that the only means of acquiri~g a true knowledgeof the rationale of the distribution of our present fauna, is to make ourselves acquaintedwith its history, to conned the present with the past. This is the direction which musthe taken by future inquiry. Forbes, fIS a pioneer in this line of research, was scarcelyin a position to appreciate the full value of his work. Every year adds enormously toour stock of data, and every new fact indicates more clearly the brilliant results whichare to be obtained by following his methods, and by emulating his enthusiasm and hisindefatigable industry." 3

1 The Principles and Practice· of Canal and River Engineering, by David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., p. 116, 2nl1 ell.Edinburgh, 1872.

2 Brit. Assoc. Report, p. 127, 1839 j Memoir of Ellwtlrcl Forhes, F.R.S., hy Wi1~on a11l1 Geikie, p. 240, 1861.3 Depths of the Sea, p. 6, 1874.(xxnn. CH ALL. EXP.-YOL. I.-188!).) (l

xl TilE VOYAOE OF lC\LS. CHALLENGER

Forbes believed with all the intensity of the old school of naturalists in the immuta­bility of species, and in specific centres of distribution; he based his beliefs on facts ofhis own observation, and if these now appear insuffioient and unsatisfactory, it musthe remembered that he worked before Darwin's Origin of Species gave to naturalists themodern ideas of natural selection and evolution.

Forbes' name is iusepnrably associated with th e bathymetricnl distribution of marinelife, and his d early defined zones-the Littoral, Laminarinn, Coralline, and the Regionof the Deep-sea Corals-enormously facilitated the work of descriptive naturalists.The region of deep-sea corals extended from 50 fathoms to an unknown depth, andForbes points out that vegetable life i~ entirely absent from it, and "as we descenddeeper and deeper in this region, the inhabitants become more and more modified,and fewer and fewer, indi cating our approa ch towards an abyss where life is eitherextinguished, or exhibits but a few sparks to mark its lingering presence. Its confinesare yet undetermin ed, and it is in th e exploration of this vast deep-sea region thatthe finest field for submarine discovery yet remains." I In another place he .indicatesthe plateau between Shetland and the Freroe Islands, on which the depth nowhere exceeds700 fathoms , ns the plate on which dredging is most likely to settl e the question of theexistence of a zero of life, awl he point s out that while the life-zero is probably aboutthe 300 fathom line in the Medit erranean, the researches of Arctic voyagers :have shownit to be much deeper in Polar regions. The disciples of all great men tend to assertdogmatically what their master suggested hypothetically, and it was so with thefollowers of Edward Forbes. They viewed th e life-zero, not as a probability, but as acertainty, building their belief more OIl the (t priori absurdity of creatures being able tolive in the absence of light and air, and und~r the great presRure which must prevailin the depths of the sea, than on any direct eviden ce.

The United States Government sent out their first purely scientific expedition iil1838under the command of Captain Wilkes. This expedition returned in 1842; its work waschiefly geographical and astronomical, but during the first year afew dredgings were madein shallow water, and a. numb er of deep soundings were obtained at intervals during thevoyage. The sounding line employed was a copper wire, a great improve menton previousmethods. The great American naturalist Dana, who accompanied this expedition, addedmuch to the knowledge of several groups of shallow water and pelagic animals.

A British Anturctie Exp edition under Sir J ames Clark Ross sailed in the" Erebus "and "Terror" in 18:19, and returned safely in 1843. Like Sir John Ross in the Arcticvoyages, his nephew was rletermined to make the most of his opportunities in all direc­tions, and was seconded in his efforts by the able co-operation of Sir Joseph DaltonHooker, who accompanied the expedition as assistant surgeon. Without nezlectinsr

. 0 0

I Natural History of European S('Il~, p. 26, 1R59. This classificntion was given ns early as 1839. See Mernoir ofErlward Forbes, p. 255.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE. xli

his main purpose-the exploration of the ice-bound coasts of the southern hemisphereand the search for the South Magnetic Pole-Ross carried on astronomical, physical,and zoological work, and achieved results so important awl hitherto so overlooked asto justify a somewhat detailed notice.

Sir Joseph Hooker first made known some of the results of Ross's deep-sea dredgingsand investigations in 1845,1 and fuller details were given lJy Ross himself in the accountof the voyage published in 1847.

A number of unsuccessful attempts were made to ascertain the depth of the water inmid-ocean, the failure being due to the want of a proper line. Sir .Iumes Ross accordinglyhad one made on board, 3600 fathoms long, fitted here and there with swivels to preventit unlaying in its descent, and made strong enough to support a weight of 76 ILs.

On the Srd January 1840, when in lat. 27° 26' S. and long. 17° 29' 'W., the firstabysmal sounding was satisfactorily made with th e new line, the depth marked being2425 fathoms," Such great depths could only be attempted in dead calm weather, andthe line was allowed to run out from an enormous reel ill one of the ship's boats,the time each 100 fathom mark left the reel being noted in the usual way.

On the 3nl March 1840, a sounding of 2677 fathoms was made in lat. 33° 21' S.and long. gO K, 450 miles west of the Cape of Good Hope. Water uf equal depth wasfrequently sounded during the cruise, and on two occasions at least no bottom could befound with over 4000 fathoms of line.

The temperature of the water was observed very frequently at all depths downto 2000 fathoms, and its density at the surface and at various depths was determinedalmost daily. These observations were very valuable at the time, as giving the first realclue to the distribution of temperature at the bottom of the sea; but both in this expedi­tion and il~ those of Wilkes and D'Urville, the thermometers were not properly protectedagainst pressure, and consequently it came to be generally believed that ill all open seasthe water below a certain depth maintained a uniform temperature of 39° F. right downto the bottom.

Ross lays special emphasis on the fact mentioned by earlier observers that the surfacetemperature of the water falls rapidly as the depth of the sea diminishes; he cites oneinstance when in a single day the temperature at the surface fell from 70° F. where thedepth was 400 fathoms, to 51°'5 where it was only 48 fathoms," a fact now known to beof local but not of universal occurrence.

The dredgings, which were taken occasionally, turned out to Le one of the mostvaluable parts of the scientific work of the expedition. . On the 21st April 1840, ahaul of the dredge was taken in 95 fathoms of water, and it came up full of coral. allthe 18th January 1841, when in lat, 72° 57' S. and long. 176° 6' E., a Pycnogonid

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.; ser, 1, vol. xvi, p. 238, 1845.2 AntarcLic Voyage, voL i, p. 26, 1847.

a [lJid., vol. i, p. 34.

xlii THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

(.NYIILpholl gl'(fcile) was found attached to the lead, after a. sounding in 230 fathoms.Next day, when the depth was 270 fathoms, a dredge was put over, and when hauled upwus found ' to Le nearly full; it cout ained a block of granite, n number of small stones,

some beautiful specimens of living corals, awl, to quote Captain Roes's own words:-

" Corallines,' Flustrse, and a variety uf marine invertebrate animals, also came up inthe net, showing an abundance und great variety of animal life. Amongst them Idetected two species of Pycnogollllm, Idotc« baffin], hitherto considered peculiar to theArctic Seas, a Chiton, seven or eight bivalve» and uuivulves, an unknown species ofGanunarus, and two kinds of Serpula adhering to the pebbles and shells." 2

On January 20th, 1841, the deep-sea clamm hrouglit up stiff green mud contuiniugcorals and fragments of Starfish from a depth of 320 fathoms. Two l1ays later the(hedge was put over and allowed to trail along the hot tom for two or three hours in 300

fathoms, and its contents included "many animals, some Cornlliues, awl a quantity ofsand, mud, and small stones." 3

Ross's deepest dredging was made at 10 A.~1. on the 11th August 18-11 , in lut . 33° 32' S.,

long. 167° 40' E., when the dredge was lct go in -100 fathoms; after being draggedalong the ground for half an hour, it was hauled on deck, and found to contain "somebeautiful specimens of Coral, Corallines, Flustrre, and a few Crustaceous animals." Thereflections of the accomplished leader of the expedition arc extremely significant. So

completely had Ross' s researches faded from memory, that twenty years aft er they weremade, the fact of living creatures being found under 400 fathoms of water was hailed

as a great discovery. Yet Ross, referring to his dredgings in 1841 , say:; :-"It was interesting amongst these creat ures to recognise several that I had been in

the habit of taking in equally high northern latitudes; and although contrary to thegeneral belief of naturalists, I have no doubt that from however great a depth we may beable to bring up the mud and st ones of the bed of the ocean, we shall find them teeming

with animal life; the extreme pressure at the greatest depth does not appear to affectthese creatures; hitherto we have not been able to determine this point beyond a thousandfathoms, but from that depth several shellfish have been brought up with the mud."1

From the fact that the same species were to be found at both poles, and that theseanimals are very sensitive to a change of temperature, he suggested that it would bepossible for them to pass from oue frigitl zone to another, provided the temperature of

the intervening sea bottom had a range not exceeding 5° F. Ross's observations con­

firmed his idea that the temperature at the bottom of the open sea was uniform in alllatitudes, and subsequent investigations prove it, generally speaking, to be correct.

Sir James Ross was an indefatigable zoological collector, but it is to be regrettedthat his large collections of deep-sea animals, which he retained in his own poseession

1 Most probably Polyzoa are here referred to.":J.M.3 Ibid., )'. 20j.

2 Antarctic Voyage, vol. i, p. 202.~ I111{1., pp. 202, 20:3,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE. xliii

after the return of the expedition, were found to he totally destroyed at the time of hisdeath, Had these been carefully described (luring the cruise 01' 01; the return of theexpedition to Euglnnd, the gain to science would have been immeuse, for not onlywould many new species IlIHl gcnera huve been discovered, hut the fucts would have beenrecorded in the journals usually cousulted I)y zoologists, iustcurl of being lost sight ofas was the ease. A large number of zoological thawiugs nuulo by Sir Joseph Hookerduring the Antarctic cruise were recently handed tu the vurious naturalists engaged inworking up thc Challenger collections, awl these show that some. of the Challengerdiscoveries had been anticipated 1>)' Ross, Sir Joscph Hooker, whose botanicnl re­searches are so well known, recorded the existence of innnousc numbers of Diatoms on .the surface of the Antarctic Ocean, and pointed out that the mud at the bottom, asobtained in Ross's dredgings, consist ed of their dead remains.'

\Vhen Sir John Franklin's ill-fated Polar expedition set out ill 184:5, ~lr. HarryGoodsir, a young zoologist of great promise, sailed on hoard the "Ercbus" as assistantsurgeon and nnturalist, The expedition never returned, and only fragmentary records arepreserved of the valuable work which Goodsir hall already accomplished. " On the 28thJune a dredge was sunk to the enormous depth of 300 fathoms, and produced manyhighly interesting species of Mollusca, Crustacea, Asteriadse, Spatangi, and Corulliucs ;such as FIISllS, Turritella, Venus, Deutalium, &c., and also some large forms of Isopodu,As bearing upon the geographic-aI distribution of species, Mr. Goodsir considers theoccurrence of Brissus lYl'ifel' (Forbes) and Alaun« rostrai« (Goodsir) as of the greutcstinterest, both of them being natives of the Scottish seas, The remarkable depth alsoappears to us to give peculiar interest to these researches, as we believe that the deepestdredgings ever previously obtained were those of Professor E. Forbes in the Levant, thedeepest of which was 230 fathoms, itself far beyond any made by other naturalists." 2

Up to this time all the deep dredgings had been made during Polar expeditions, thoughnot necessarily in Polar regions; the reason being that tlie time and trouble of working adredge in deep water were too great to make it feasible except Oll scientific expeditions,and the only scientific expeditions of those days were despatched toward the poles. In1846, however, Captain Spratt, R.N., dredged in 310 fathoms, 40 miles to the east of Malta,and found abundance of animal life, including eight distinct species of Mollusca."

During this period. of rapid advance in marine zoology, the problems of ocean physicsand meteorology were not lost sight of. Rennel hall been collecting particulars of thecurrents, prevailing winds, and general meteorology uf the ocean from 1810 to 1830,and his Investigation of Currents, &c., is still a valuable book of reference. Mauryalso collected facts of all kinds bearing on these matters between the years 1848 and

1 Flora Antal'ctica, vol ii. p. 503, London, 1847.2 Anll. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser, 1, vol. xvi. p. 163, 1845.3 Spratt, On the Influence of Temperature upon the Distribution of the Fauna in the ..£gean Sea, Brit. A880C. Report,

Communications, p. 81, 1848.

xliv THE VOYAGE OF H.:U.::;. CHALLENGER.

1858, and published his famous Sailing Directions embodying these statistics. Oneimportant result of Maury's exertions was the maritime conference held in Brussels in1853, which resulted. in international observations being taken on many naval andmercantile ships, thus obtaining several of the advantages of scientific expeditions atvery little expense.

Before 1850 the attention of the Norwegian naturalist, Michael Sal's, had beendirected to the bathymetrical distribution of life on his native coasts, and he published inthe following year a list of thirteen species which lived at a depth of about 300 fathoms.'His son, G. O. Sal's, afterwards assisted him in the work of deep-water dredging, and theresult was, in 1864, a list of ninety-two species, which lived between the depths of 200

and 300 fathoms." A few years later these untiring investigators found abundance oflife at the bottom under 450 fathoms of water. 3

A great impulse was given to deep-sea soundings when Brooke, an officer in theUnited States Navy, invented his sounding machine in 1854. Its principle was thatdescribed by Hooke two centuries before; the sinker was detached when the weight struckthe bottom, but it differed in that the sounding tube could be drawn up by the line,bringing with it a small sample of the deposit on which it struck. Bailey's descriptionof the micro-organisms found in these deposits, as well as others obtained by theV.S. Coast Survey, excited great interest among scientific men." A few years later theinstrument was modified and improved by Commander Dayman, who employed it forhis soundings across the Atlantic, when investigating the depths through which theAtlantic telegraph cable would require to pass." The necessity for ascertaining the formand conditions of the sea bed for telegraph purposes was the occasion of considerableincrease in the scientific knowledge of great depths.

The samples of "Atlantic ooze" procured from the greatest depths of that ocean by thesounding rods of the telegraph ships were eagerly examined by the leading European andAmerican naturalists. The ooze was found to consist largely, in some cases almost wholly,of the shells of Foraminifera and the siliceous skeletons of Radiolarians and Diatoms.The question soon came to he whether all the Foraminifera naturally lived on the bottom,or whether it was only their dead shells that collected there, the animals living and dyingon the surface, or at some intermediate depth. This question was exceedingly difficultto settle from the data possessed by the disputants prior to the Challenger and otherexploring expeditions.

1 Beretning orn en i Sommeren 18-19 foretagen zeologisk Reise i Lofoteu o~ Finmarken, Nyt Mng. f. NatIIrvid.,ua, vi, p. 133, 1851.

:I Bemeerkninger over det dyriske Lit" Udbredning i Havets Dybder, Forluindl. Viden~k. Selsk., Christinnia, p. 54(1864), 1865. .

3 Forhandl. Videnlk. Selsk., Christiania, p. 2-18 (1868), 1869 ; translation, Anll. and May. Nor. Hisi., ser, 4, vol. iii.p. 425, 1869.

• Amer. Journ. &i. and Arls, vol. lxxi., 1856.6 Depths of the Sea, p. 214.

l'ARRATIVE OF THE CRFIRE, xlv

In the preserved samples of the ooze it was believed that there was evidence of theexistence of sheets of living protoplasm-a shell-less Rhizopod named Bathybiw'll­covering the bottom of the ocean everywhere, The Naturalists of the Challenger failedto detect Bathybius in freshly procured samples of the ooze, and have shown that th~

protoplasmic appearance arose from the great excess of alcohol used in the preservation ofthe samples of the ooze, producing a gelatinous-like precipitate of calcium sulphate.

The yoyage of the" Bulldog" in 1860, under Sir Leopold M'Clintoek, is especiallynoteworthy amongst the cruises of surveying ships. The" Bulldog," which was sent toexamine a proposed northern cable route, took soundings from Freroe to Iceland awlthence to Greenland and Labrador. Though bad weather prevailed for a great part ofthe cruise, a large number of soundings and many samples of mud were taken; asthe expedition had the good fortune to be accompanied by Dr. G. C. 'Wallich asnaturalist, these were carefully examined as they were brought up. The invention ofthe" Bulldog" sounding machine-a combination of Rose's deep-sea elamm with Brooke'sdetaching weight-made it possible to obtain larger samples of the hot tom than had beenusual before.

On one occasion a depth of 1260 fathoms was indicated. "That single sounding,"says Dr. \Vallich, "I may be permitted to say compensated for ~Yery disappointmentthat weather and. accident may have previously engendered. At the eleventh hour, andunder circumstances the most unfavourable for searching out its secrets, the deep' hassent forth the long-coveted message." 2 That message was conveyed by thirteenStarfishes which had attached themselves to a portion of the sounding line that hadbeen allowed to lie on the bottom for some time. This haul raised a storm ofcontroversy. Dr. \Vallich was firmly convinced that it was proof beyond question of theexistence of highly organised animal life at great depths, hut many eminent zoologistsargued that it was quite probable that the Starfishes had" convulsively embraced" theline somewhere on its way up. The idea of a life-zero ,,,as far too firmly fixed in thezoological mind of that period to be readily displaced.

In the same year, 1860, a telegraph cable which was heing raised for repair in theMediterranean under the direction of Mr. Fleerning .Jenkin, now Professor of Engineeringin the University of Edinburgh, was the means of definitely deciding the fact of highlyorganised creatures living at great depths." Parts of the cable which had been lyingunder 1200 fathoms of water for many years were found covered with animals that hadfixed themselves at a very early stage of development and had grown to maturity there.Some of these were examined and described hy Professor Allman of Edinhurgh, others

by M. Milne-Edwnrds of Paris.

1 Huxley, Quart. JOUnt. Micr. &i., N. S., voI. viii, p. 210, 1868; Haeckel, Studieu iiher MOlleren una andereProtisten, p. 86, Leipzig, 1870. .

2 ~orth.Athmtic Sea-bed, P: 68, London, 1862. 3 Depths of the Sea, p. 26, 1874.

xlvi THE VOYAGE OF H.)I.~. CHALLENUER.

During Otto Torell's expedition to Spitzbergen in 1864, It great number of creatureswere taken at a depth of 1000 to 1400 fathoms in the "Made:m nets." They includedRhizopoda, Bryozoa, Sponges, Annelids, Crustucen, and other form s. In subsequent

expeditions to Spitzbergen. creat ur es were frequently secured from a similardepth. 1

In 1865 a paper hy Professor F orohhammer of Copenhagen on the Composition ofSea-Water in different parts of the Ocean was published in the Philosophical Trunsac­

tions," recording the result of twenty years of patient work. awl its pllhlicntion mu-lean era in the history of ocean chemistry. Forchhammer worked under great disadvnnt­

ages; his samples of water were brought home by seafaring men from different partsof the world in corked bottles, and they were necessarily all taken from the surface or

immediately beneath it. Forehhnmmer (lid not attempt to determine quantitativelyall the elements that occur ' in sea water, hut confined himself to the very accurateestimation of the principal components, viz., chlorine, sulphuric acid, magnesia, lime,

potash, and (by difference) soda. Although his methods have since heeu improved on,

all the analyses were models of care and accuracy, and all his results have been confirmedand extended by Professor Dittmar's elaborate research, carried on under r-ouditions so

immensely more favpurnhle on the water samples carefully collected on board theChallenger, F orchhammcr' s grand conclusion is that. although the salinity of sea

water may and does vnry within certain limits, yet if samples he taken in all parts ofthe open sea, avoiding th e vicinity of land and the mouths of large rivers, the proportion

of each constituent to the total salts will be found to he the same everywhere. Thedifferences in surface sea water then ure merely differences due to dilution and con­centration.

In 1867 Count L. F. (le Ponrtali-s commenced, in conn ection with the United States

Coast Survey, :t seri es of deep dredgings on th e margin of the Gulf Stream. ·Working in

the V.S. Coast Survey steamer" Corwin,' he dredged down to a depth of 350 fathoms;

and in the following year he resumed the work in the same place in the V.S. CoastSurvey steamer " Bibb," and dredged successfully in 510 fathoms, finding animal life

exceedingly nbundant. Although a great part of the collect ions made by Pourtnleswere lost in the great fire of Chicago, many new species haye been described and brought

under the notice of zoologists, and the wide bearing of the new facts obtained were

comprehensively discussed by Professor Louis Agnssiz, who took part in these explorationswith Pourtalss."

It has always been supposed that costl y appliances and a large crew are absolutely

necessary for successful dredging in water of any great depth. G. O. Sal's indeed had

worked down to 300 fathoms in a small boat manned hy three men, off the Lofoten

I Zeifscll,.. j. !ris!!. Zool., Bd. xx, p. 45i, IBiO.3 null. JIlts. Comp. ZoM., Cumhriugl', IT.R-A., 1868 nud 1~69.

~ Pllil. TU/II.<., vol. clv, pp_ 203-262, 1865.

X ARRATIVE OF TIn: CRUISE. xlvii

Islands, but his example was not much followed. In 1868 Professor Pereeval Wright 1

l)roceeded to Setubal in Portugal, in order to investigate the occurrence of Hqalonema,which was reported to be frequently taken on the lines of the shark-fishers who had longpursued their calling, at the great depth of 500 fathoms. He succeeded in gettingabundance of specimens of Hsjalonema, although six men were required to work thedredge, and the depth of the water was 480 fathoms. " This dredging," says ProfessorWyville Thomson, "is of special interest, for it shows that although difficult andlaborious, and attended with a certain amount of risk, it is not impossible in an openboat, and with a crew of alien fishermen, to test the nature of the hottom, and thecharacter of the fauna, even to the great depth of 500 fathoms." 2 But althoughpossible, such dredging is too laborious and dangerous to he frequently resorted to, andfor any systematic study of the depths of the sea more elaborate arrangements must bemade,

The subject of deep-sea dredging was not heing neglected in Great Britain. In thespring of 1868 Professor Wyville Thomson, in a letter to Dr. \V. B. Carpenter, urgedthe employment of a Government vessel in a dredging expedition off the coast ofScotland, and in consequence of this the Royal Society laid before the Admiralty astatement of the advantages to sr-ience likely to result from a short dredging cruise

-in the North Atlantic. The Admiralty responded hy placing the surveying ship" Lightning," Captain May, at the disposal of Drs. Thomson and Carpenter in the autumnof the same year. The conditions of work in the "Lightning" were very unfortunateboth as regards the vessel and the weather which prevailed during the six weeks thatthe cruise lasted. In spite of all the difficulties in the way, dredging was carried on ton depth of 650 fathoms, and temperature observations of the greatest interest wereobtained, which ultimately led to the discovery of the \VY"ille Thomson Ridge in theFreroe Channel in 1880.3 Professor Wyville Thomson thus sums up the results ofthe" Lightning" expedition :-

"It had been shown beyond question that animal life is varied and abundant, repre­sented by all the invertebrate groups, at depths in the ocean down to 650 fathomsat least, notwithstanding the extraordinary conditions to which animals are thereexposed.

"Tt had heen determined that, instead of the water in the sea beyond a certaindepth varying according to latitude having a uniform temperature of 4° c., an indraughtof Arctic water may have at any depth beyond the influence of the direct rays of the suna temperature so low .as - 2° C.; or on the other hand, a warm current may have at anymoderate depth a temperature of 6°'5 C., and it had been shown that great masses of

1 See Notes on Deep-Sea Dredging, Ami. alld Jfaa. Nat, Hist., ser. 4, "01. ii, pp. 423-427, 1868.2 Depths of the Spa, p. 277, 18,4.3 Exploration of the FlCroe Channel, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. pp. 638-il7, 18~2.

(:\ARR. CHALL. EXP.-Yor~ 1.-1885.) It

xlviii THE VOYAGE OF H.~I.:::;. UHALLENHER.

water at different temperatures are moving about, each iu its particular course ; maintain­ing a remarkable system of oceanic circulation, and yet keeping so distinct from oneanother that an hour's sail may be sufficient to pass from the extreme of heat to theextreme of cold.

" Finally, it had been shown that a large proportion of the forms living at greatdepths in the sea belong to species hitherto unknown, and that thus a new field of bound­less extent and great interest is open to the naturalist. It had been further shown thatmany of these deep-sea animals are specifically identical witl~ tertiary fossils hithertobelieved to be extinct, while others associate themselves with and illustrate extinct groupsof the fauna of more remote periods; as, for example, the vitreous sponges illustrate andunriddle the ventriculites of the chalk." 1

In consideration of the value and novelty of these results, the Royal Society urgedthe Admiralty to provide means of extending the observations, In 1869 the surveyingship "Porcu)Jine," Captain Calver, was appointed to this service. In addition tothe temperature observations, which had turned out so interesting in the" Lightning," itwas decided to make a number of chemical observations on the water. For this purposethe chartroorn was fitted up as a laboratory, and a chemist was invited to join thebiologists on the cruise. A number of arrangements were also made for facilitatingdredging and the subsequent observations. The" Porcupine" was a first-rate vesselfor the purpose, and between May and September 1869 she made three distinct trips.The first of these was under the scientific direction of the late Mr. Gwyn Jeflreys,and it was chiefly devoted to dredging off the west coast of Ireland and in thechannel between Scotland and Rockall.. The deepest lh'edging made was in 1470fathoms, and no lack of life was found at that depth. It was accordingly resolvedthat, during the second trip, under the direction of Professor Wyville Thomson,an attempt should he made to dredge in the deepest water within reach, :-';0 that adefinite answer to the general question of the existence of life at great depths couldbe arrived at. The" Porcupine " was steered fur the Bay of Biscay, and at a point about250 miles west of Ushant two highly successful hauls of the dredge were taken in waterover 2000 fathoms deep, and in both animal forms from the Protozoa to the Molluscawere abundant," It was on this cruise that Captain Calver :-.;uggested the employment ofhempen tangles attached to the dredge frame, an idea which Professor Thomson saysinaugurated a new era in dredging. a

The third cruise of 1869, during which Dr. Carpenter was the naturalist in charge,was intended to be a repetition of that of the "Lightning" in the previous autumn.The observations of the earlier expedition were confirmed and extended in vunous(Erections.

In 1870 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys and Dr. Carpenter continued the work 11l the

I Depths of the Sea, pp. 79,80, 1874. 2 Ibid., pp. 96, 97. 3 nu, p. 256.

XAHHATlYE OF THE CRFIRE. xlix

" Porcupine ". by a highly interesting series of soundings and dredgings in the Medi..terranean and current observations in the Strait of Gibraltar. Dr. Carpenter resumedthe study of thi s region in th e following year in the "Shearwater," commandedby Captain G. S. Nares, nfterwards Captain of th e Challenger, anrl thi s expedition was noless interesting or important than those that went before.

The chemical and physical work of the " Porcupine " expeditions was not sosatisfnetory as might have been expected, Marine chemistry was so entirely new, that agreat deal of preliminary work had to he done in order to gain the experience necessaryfor further more accurat e experiments; and it was in the way of suggesting improvementsfor future use that the chemical work of the" Porcupine" was most valuable.

In December 1871 and early in 1872 the D.S. Coast Survey steamer "Hassler,"under the scientific direction of Professor Louis Agassiz, dredged in considerable depthsoff the coast of South America.

About this period appeared an important work by Delesse on the lithology anddistiihution of marine deposits,' in which the littoral formations of thp. coast of France arcdescribed in detail, and our knowledge of the deeper deposits of tlie North Atlantic arcreviewed.

This introductory chapter is not intended as a history of marine scientific research;its purpose is merely to trace the gradual growth of knowledge of the physicaland biological condit ions of the ocean up to 1872, and to recall some of the moreimportant of the earlier researches which have been allowed to fade from the attentionof the scientific publi c. More emphasis is laid on the heginning of the variousenterprises than on their subsequent development, and prominence has been giventhroughout. to the work carried on by British investigators. It is not on accountof any notion that th e expeditions despatched hy ot her countries were less im­portant at the time, or productive of less permanent results, that the older cruises

. of the "Astrolabe," of th e "Venus," and the " Bonite," and the more modern onesof the "Eugenie," the "Novara," the "Magenta," and other vessels have not beendwelt upon. It is because the line of researches which had a direct bearing on thedespatch of the Challenger could be indicated sufficiently clearly without entering intogreater detail.

The cruises of the "Porcupine" proved that there was life at vast depths in the sea,and that, with a little care, this life could be investigated by ordinary and well knownmeans. The results, taken in conjunction with the conclusions of the contemporaryGerman North Sea Expedition, also showed the great importance of a careful studyof the physi cal, and especially the chemical, as well as the biological, conditions ofthe sea.

1 A. Delesse, Lithologie du Fond des Mers, Paris, IAil.

I THE VOYAGE OF H.:M.S. CHALLENGER.

The vast ocean lay scientifically unexplored. All the efforts of the previous decadehad been directed to the strips of water round the coast and to enclosed or partiallyenclosed seas; great things had certainly been done there, but as certainly far greaterthings remained to be done beyond. This consideration led to the conception of theidea of a great exploring expedition which should circumnavigate the globe, find out themost profound abysses of the ocean, and extract from them some sign of what went onat the greatest depths.

The following correspondence extracted from the Minutes of Council of the RoyalSociety giving expression to this idea, and tracing the progress of its realisation, willbest show how all the difficulties in the way of inaugurating an undertaking of suchmagnitude and novelty were successfully surmounted; and their perusal will be afitting introduction to the chapters containing the Narrative of the Cruise, the study ofwhich cannot fail to convince the reader that, high as were the hopes entertained bythe promoters of the Expedition, the performance was even greater than had beenanticipated.

" June 29th, 1871.

" Read the following Letter from Dr. Carpenter:-

" 'UNIVEHSITY OF LmmON, BURLI:i'GTON GARDE:i'S, 'V." 'June 15, 1871.

'" DEAR PROF. SToKEs,-The information we have lately received as to the activity with which othernations are now entering upon the Physical and Biological Exploration of the Deep Sea, makes it appear tomy colleagues and myself that the time is now come for bringing before our own Government the importanceof initiating a more complete and systematic course of research than we have yet had the means ofprosecuting.

'" The accompanying slip from last week's' Nature.' will make known to the Council what is going onelsewhere, and the feeling entertained on the subjects alike in the scientific world and (as I have good reasonto believe) by the public generally.!

'" For adequately carrying out any extensive plan of research, it would be requisite that special provisionshould be made j and as the Estimates for next year will have to be framed before the end of the presentyear, no time ought now to be lost, if the matter is to be taken up at all.

'" In order that the various departments of Science to which these researches are related should beadequately represented,-so that any Application made to Government should be on the broadest basis possible,-I should suggest that the Council of the Royal Society, as the promoters of all that has been already donein the matter, should take the initiative; and should appoint a Committee to consider a Scheme, in conjunc­tion with the Presid ent of the British Association, and the Presidents of the Chemical, Geographical, Geological,Linnean, and Zoological Societies. Such a Committee might meetbefore the Recess, and decide upon somegeneralplan j and this would be then considered ae to its details by the Members representing different departments

1 Nature, vol. iv. p. 107, 1871. The paragraph states that the Governments of Germany, Sweden, and theUnited States were preparing to despatch ships to various parts of the ocean expressly fitted for deep-seaexploration.

NARTIATTYE OF THE CRF IS,F.. li

of Scientific Enquiry, so that they might be able to report to the Council, and enable it to lay that Scheme (ifapproved) before the Government by UJC end of November.

" , Believe me, dear Prof. Stokes," , Yours faithfully,

" , W lLLIAM B. CARPENTEH.'

" , Prof. Stoke»:'

" Resolved.c-Tbat the subj ect of Dr. Cnrpeuter's Letter be taken into consideration at an early Meetingof the Council after the Recess.

" Uclobc): 26th, 1871.

" In reference to the subject of Dr. Carpenter's Letter of the 15th June, read at the last "Meeting of Council,the Secrelary stated that he had received a subseqnent Letter from him, dated Malta, 29th Sept., which wasnow read. In this Letter Dr. Carpenter urges the expediency of making arrangemcnts for the proposedcircumnavigating Expedition without delay, and communicates a correspondence with the First Lord of theAdmiralty, from which it appears th at H.M . Government will be prepared to give the requisite aid in further­ance of such an Expedition on receipt of a formal Application from the Royal Society; and in consequenceof this information, Dr. Carpenter now suggests a modification in the composition of the Committee to which,in his former Letter, he had proposed that th e matt er should be referred.

" Resolved,-That a Committee be appointed to consider the plan of operations it would be advisable tofollow in the proposed Expedition, th e staff of scientific superintendents and assistants to be employed,and the different provisions and arrangements to be made, with an estimate of the probable expense,and to submit to the Council for approval a scheme which might be laid hefore H. M. Government,if the Council sec fit, at as early a period as may be convenient. The Committee to consist of thePresident and Officers of the Royal Society, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Frunkland, Dr. Hooker, ProfessorHuxley, the Hydrographer of th e Admiralty, Mr. Gwyn J cffreys, Mr. Siemens, Sir Willillm Thomsou,Dr. Wyville Thomson, and Dr. Williamson, with power to add to their number,

" N uct!-lIIber 30th, 1071.

" The following Report of the Committee on th e proposed voyage of circumnavigation was reatl:-

.. , Report ofthe Committee appointed at the j!'leetiltl/ of the Council held October 26t1t, to consider theScheme of a (lircnumariqatiou Expedition.

" 'The Committee having before th em th e correspondence which has already taken place bel weeu the First,Lord of the Admiralty and Dr. Carpenter, are of opinion that it is advisable that the Council should makeimmediate Application tu Her Majesty's Covcmment for the means of carrying out the objects therein referredtn ; but that it would 1I0t be expedien t that such Application should include more than a general specificationof those object!1,-which may he stated as follows :-

" '1. To investigate the Pltysical Conditions of th e Deep Sea, in the great Oceau-basins,-the North andSouth Atlantic, the North and South Pacific, and the Southern Ocean (as far as the neighbourhood of the greatice-barrier); in regard to Depth, Temperature, Circulation, Specific' Gravity, and Penetration of Light;the observations and experiments upon all these points being made at various ranges of depth fromthe surfaceto the bottom.

'" 2, To determine the Chemical (Iompoeition. of Sea Water, not merely at the surface and bottom, but lit

lii THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

various intermediate depths; such determinations to include the Saline Constituents, the Gases, and the OrganicMatter in 80Z71ti07~, and the nature of any particles found in suspension.

le '3. T:o acertain the Plt!l.'l;crtl and Chemira! characters of the Depoeits everywhere in progress on the Sea­bottom; and to trace, so far as may be possible, the sources of those deposits.

le, 4. To examine th e Distribution of Ortltfllil' Life throughout the areas traversed, especially in the du']'Ocean-bottoms and at different depths; with especial reference to the Physical and Chemical conditionsalready referred to, and to the connection of th e present with the past condition of the Globe.

" 'It is suggested that the Expedition should leave this country in the latter half of the yeal' 1872; and usits perfect organization will require mur-h time and labour , it is desimble that suitable preparations should hecommenced forthwith.

le, For effectively carrying out the objects just specified, there will he required i-e-

le, 1. A Ship of sufficient size to furni sh ample accommodation and storage-room for sea-voyages of con­siderable length and for a probable absence of four years.

le, 2. A Staff of Scientific: Men, qualified to take charge of the several bran ches of inv estigation aboveenumerated.

le, 3. An ample supply of all that will be required for the Collection of the objects of research; for theprosecution of Physical and Chemical investigations; and for th e study and preservation of the various formsof Organic Life which will be obtained.

'" The Committee would propose th at in making this Application to the Admiralty, the President andCouncil should offer their services in suggesting the Route which may appear to be most desirable for theExpedition to pursue; and also in framing Instructions for the Officers charged with the several branches ofScientific Research; with a vip\\' to facilitate the preparati on by their Lordships of th eir general Instructionsfor the conduct of the Voyage to the Naval Officers commanding.

" 'With this object th ey would propose that a Committee should be appointed by the :Council, whichshould include persons thor oughly versed in the various bran ches of Science to be represented in the Expedition,who should give their advice and assistan ce pre vious to and during the progress of the Expedition.

" 'The President and Council should also express th eir readiness to select and recommend to their Lordshipspe1'80nS qualified to be entrusted with the various branch es of Scientific investigation to be represented, namingthe Salaries which lIl~ppear to them commensurate with the duties to be fulfilled.

" 'The President and Council should also, in the opinion of this Committee, recommend that in accordancewith former precedents in regard to Expeditions of a similar character undertaken by this andother Governments,R full and complete publication of the results of the Voyage with adequate illustrations should form a partof the general plan; and that the -work should be brought uut as soon after the return of the Expedition asmay be convenient.

" 'It may be well to puint out to the Admiralty, that the operations of the Expedition now proposed shouldnot dispense with such researches of a less laborious character as their Lordships .might be disposed to make fromtime to time from either the home or th e foreign stations of the British Navy.'

"Resolved,-That this Report be received, and be taken into consideration at the next Meeting ofCouncil.

" December 7th, 1871.

"The Report of the Committee on the subject of a Scientific Circumnavigation Voyage, received at thelast Meeting, having been taken into consideration, it was

"Resolved,-That application be made to Her Majesty's Government, as recommended by the Committee,ancl that the following Draft. of a Letter to be addressed hy the Secretary to the Secretary of theAdmi1'8lty be approved :-

NARRATl YE UF THE l'HUl~E.

" , To the &rretary 0/ the Ad/lli1'lllty.

liii

" , I remain, &c.''' 1

•" THE ROYAL SOCIETY, BURLINGTON HOUSE,

" , December 8th, 1871.

" , SIR,-I am directed by tile President and Council of the Royal Society to request that you will representto the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty that the experience of the recent scientific investigations of thedeep sea, carried on in European waters by the Admiralty at the instance of the Royal Society (Reports ofwhich will be found in their' Proceedings' herewith enclosed), has led them to the conviction that advantagesof great importance to Science and to :xavigation would accrue from the extension of such investigations to thegreat oceanic regions of the Globe. The President and Council therefore venture to submit to their Lordships'favourable consideration a proposal for fitting out an Expedition commensurate to th e objects in view; whichobjects are briefly as follows :-

'" (I) The Physical conditions of the deep sea throughout all th e great Ocean -basins," ' (2) The chemical constitution of the water at various depths from the surface to the bottom." ' (3) The physical and chemical characters of the deposits." , (4) The distribution of organic life throughout the areas explored." , For effectively carrying out these researches th ere would, in the opinion of the President and Council,

be required-" , (1) A ship of sufficient size to afford accommodation and storage-room for sea-voyages uf considerable

length and for a probable absence of four years." '(2) .1 staff of scientific men qual ified to take charge of the several branches uf investigation.•, ' (3) A supply of everything necessary for the collection of th e objects of research, for the prosecution of

the physical and chemical investigations, and for the study and preservation of the specimens of organic life." , The President and Council hope that, in the event of th eir recommendation being adopted, it may he

possible for the Expedition to leave England some time in the year 1872 ; and they would suggest that as itsorganization will require much time and labour, no time should be lost in the commencement of preparations.

" , The President and Council desire to take this opportunity cif expressing their readiness to render everyassistance in their power to such an undertaking; to advise upon (1) the route which might be followed bythe Expedition, (2) the scientific equipment, (3) the composition of the scientific staff, (-1) the instructions forthat staff; as well as upon any matter connected with the Expedition upon which their Lordships might desiretheir opinion.

" I The President and Council have abst ained from any allusion to geographical discovery 01· hydrographicalinvestigations, for which the proposed Expedition will doubtl ess afford abundant opportunity, because theirLordships will doubtless be better judges of what may be conveniently undertaken in these respects, withoutdeparting materially from the primary objects of the voyage j and they would only add their hope that inaccordance with the precedents followed by this and other countries under somewhat similar circumstances, afull account of the voyage and its scientific results may be published under the auspices of the Government assoon aft er its return as convenient, the necessary expense being defrayed by a grant from the Treasury.

" , The President and Council desire, in conclusion, to express their willingness to assist in the preparationfur such publication of the scientific results.

It is unnecessary to describe the cruises of the United States ship" Tuscarora," ofthe German ship "Gazelle," or the yearly expeditions of the Norwegian Government inthe North Atlantic, for these belong to the same period as that of the Challenger. Norif; it ueccssury to do more than refer to the still more recent cruises of the "Knight

1 For continuation of this correspondence, sce Appendix A. to Chapter I.

liv THE VOYAGE OF H.l\1.S. CHALLENGER

Errant" and "Triton," to the explorations of Alexander Agassiz in the U.S. CoastSurvey steamer "Blake," to the work of the Italians in the ship "Washington," to theFrench expeditions in the" Travailleur " and" Talisman," or to the systematic researchesof the United States Fish Commission.

The work done by all of these was of the same general character; they were inmany respects supplementary, and, as a result, the science of abysmal research has beenfounded and carried on to a prosperous state of development. This science cannot,from its nature, advance slowly and gradually; it must proceed by strides, which willprobably be as far apart in point of time as they are important with respect todiscovery.