the uk coaching framework framework for analysing the types of participants in a range of contexts,...

COACHINGFRAMEWORKTH

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The Participant Development M

odelUser Guide (July 2009)

090623:1

© The National Coaching Foundation, 2009

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The Participant Development Model User Guide

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UK COACHINGFRAMEWORK


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PREFACEWHAT IS THIS DOCUMENTAND WHO IS IT FOR? This document is aimed primarily at governing bodystaff and other partners who play a key role inbuilding their sport-specific coaching systems.Others involved in policy, funding and the developmentof coaches should also find sections relevant and usefulto their roles. The document should also be of use tothose involved in programme planning at club, school,community, county and regional level, in that it providesa framework for analysing the types of participants in arange of contexts, from recreation to high-performancesport. For those involved in different sports, it isrecommended that you also consult the materials fromthe coaching department of your governing body assubstantial progress has been made in thedevelopment of sport-specific models.

This document is presented as a reader’s guide toparticipant development modelling. It is a userguide for you to dip into as appropriate. It tells you whatgeneric information is currently available to help youbuild a participant development model that is relevantfor your sport and what information will be available inthe future. It also sets out step-by-step instructions onhow to build your sport-specific participantdevelopment model, though this is subject to continualrefinement as more sports become involved in theprocess and good practice is distilled. This resource isintended to complement the material contained in theCoaching Workforce 2009–2016 document, and therewill be some necessary overlap between these two documents.

Some sports may be a long way down the line in termsof participant development modelling and may find littlenew information in this document. For such sports, thisbecomes a review and checking tool. For other sports,this is relatively new information or information that hasbeen given to you in stages. We have also posed somequestions that relate to new or additional information tohighlight the fact that this information is currently indevelopment. The information presented in thisdocument will be evolved, with updated versionsproduced at regular intervals.

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Preface – What is this Document and Who is it For?

Introduction 1

What is Modelling? 5

The Participant Development Model 7

Building the Participant Development Model 37

Case Study related to the Participant Development Model 39

Useful References 43

CONTENTS

COACHINGFRAMEWORKTH

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The Participant Development Model User Guide 1

It is only just over one year since the formal launch ofThe UK Coaching Framework. During that time, 31sports across the UK and each of the four homecountries have started to use The Framework as the key reference point for developing their coaching systems.

The vision of The UK Coaching Framework is tocreate a cohesive, ethical, inclusive and valuedcoaching system where skilled coaches supportchildren, players and athletes at all stages of theirdevelopment and that is world number one by 2016.

The Framework includes the agreed vision, principlesand outcomes for stakeholders: to deliver fundamentalchanges in the UK Coaching System (Strategic ActionArea 1 of The UK Coaching Framework) towardscreating a world-leading coaching system.

• Governing bodies of sport are recognised as thelead agencies in sport-specific coaching.

• Partnership working is essential; involving governingbodies, clubs, schools, communities, localauthorities, further and higher education sectorsand others.

• Fully inclusive participant and coach pathways, asoutlined in governing body of sport plans, will becentral to decision making.

sports coach UK will lead the development of generictechnical products and tool kits, based on models ofbest practice and cutting-edge expertise, for adaptationby stakeholders into home country and sport-specificcoaching systems.

When mention is made of the UK Coaching System(Strategic Action Area 1 of The UK CoachingFramework), this refers to the generic infrastructure andnetworks of coaching in the UK that support and deliverthe aim of having skilled, active and qualified coaches atall stages of participant development in sport. Reportssuch as Coaching Matters, the Coaching Taskforce andthe Vision for Coaching have reported weaknesses withexisting coaching provision. To build a world-leadingsystem, we need something to aim for: a set of goodpractice prescriptions for the future.

The UK Coaching Model (see Figure 1) is a high-leveldiagrammatic representation of these good practiceprescriptions. It provides the blueprint for a world-leading UK Coaching System (Strategic Action Area 1of The UK Coaching Framework) and explains this interms of:

• key components

• how these are developed sequentially

• their interrelationships

to ensure that the system works in a coherent andeffective manner.

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1: The UK Coaching Model

2 The Participant Development Model User Guide

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A defining feature of The UK Coaching Frameworkvision and the UK Coaching Model is the centrality ofparticipant need in setting out a world-leading coachingsystem and the shaping of the coaching workforce forthe future. As a consequence, extensive work has beendone on the underpinning concepts of participantdevelopment. This document aims to identify keyprinciples, issues and good practice in relation tomodelling participant development.

The creation of a world-leading coaching system by2016 will be built upon the strength of sport-specificcoaching systems that are supported by widercoaching support networks involving a range ofagencies. At the heart of the system will be theparticipants and the coaches. It is the role of governingbodies, in terms of contributing to system buildingwithin coaching, to develop a clear picture of thepriorities of the sport, how it contributes to participant

DeploymentSystem

Coach SupportSystem

Value andRecognition

Registration and Licensing

UKCS FLC S4C PRV R&D

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CoachDevelopment

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The UK Coaching Framework

The UK Coaching Model

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Key: The five boxes witharrows above The UKCoaching Frameworkrepresent the five StrategicAction Areas of TheFramework as follows:

UKCS UK Coaching System

FLC Front-line Coaching

S4C Support for Coaches

PRV Professionally Regulated Vocation

R&D Research and Development

For further details of these,please refer to The UKCoaching Framework: A 3–7–11 Year Action Plan.

The tennis ball at the top of the diagram represents the vital coach-participantrelationship that the UKCoaching System aims to enhance.

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development and what the implications are for thecoaching workforce now and into the future. Thisapproach will require us to project what participantsshould experience and what skilled coaches will looklike in the future; for example, what will expertperformance look like in your sport? What recreationalactivities will be both popular and effective for long-termsustainability in your sport? What type of physicalactivities will children be doing to help prepare them foryour sport?

How many coaches and what type will you need tosupport the variety of participants in your sport?

For these reasons, it is recommended that each sporthas a clear view of the following models:

• the Participant Development Model (PDM)

• the Coach Development Model (CDM)

• the UK Coaching Model.

As identified in The UK Coaching Model (Figure 1), thecoach–participant relationship is central to the creationof a world-leading coaching system. Participants havediffering needs and a variety of motives for taking part insport, including performance objectives, satisfaction,enjoyment and personal development. It is vital that weprovide coaches with the skills to ensure that thisrelationship works effectively for both parties. We, as

people involved in building coaching systems, cancontribute to its effectiveness by fully understanding:

• participants

• coaches

• the relationship between the two.

Participant development modelling will focus ourthinking on participant need, which will subsequentlyinform policies and practice around coach development.

Providing the appropriate environment andinfrastructure to underpin an effective workingrelationship between coaches and participants is central to any coaching system. The challenge for your sport is to undertake a clear analysis of thepriorities of the sport now and in the future. This should be based on a realistic assessment of whocurrently takes part in the sport and why, as well asprojections about future developments in the sport thathave a realistic chance of being implemented. It is alsoessential to ensure that you understand the participants fully:

• who they are

• what the diverse participant populations andsegments are in your sport (essentially your market analysis)

• what makes them who they are (ie the skills,knowledge and behaviours they need to achieve their goals – these are the participant capabilities)

• the general stages and sequence in which theydevelop these broad participant capabilities as theyprogress along the ‘novice to master’ continuum –these are the stages of development

• the different participation opportunities available tothem throughout their development (eg recreationand high-performance opportunities)

• what flexible, connecting routes they can decide totake through the different contexts to help themdevelop – these are the participant pathways.

Figure 2: The coach-participant relationship


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WHAT IS MODELLING?


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This section gives a broad outline of the concept ofmodelling. This will help you understand what modellingis and how this approach can help to underpin thedevelopment of more effective coaching systems.Crucially, modelling is not just about the production of aseries of pictures and diagrams that takes you awayfrom your daily business – it should be part of it. If thistask is approached in the right way, it should informboth your strategic and operational, day-to-dayplanning in the future and, by making you think ahead, itshould make your job easier in the long run. Modellinggoes to the core of what your sport is about, what thesport contributes to participants and, therefore, whatyour coaching workforce needs to look like.

Modelling is a technique to express, visualise andanalyse, building on a clear evidence base of thepresent and a values-based view of the future; it is aprocess of thinking about how concepts and visionscan be expressed in more concrete terms; models mayhelp in explaining and applying key concepts andtheories. Modelling can also help us to visualiseconcepts and aspirations that do not exist at present orsomething tangible that needs modifying. Modelling isused in many different professions for slightly differentreasons, but a core feature across professions is thecreation of language and concepts that provide thebasis for the building of systems (eg in medicine,architecture or education). Models usually involve thecreation of both diagrams and explanations to describethe present situation and project into the future.

In coaching, modelling is about describing where weare today and thinking for the future about what is andwhat is not possible (eg what your sport’s world-leadingcoaching system should look like in 2016). In order to

build a model for the future, you must understandwhere your sport is today. So, while this documentmainly deals with models for the future, it is essentialthat your approach is informed by a knowledge of thecurrent position in your sport. The use of the methodsdescribed in the Coaching Workforce 2009–2016document will help you to achieve this, and it is alsopossible to apply the modelling methodology to give acurrent picture of your coaching system and theparticipant and coach development models for your sport.

Modelling helps us consider:

• where we are now, what the various components ofthe coaching system look like now, how thesecomponents relate to each other and why theywere built that way in the first place

• what additional information we will need to buildnew or revised models for the future and whatexternal support may be required

• who will need to be involved in these developmentsand how to plan for these in a phased approach

• how we can best describe what we want thevarious elements of the coaching system to look likein the future.

The value of participant development modelling is thatPDMs can be used:

• to help identify who your participants are

• to identify broad populations and more detailedsegments based on the similarity of participant needs


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• to inform curriculum design and identify participant capabilities

• to inform sport system organisation, including coaching

• as a tool for aiding understanding, planning anddecision making in sport.

The Coaching Workforce 2009–2016 documentprovides slightly greater detail on the aspects relating tosport system organisation and curriculum design

THE PARTICIPANTDEVELOPMENT MODEL

Figure 3: The Participant Development Model** Please note the difficulty of showing overlaps clearly when presenting this model.

To help sports build their own PDMs, sports coach UKhas developed an industry-wide generic version.

It is important to note that the generic PDM (Figure 3) isaspirational: it reflects how the participant populationcould be thought about and structured, rather than howit actually is. It is a model for participation in sport,rather than a model of participation. For example, insome sports, there are currently very few SustainingPerformance participants, but increasing participation inthis segment may become a legitimate strategic priority.

The generic model has been developed over the lasttwo years through a consultation process involving keypartners and technical experts in the field of participantdevelopment. This model is based on current researchand best practice in this field. Key outcomes of thiswork are outlined in this section. The intention is toupdate and refine this generic PDM following theproduction of a worldwide participant developmentresearch project, which has been commissioned bysports coach UK, and feedback from various sportsthat are already using the information to evolve theirsport-specific models. Findings from the researchproject will be available later this year.


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The Participant DevelopmentModel explainedThe PDM provides a method for showing howparticipants should develop in and through sport. Themodel is generic and high level. It is evidence-based,related to participants’ needs, goals, motives andage/stage of development. It is guided by key principlesand identifies core components.

The underpinning principles are set out in the CoachingWorkforce 2009–2016 document and are summarisedhere as follows:

Individualised needs-led approach – Sportingexperiences should be individualised as far as possibleto meet participants’ unique requirements.

Inclusive – The model should allow for a broad rangeof interconnected, fluid pathways through sports where,if one pathway is not appropriate (eg it is notchallenging enough or has become too demanding),then the participant can move seamlessly to another,more appropriate pathway/sporting environment andthe competition and coaching will adjust accordingly.

Age/stage – Participants’ needs and capabilities vary according to their age/stage. Please note that,whereas the generic PDM is age-related, it is not age-dependent as it acknowledges that participantsmay be the same or a similar age, but may havedifferent needs and be at different stages of development.

Long-term approach to development – Emphasis isplaced on development over the long term, rather thanbeing dictated by short-term considerations such aswinning at a particular event in the earlier stages of aparticipant’s sporting life.

Segmentation – Though sporting experiences shouldbe individualised, the PDM allows for the segmentationof participants’ needs based on their age/stage,sporting objectives/pathways (eg beginner, recreational,performance) and capabilities.

Sport specificity – The model is most effective whenadapted/contextualised to the needs of participants inspecific sports. Governing bodies can use the principlesand the generic model to reflect on the participantsundertaking their own sport.

In the PDM depicted in Figure 3, note the:

• participant segments based on participantpopulations, connected to needs, sportingenvironments, goals, motives and stages of development

• potential pathways that participants may choose tofollow, their connectivity and key transition points.

Four broad participant development populations canbe identified:

• Children

• Participation

• Performance Development

• High Performance.

These broad populations have been further sub-dividedinto 11 participant segments (see Figure 3). Entry intothese populations and segments should be flexible toallow for, and encourage, individual choice.


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The lower part of the diagram emphasises thecommon,stages of development that we would wantchildren to experience within sport. These stages areidentified as:

• Active Start

• FUNdamentals

• Learning to Play and Practice.

At present, the upper section of the diagramemphasises participant segments related todevelopment environments within sport, linked tosimilarity of need. These environments have beenidentified on the basis of the opportunities that shouldbe offered to participants within them, in order tofacilitate participants’ development within that sportingenvironment and their progression to other segments,where appropriate. The environments identified withinthe current model include participation-oriented andperformance-oriented opportunities for participants.

The rationale behind this segmentation links back towhy we categorise. In this case, participants in eachsegment are seen as being at similar developmentstages or sharing common needs, goals, motives andenvironments. As there is a research base on the stagesof development that we envisage children experiencing,the bottom segments are designed to reflect thesecommon stages (Active Start, FUNdamentals andLearning to Play and Practice). For the subsequentcategories, in the upper section of the model, we haveused information related to similar needs, motives andgoals as the categorisation criteria for adult participants.If and when more information on adult stages ofdevelopment emerges that relates to the developmentopportunities and environments identified in the uppersection of the diagram, we can evolve these segmentsto reflect the new evidence.

Core components of theParticipant Development Model This section gives a brief overview of each of the corecomponents that are included in the generic PDM. Itindicates how evolved each core component is andwhat type of information is likely to be available to you inthe future.

Participant populations refer to a broad grouping ofparticipants related to similarity of goals, motives andstage of development.

The following descriptors refer to the four populationsand then describe the segments that are includedwithin each particular population (as explained in theCoaching Workforce 2009–2016 document, a segmentis defined as a sub-group of people sharing one ormore characteristics that cause them to have similar needs):

Childrenʼs populationThis population, identified in the lower part of themodel, identifies the common stages of developmentthat children (ie approximately under 12 years of age)should experience early on in sport. It comprises threeparticipant segments where fundamental, sport-relatedmovement skills, knowledge and behaviours are developed.

Please note that, whereas these three segments relate to children, the segment entitled Learning andRe-learning to Participate overlaps with the children’spopulation in covering beginners of all ages who mayhave lapsed in terms of their sport participation. Thethree segments identified within this population are as follows:

1 Active Start – aimed at developing rudimentarymovement, early fundamental movement skills anda love/enjoyment of physical activity.

2 FUNdamentals – where the focus is on thedevelopment of a broad range of fundamental skillsin a playful context. These key underpinning skillsbuild basic competence and confidence.

3 Learning to Play and Practice – aimed at sampling a range of sports, developing basic sports skills and further building participant competence and confidence.

Participation population This population is seen as being similar in terms ofsharing more of a recreation orientation, and theiractivities are normally carried out in more informal andless structured environments. The three segmentsidentified within this population are as follows:

1 Learning and Re-learning to Participate –engagement and re-engagement of people at all


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stages of the life cycle in sporting activities arisingfrom a lapse in participation, missed opportunitywithin a key stage of development, injury ornegative experience. As previously explained, thissegment overlaps with the children’s population.

2 Developing Participation – aimed at maintainingfitness/skill development, health promotion, self-satisfaction, social interaction and relaxation,particularly during the teenage years.

3 Sustaining Participation – where there is anemphasis on personal challenge, fitness, relaxation,social interaction, enjoyment, health and well-beingas it relates to adult participation.

Performance development population

This population generally covers people engaged indeveloping within performance-oriented, competitivesport. The four segments identified within this area areas follows:

1 Developing Performance – includes young peopleinvolved in competitive sport on a regular andprogressive basis during the teenage years. Theseyoung people may be involved in a number ofsporting activities and will not yet have made acommitment to any one sport at this stage.

2 Talent Development (Early Specialisation) – thissegment covers those children who, because oftheir engagement in and commitment to an earlyspecialisation sport such as gymnastics, areintroduced to appropriate talent developmenttraining, competition and recovery programmes thatensure a safe, healthy and progressive sportingcareer. Please note the overlap with the children’spopulation (ie some participants will start talentdevelopment programmes as children).

3 Talent Development (Late Specialisation) – thissegment includes young people engaged in similartypes of activities as the preceding group but forlate specialisation sports such as team games and athletics.

4 Sustaining Performance – this segment coverspeople in the early, middle and later stages ofadulthood who are engaged in competitive sportacross a broad spectrum of standards, from locallybased competitions through to regional and national events.

High performance population At present, this is a ‘one-segment’ population. It coversthose performers engaged in and committed to highlevel, performance-oriented, competitive sport. It will beassociated with programmes such as World Class or Podium.

At present, most sports have begun to collect datarelated to the different participant segments. It may be worth reading the questions below as a self-assessment to see if there is anything you need torevisit before you move on to the next stage in the process.

Has your sport asked these questionsrelated to segmentation?Below are a few key questions to get you started. Youmay need to think about how you would obtain thisinformation and how long it will take. This is really amarket research exercise and should be treated assuch. Don’t worry if you do not have this informationnow; just plan these developments into your coachingstrategies for when you are able to do this. If you can’tdo a full analysis, it is still worthwhile making aneducated assessment and then evolving your model asmore concrete data emerges.

• What type of sport are you (eg early specialisation,late specialisation, late entry, multiple entry, earlyintroduction but late specialisation)?

• Where are your main populations and segments interms of participants (eg children, young people, adults)?

• Do you know overall participant numbersthroughout the UK related to the segmentation inthe generic model?

• Have you a sport-specific picture of yourparticipants’ goals and motives for sportinvolvement (eg to compete, have fun, keep fit)?

• Do you know the environments in which theyparticipate (eg clubs, leisure centres, centres of excellence)?

• Do you know how many times a week they participate?

This will require you to become critical in your analysis;you need to know why the current landscape is like it is

and what influences it. This requires you to take aholistic view of the current participant landscape.

Participant pathways

This term refers to the different routes participants maytake in their development within a sport. Whenparticipation segments have been identified, potentialpathways can be mapped out. This does not mean thatsports should be prescribing paths, but thatconsideration is given to the pathways that participantsmay follow so that development opportunities can beplanned accordingly, to offer flexibility and choice. It includes the entry routes into participation andhighlights when specific pathways connect (eg participants starting off in a recreationally oriented club and moving to a more performance-oriented pathway).

There are many factors to be considered whenmapping out pathways (eg using our knowledge ofstages of development and participant capabilities).

Participant capabilities This term refers to the broad knowledge, skills andbehaviours that participants should develop to meettheir needs, achieve their goals and gain maximumenjoyment and satisfaction from their participation in sport.

Participant capabilitieshave been groupedunder headings such as:personal, physical,mental, tactical,technical and lifestyle(see Figure 4). This is ageneric classificationthat was based on thework of a group oftechnical advisers, whichwe are suggesting isadapted to meet sport-specific needs. It ispresented here tostimulate discussion thatshould informsubsequent updates tothis PDM User Guide.

In relation to coaching children, Table 1 identifiessome specific skills aspects that would fall under four ofthese categories, which coaches would aim to developwithin participants.


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Figure 4: Suggested classification of participant capabilities

Physical Mental Technical Tactical

Gradual andprogressivedevelopment of:

• agility, balanceandcoordination

• object control

• travelling

• strength,speed, powerand endurance

Gradual andprogressivedevelopment of:

• Cognitivebehaviouralskills

• Mental skills

• Psycho-motorskills

• Psycho-socialskills

Gradualdevelopment andestablishment of:

• movementskills

• sending andreceivingobjects

• practising

• competitiveskills

Gradual development ofand exposure to:

• response to the environment

• understanding othersand their movement

• understanding objectmovement

• understandingspace, time and force

• understandingactivities, their rulesand how to respondto them

• technical skills to help tactical challenges

Table 1: Specific skills by category


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As well as these sport-specific components, there arealso the important aspects within the Personal categoryin Figure 4, which should be underpinning features ofany programme for coaching children. An excellentmodel for describing these features has been used inrelation to positive youth development. Jelicic et al(2007) describe the five Cs of: competence; confidence;connection; character and caring. The five Cs approachmay be thought of as the identification of key positiveoutcomes from an effective sport experience and theassociated development of relevant capabilities. sportscoach UK developed this work further in conjunctionwith technical consultants (Richard Bailey, Istvan Balyi,Clive Brewer, Dave Collins, Jean Côté, Dave Haskins,Carol Hawman and Rod Thorpe) in relation to coachingchildren (aged 4–12 years). As a result of this work, anadaptation has been proposed as the five Cs forcoaching children, in which the important areacreativity has been added and the other areas havebeen adjusted as follows:

These areas contribute to the highly important personaland social development of children, and should thusbecome an explicit coaching outcome for this age group.

Implications for coaching from identifying these keycapabilities will now be explored:

Participant stages of development

It is important to understand the general stages andsequence in which participants develop theircapabilities as they progress within and betweenparticipation segments. Stage of development is usedhere to refer to where a participant is at any given timealong a continuum from beginner to expert. In terms ofthe common stages of development identified forchildren (Active Start, FUNdamentals, Learning to Playand Practice), these are presented as an indication ofthe ideal sequence and pathway that would be followedduring the early years of participating in sport.

Table 2: The five Cs for coaching children

Competence Positive view of one’s actions,including social competence andcognitive competence – relatesdirectly to the physical, technical,tactical and mental aspects

Confidence An internal sense of overall positive self-worth and self-efficacy

Connectionand caring

Positive bonds with people andinstitutions, resulting in successfulrelationships in family, school and community

Character Respect for societal and culturalrules, possession of standards forcorrect behaviours, a sense of rightand wrong, and integrity

Creativity Finding one’s own solutions

Five Cs Children should:

Competence • be in a coaching environmentwhere appropriate techniquesand skills are learned in aprogressive and enjoyable way

Confidence • enjoy success when practisingand get positive and beneficial feedback

Connectionand caring

• work by themselves and ingroups so they enjoy the benefitsof team play and working withothers and eventually enjoy the independence of community sport

• understand and be able to state the benefits of exercise and when and where it can be accessed appropriately

Character • practise in an environment thatrespects players, coaches andofficials and the rules of all sports

Creativity • be encouraged to find their ownsolutions to problems so theylearn, rather than simply copy and repeat.

Table 3: The implications of the five Cs for coaching children

Table 4: Active Start

Physical Psychological Technical Tactical

Children should be:

• developing balanceand stability throughsimple gymnastic,dance and othermovement activities

• playing with andcontrolling objects

• travelling in differentways by changingspeed and level.

• becoming self-awareand beginning toevaluate performance

• developing basic skills

• playing collaborativelyby being aware of andusing others.

• developing movement skills

• practising sending and receiving

• observing and copying others.

• responding to the environment

• watching others

• understanding objectmovement and space.


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These early stages of development are also associatedwith a series of sporting experiences that areacknowledged as being the most developmentallyappropriate. The following explanation should act as auseful summary of these common stages of developmentfor children:

Active Start (up to 6 years of age)

The aim during this stage is to ensure that children areplaying with confidence while learning and developingcompetence in fundamental movement skills in anappropriate and stimulating environment.

This stage (up to approximately six years of age) involvesthe provision of informal learning opportunities in homeand pre-school environments, aimed at developingrudimentary movement, early fundamental movementskills and a love and enjoyment of physical activity.

The physical development of young children must beencouraged through the provision of opportunities forthem to be active and interactive and to improve theirskills of coordination, control, manipulation andmovement. They must be supported in developing anunderstanding of physical activity and making healthychoices about food. Children’s creativity must beextended by the provision of support for their curiosity,exploration and play. They must be provided withopportunities to explore and share their thoughts, ideasand feelings through a variety of music, movement, danceand imaginative play (adapted from DCSF, 2008a/2008b).

During this stage, parents, leaders and coaches should be:

• providing general movement experiences that includebalance and coordination

• allowing children to play

• working with children individually or in small groups

• including all children in play

• offering children the chance to practise and be successful

• building confidence

• encouraging children to play with others and respondappropriately

• talking to children about their experiences

• beginning to structure some experiences

• helping children understand the basic health benefitsof exercise and eating and drinking properly

• developing performance through festivals andcelebrations of skill.

Five Cs Children should be:

Competence • developing physical, technical and tactical skills, as above, while experiencing anumber of different environments: home play, games outside, structured activitiesin school (dance, swimming, early gymnastics, games with balls etc)

Confidence • developing psychologically, as above, by becoming aware of their own ability andbeing encouraged to feel good about their performance

• showing satisfaction in their achievements and improvement

Connection and caring • responding positively to guidance and new experiences by fully participating in avariety of activities that offer opportunities for learning

• beginning to play and cooperate with others

• going with parents to outside clubs (toddler groups, swim and gym clubs)

• beginning to state the benefits of exercise

Character • understanding simple rules for activities and beginning to develop their own rules

Creativity • allowed to experience equipment and movement with guidance that encouragesexperimentation (eg moving to stories and music, playing outside on apparatus).


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FUNdamentals (5–6 years up to 8–9 years of age)

This stage aims to build competence and confidencethrough the learning of fundamental movement skills.This involves the provision of positive learningenvironments, both in school and out-of-schoolsettings, that develop a broad range of fundamentalskills in a playful context. These key underpinning skillsbuild basic competence and confidence and play animportant part in contributing to participation in sportand developing more advanced skills in later years.

During this stage, children build on their naturalenthusiasm for movement. They start to play with otherchildren in pairs and small groups. By watching,listening and experimenting, they develop their skills inmovement and coordination and enjoy expressing andtesting themselves in a variety of situations (adaptedfrom DfES, 2004).

During this stage, parents, leaders and coaches should be:

• building physical competence in balance,coordination and movement in a multi-skill environment

• allowing children to play freely

• offering some children special help to enable themto play


• offering children the chance to practise, besuccessful and make changes to practices

• building confidence

• structuring activities so children have to cooperatewith others and respond appropriately

• encouraging children to talk about and evaluatetheir experiences

• structuring some experiences that lead to sport-specific skills

• helping children learn some simple rules of activities

• getting children to talk about the health benefits ofexercise and eating and drinking properly

• helping children take full advantage of the widerange of sport-related experiences on offer, both inand out of school

• developing performance through simple competitivesituations, including multi-skill festivals.

Table 4: Active Start (continued)

Table 5: FUNdamentals


Children should be:

• developingfundamentalmovement skills byfurther exposure toactivities involvingagility, balance and coordination

• travelling at differentlevels (eg high/low) indifferent ways (eg onfeet and usinghands/feet)

• controlling objects onboth sides of the bodyand beginning to useboth hands and bothfeet competently.

• evaluatingperformance correctlyand showing self-reinforcement and determination

• able to refocus after a distraction

• planning simpleactivities

• using a combination of skills

• making decisions

• differentiating betweenteam and individualperformance.

• developing and refining basicmovement skills andapplying them to somesport-specific activity

• using a variety of equipment

• understand the criteriafor performance incertain sports (eg gymnastics).

• able to focus sensesand perception

• understanding theessential requirementsof an activity challenge

• aware of the conceptsof space, time and possession.


Competence • developing physical, technical and tactical skills, as above, by being involved in avariety of more structured activities (eg different types of games; simple running,jumping, throwing activities; making up gymnastic sequences)

Confidence • developing psychologically, as above, by showing optimistic perceptions of theirown physical ability

• taking responsibility for their achievements and improvement

Connection and caring • demonstrating empathy, sensitivity and friendship skills

• regularly engaging in physical play with different social groups of different sizes (eg simple games of 2 v 2 and 3 v 3)

• choosing independently to join out-of-school-hours clubs

• going with parents to outside clubs and beginning to take roles in teams and squads

• explaining the benefits of regular exercise and how it can be undertaken safely

Character • understanding simple rules for specific activities and developing their own criteriafor judging performance

• beginning to understand fair play and why cheating harms activity

Creativity • allowed to experiment in all practical situations, as well as continue to play freelyas much as possible.


THE



THE


Learning to Play and Practice (approximately 8–12 years of age)

During this phase, children should be gaining greaterconfidence, continuing to build competence throughapplying fundamental movement skills while learning theskills required for different sports and beginning to buildcharacter through the activities and a real connection tosport. Appropriate opportunities should be provided forparticipants to learn to play and practise a wide rangeof different sports, activities and skills in the later yearsof primary school. The focus is on sampling a range ofsports, developing basic sports skills and furtherbuilding participant competence and confidence.

During this stage, children enjoy being active and usingtheir creativity and imagination in physical activity. Theylearn new skills, find out how to use them in differentways, and link them to make actions, phrases andsequences of movement. They enjoy communicating,collaborating and competing with each other. Theydevelop an understanding of how to succeed indifferent activities and learn how to evaluate andrecognise their own success (adapted from DfES 2004).

With this group, coaches should be:

• transferring physical competence in balance, coordination and movement into sport-specific activities

• building on the good practice in high qualityphysical education (see www.teachernet.gov.uk/teachingandlearning/subjects/pe/ andwww.qca.org.uk/pess/)

• allowing children to sample different sports in allsporting environments

• giving children access to multi-skill clubs and academies


• offering children the chance to practise, besuccessful and make changes to practices

• ensuring all children are able to approach activitieswith confidence, by adapting practices for some children

• structuring activities so children have to work inteams and respond appropriately

• encouraging children to talk about, evaluate andsuggest improvements to their performance

• helping children use sport-specific skills inappropriate activities and games

• helping young people take full advantage of therange of sport-related experiences on offer andknow how much young people in their charge arepractising and performing each week

• helping children learn some simple rules of activitiesand how these affect fair play

• getting children to talk about the health benefits ofexercise and eating and drinking properly

• helping children learn where and how they cansafely practise their sport

• developing performance through appropriatecompetitions from the national competitionframework, ensuring the ratio of competition topractice does not exceed 30:70.

Table 6: Learning to Play and Practice


Children should be:

• confident andcompetent with basicagility, balance and coordination

• learning about speedand its uses andpractising how to gainspeed in different ways

• able to demonstrate arange of movementand mobility

• beginning to usestrength and power and developing endurance.

• confident when activeand showing acommitment to quality control

• setting simple goalsand also beginning touse self-talk

• able to combine basicskills efficiently

• scanning and makingdecisions based onthe information

• mastering objectcontrol in differentenvironments

• using others’ strengthswhen performing withthem and showing task orientation.

• modifying basic skillsto meet specific needsand broadening theskill base

• showing quality with specifictechniques/skills

• getting into a routine ofpractice as frequentlyas appropriate and necessary

• introduced toappropriatecompetition.

• performing in modified sports withmodified rules

• showing a basicunderstanding offorce, space and timeto develop moresophisticated tactics

• shaping their technicalwork to match thetactical challenge

• refining attention tosensory input.


Competence • developing physical, technical and tactical skills, as above, by being involved in avariety of more structured activities and some mini versions of sports

• showing more realistic perceptions of their own physical ability

Confidence • talking with pride about their achievements and improvements

• responsive, attentive and actively engaged in physical activities

Connection and caring • enjoying making friends in sporting contexts

• regularly and promptly attending organised activities and caring about their club,coaches and fellow players

• beginning to lead activity with younger children

• taking exercise because they fully recognise its benefits

Character • showing respect for their club, coaches and fellow players

• understanding rules of activities and following them

Creativity • making up their own practices and sequences

• involved in devising practices with the coach/teacher.


THE


1 Participation in recreational sporting activities contributes to the recommended minimum for young people of an hour a day of moderate-intensity physical activity,

including 15–20-minute sessions of aerobic activity. Each home country may have additional targets pertaining to young people’s participation in school and/orcommunity sport.


THE


Developing Participation (approximately 11–18 years of age)

This stage encompasses the provision for secondary-age young people of appropriateopportunities for regular1 involvement in recreationalsporting activities that help to create enjoyment,maintain fitness, develop skills, promote health andwell-being, generate self-assurance and encouragesocial interaction.

NB:

• The term secondary age:

– allows for an overlap with Learning to Play andPractice (ie 11–13-year-olds) and withSustaining Participation (17–19-year-olds)

– complements Learning to Play and Practice,which focuses on primary age

– is flexible enough to meet the different agebands of different home countries’ school provision

– supports typical national strategy divisions.

• Enjoyment should always be the prime motivatoras, without it, nothing else positive happens.

• Health and well-being cover the physical, mentaland emotional benefits of sport.

Objective: To encourage and enable young people ofall abilities to take part regularly in recreational sportingactivities, and to empower them to make informedchoices about their participation and so prepare themfor lifelong physical activity.

Connection to national agendas: The DevelopingParticipation stage is linked to and supported by arange of education, health, sport and youth strategies.This includes the national curricula of England,Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, each of whichaims to enable young people to be successful learners,confident individuals and responsible citizens whosephysical, emotional and social well-being equips themto lead a healthy and active lifestyle, now and in thefuture. It also reflects the principles underpinning thehome countries’ sport and physical activity strategiesfor young people, supporting all young people to enjoybeing active.

Where/what/how often: This stage is characterised byyoung people experiencing a range of provision, tryingout different sports and activities, deciding how andwhen to play, and using sport as a vehicle for fun andwider personal and social development. Provisionneeds to recognise young people’s eclectic tastes andhabits, and create good links or signposts to otherrecreational sport providers, as well as meeting theirwider needs and interests. It should be based onconsultation with the young people.

Participation may include:

• one or more sporting, dance, movement andoutdoor activities

• traditional or non-traditional, team or individual activities

• skills sessions, mini games, adapted games or full games

• fun, competitive, challenge or display activities

• differing types, levels, duration and intensity ofactivity, depending on each participant’s wishes

• acting as a helper (ie leader, official, administrator)

• taking part alone, with friends, with a wider group orwith a similar peer group (eg girls only), dependingon each participant’s wishes.

Young people should be offered multiple opportunitiesto access a sport or activity, for example:

• breakfast, lunchtime, after-school, out-of-schoolhours sessions

• evening, weekend or holiday community-based sessions.

Where appropriate, discrete provision should beavailable (eg girls-only sessions, activity programmes for obese and overweight young people, disability sport sessions).

Provision should include access to competition,challenge and displays – for those young people whowish to take part – and should reflect the variety ofrecreational sports and activities on offer. Any sport-specific competitions should be in line with the

2 Department of Health (2004) ‘At least five a week: Evidence on the impact of physical activity and its relationship to health’.


THE


governing body of sport/disability-sport competitionframework. Recreational competitions and challengesshould celebrate participation as much as performanceand seek to recognise and reward additional aspectssuch as fair play, most improved and personal progress.

Provision should enable young people to balance fun,skill development and exercise so that it contributes totheir general health and well-being. In particular, youngpeople should:

• achieve at least 60 minutes of at least moderate-intensity physical activity each day

• include 15–20-minute sessions of aerobic activityeach day

• take part at least twice a week in activities thatimprove bone health (eg running, jumping, aerobics, dancing)

• participate in sessions of 20–60 minutes formaximum impact on psychological well-being.

Young people should be encouraged to participateregularly – at least once a week – so that they developthe habit that will support them to take part in lifelongphysical activity. If they want to improve their skills, theywill need to take part more often. However, research2

indicates that the quality of young people’s experienceof sport and physical activity is more significant thanquantity, in terms of influencing their future participationand its implications for adulthood health.

This stage may also motivate some young people totransfer to the performance sector for a specific sport(having identified a particular interest or talent) whilesome young people may be active in both theparticipation and the performance sectors at the same time.

Table 7: Developing Participation


Young people should be:

• adjusting agility,balance andcoordination as theirbody matures and grows

• maintaining a healthy weight(particularly girls)

• managing increasedstrength and power(particularly boys)

• maintaining high levelsof concentration,energy and activity.

• recognising the widerbenefits of sport(personal, social and health)

• making informedchoices about theirtype and level of activity

• balancing participationin sport with othercommitments/activities

• setting, andprogressing through,personal challengesand goals

• evaluating success,and recognisingprogress andachievement, against arange of factors/roles.

• refining or relearningskills due to growing/maturing body

• applying skills, or learning new skills, within theirchosen sports

• demonstrating a widerange of goodtechnical skills andknowledge of when touse them

• developing skills insimilarability/maturation/gender groups

• developing skillsthrough fun games and personal challenges

• developing skills through‘teaching’ others

• demonstratingknowledge of what todo to improve.

• demonstrating safe,fair and inclusive play

• suggesting ways tomodify sports tomaximise their own, and others’,participation

• creating and/ororganising their ownactivities, practicesand games

• participating in funcompetitions, displaysor challenges.

Five Cs Young people should be:

Competence • attending regularly, punctually and dressed appropriately

• participating willingly and with enjoyment

• communicating effectively with the coach and other players

• making decisions for themselves

Confidence • willing to try new activities and roles without fear of failure

• talking positively about their participation and achievement

• asking for help if it is needed

Connection and caring • working well with others, as part of a team and on their own

• taking part in peer learning, as both learner and ‘teacher’, encouraging andhelping others

• showing leadership skills and qualities


THE


Character • valuing and respecting others (young people and adults)

• demonstrating fair play

Creativity • suggesting ideas and adaptations for playing and/or improving.


For example, young people:

Competence • are fit enough totake part for theduration of the session

• set themselvesrealistic butstretchingtargets

• learn new sport-specifictechniques

• apply their skillsappropriatelywithin a game

Confidence • are willing to try a range of activities

• have a goodsense of theirown ability

• are willing todemonstratetheir skills to others

• act as officialsduring games

Connection and caring

• adjust theirstrength to suitthe opponents

• are willing toparticipate witha range ofother players

• teach others new techniques

• include everyonein the team

Character • wear safe andappropriateclothing

• are aware ofhow sportcontributes to ahealthy life

• practise to gettechniques right

• play fairly andwithin the codeof conduct/spiritof the sport

Creativity • modifytechniques toreflect theirchanging body shape.

• respondpositively to feedback.

• modifytechniques to improve.

• create or adapt new games.


THE


Developing the five Cs

In addition to the discrete personal and socialcapabilities, each of the other areas (technical, tactical,physical and psychological) can contribute to thedevelopment of the five Cs:

• competence – positive view of one’s actions,including social competence and cognitive competence

• confidence – an internal sense of overall positiveself-worth and self-efficacy

• connection and caring – positive bonds with peopleand institutions resulting in successful relationshipsin family, school and community

• character – respect for societal and cultural rules,possession of standards for correct behaviours, asense of right and wrong and integrity

• creativity – finding one’s own solutions.

Table 7: Developing Participation (continued)

Lifestyle

Taking part in regular sport and physical activity maycontribute to young people leading an improvedlifestyle, such as:

• getting sufficient sleep

• eating a balanced diet

• being more generally physically active

• having healthy growth and development

• being a healthy weight

• having fewer risk factors for future ill health

• being less stressed and anxious

• having positive social interaction with a range ofpeople (peers, family and other adults)

• being more alert and focused at school

• being able to balance school, home and social pressures

• generally feeling better about themselves.

Implications for delivery

To support participants to achieve these capabilities,coaches will need to consider the way in which theywork – their style of delivery - as much as the content.While this might vary according to the context, generallycoaches should consider the following practices:

Understanding the participants:

• Introduce yourself, and other staff/helpers, to theyoung people.

• Treat all young people fairly and equitably; get toknow and use their (preferred) names.

• Listen to young people and communicate in a waythat doesn’t talk down to them.

• Use ice-breakers and/or encourage participants toget to know each other if they don’t already.

• Consult with young people to find out what, when,how, where and with whom they want to play,individually as well as in groups.

• Consult with young people to find out what theyhave done/know already (eg through PE or other provision).

• Consult with any young people who have additionalor specific requirements.

• Check if there are any health and safety issues tobe aware of (eg injury or illness).

• Recognise the other commitments and pressures inyoung people’s lives (eg homework, exams, familycircumstances, caring roles, relationships) and theirinfluence on young people’s participation in sport.

• Engage with parents/carers to elicit their support fortheir child’s participation and to reinforce positivemessages about sport.

• Liaise with other members of the children’sworkforce where appropriate (to ensure consistentmessages and support).

Planning for coaching:

• Ensure coaches are CRB checked andappropriately qualified and insured.

• Adhere to the relevant local and/or nationalguidelines for safeguarding and protecting children.

• Ensure first-aid cover is provided/available.

• Aim to make the playing environment welcoming aswell as safe; involve the young people in decoratingit where possible (eg with signs, posters); makesure it is accessible for any disabled participants.

• Plan sessions, but be prepared to be flexible to suitthe young people’s needs, interests and energylevels on the day.

• Plan to enable young people to achieve the five Cs,as well as the ‘usual’ technical, tactical, physicaland psychological outcomes.

Coaching:

• Allow young people to choose how, when and towhat extent they wish to participate.

• Allow young people to wear any appropriate kit, solong as it is safe and comfortable.

COACHINGFRAMEWORKTH

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The Participant Development Model User Guide22

• Develop a code of conduct with the young peoplethat establishes expected behaviour from them andthe coaches; ensure it addresses emotional safetyand well-being, as well as physical safety.

• Promote and demonstrate the importance of having fun.

• Avoid and challenge any discriminatory language or behaviour.

• Recognise the impact of biological changes (eg hormone changes) on young people’s emotionsand behaviour, but use the code of conduct tochallenge inappropriate behaviour.

• Consider grouping players by factors other thanchronological age, depending on the sport, theiraspirations and their preferences; for example, bymaturation/size/strength, ability, sex, disabled ornon-disabled/impairment group where relevant eg for disability sports), similar issues (egobese/overweight, disaffection), friendship groups(unless the aim is to increase social interactionand/or prevent cliques).

• Use a variety of activities and practices within asport/session (eg skills circuits, mini or adaptedgames, full games). Above all, focus on fun andvaried ways to learn and play.

• Use warm-ups and cool-downs that are fun,games- or dance-based and link to the activitiesthey will play/have played.

• Differentiate practices to suit each individual’sneeds, interests and aspirations.

• Modify activities so all players are fully included, tothe level they wish to be.

• Ensure players know what a particular practice oractivity is for (ie its relevance or benefits).

• Support young people to adjust skills they’vealready learned to suit their growing and maturingbodies; this may include their core agility, balanceand coordination skills.

• Support young people to select and apply existingskills appropriate to the sport or activity.

• Enable young people to learn new skills specific tothe sport or activity.

• Recognise young people’s concerns regarding theirchanging bodies (eg weight increase in girls) andmake adjustments to suit, where necessary.

• Encourage young people to do around 15–20minutes’ aerobic activity within an hour’s session.

• Make sure activities maximise players’ involvement(ie don’t require them to wait too long to have a go).

• Support young people to recognise how an activitycontributes to their energy in/energy out balance.

• Use activities that develop young people’s widerskills (eg communication, teamwork, organisation),as well as their technical skills or fitness.

• Enable and encourage young people to suggestand design their own games, activities andprogrammes, including warm-ups and cool-downs.

• Support and encourage young people to setthemselves personal challenges, within eachsession and across a longer programme.

• Encourage young people to take part in appropriatecompetitions, challenges and displays, but allowthem to choose if, when and how they compete.

• Support the participants to plan and organise their own competitions, challenges and displays, as appropriate.

• Have high aspirations for all young people,encouraging them to succeed.

• Ensure young people set realistic goals andexperience an element of success in every session.

• Encourage and support young people to help and learn from each other (eg peer mentoring, peer review).

• Enable and encourage young people to adopt otherroles, either formally or informally (ie leader, coach,official, administrator).

Reviewing and evaluating coaching:

• Continue to learn, develop and share ideas so thatyou are always improving.

• Enable young people to reflect on and review theirprogress and achievements against their personalgoals and wider skills.

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3 Participation in recreational sporting activities contributes to the recommended minimum for adults of at least 30 minutes’ moderate-intensity physical activity a day on

at least five days a week. Each home country may have additional targets pertaining to adults’ participation in sport.


THE


• Support young people to identify what they need todo to improve.

• Recognise and reward all participants’ progress andachievements, not just the best ‘performers’.

• Regularly seek feedback from the young people tofind out what they most enjoy, benefit from andwould like to do next.

• Inform the young people about further participationopportunities (eg for extra play, alternative provision,participation beyond school/college), to extend theirskills, provide more competitive or performanceopportunities, allow for discrete provision etc.

• Inform the young people about further volunteeringopportunities (eg leadership, coaching andofficiating awards and deployment).

• Review and reflect on your coaching so you areexcellent in your practice.

Sustaining Participation (adults of all ages)

This stage encompasses provision for adults ofappropriate opportunities for regular3 involvement inrecreational sporting activities that help to createenjoyment, maintain fitness, employ and extend skills,provide challenges, and promote health and well-being.

NB:

• Health and well-being includes such aspects asrelaxation, confidence, self-esteem and socialising –all of which may contribute to an adult’s motives for participating.

• There is likely to be less focus on new skilldevelopment and more on application or extensionof existing skills as this is about sustainingparticipation, rather than learning or relearning.

Objective: To encourage and enable adults of all agesand abilities to take part regularly in recreationalsporting activities.

Connection to national agendas: The SustainingParticipation stage reflects the sport strategies of eachof the home countries with an increasing focus onenabling more people to play and enjoy sport at anylevel and at any stage in life. It embodies their corevalues of promoting lifelong enjoyment, fulfilment andquality of life in and through sport.

Where/what/how often: This stage focuses on adultscontinuing to participate in a sport or sports with whichthey are already familiar. However, their level ofinvolvement in the sport(s) may change, and keepchanging, over time. For example, they may have beena performer and now wish to participate recreationally,or they may have participated in a variety of recreationalsports and now just have the time to play one sport.Changes to their health, fitness, strength, work, family,interests and aspirations are some of the factors thatmay influence changes to their type and level ofparticipation. Their motivation for continuing to playsport may also change (eg from wanting sportingsuccess to playing for health reasons to seekingrelaxation). Provision needs to recognise individuals’availability and motivations.

Participation may include:

• one or more sporting, dance, movement andoutdoor activities

• traditional or non-traditional, team or individual activities

• skills, fitness training, practices and games

• informal competition (eg between friends, clubladders), formal competition (eg leagues andtournaments), challenge or display activities

• differing types, levels, duration and intensity ofactivity, depending on each participant’s wishes

• activities that are ongoing, seasonal, irregular eventsor programme-based

• taking part alone, with friends, with a wider group orwith a similar peer group (eg women only),depending on each participant’s wishes

• structured activity (eg organised by a coach) or unstructured activity (eg organised by the participants)

• membership, affiliation, pay and play or free access.

Participation usually needs to be local (unless requiringa specific environment) and easily accessible in terms ofvenue, location and time. It may take place in a widerange of settings; for example:


Adults should be:

• maintaining a healthy weight

• maintainingappropriate levels ofstrength, stamina andsuppleness to playtheir sport at theirchosen level

• maintaining well-balanced muscle groups andbody alignment

• minimising chances ofinjury or illness.



• balancing participationin sport with othercommitments

• setting personalchallenges and goals

• evaluating successagainst personal goals

• using sport to aid relaxation.

• demonstrating goodagility, balance and coordination

• retaining the skillsrequired to play theirsport at their chosen level

• demonstratingknowledge of whenand how to apply their skills

• demonstratingknowledge of how toextend or improve theirskills if desired.


• modifying their typeand level of activity tosuit their fitness, healthor other circumstances

• taking part inappropriatecompetition as desired

• taking on roles otherthan player.

Table 8: Sustaining Participation


THE


• public sports settings (leisure centres, swimmingpools, fitness suites)

• private sports settings (gyms, dance studios, martialarts centres)

• voluntary sports settings (governing body of sportclubs, outdoor activity centres)

• community settings (schools, colleges, communitycentres, church halls)

• open spaces (parks, woodland, mountains, openwater, rivers, streets)

• home.

The prime concern of any provider supporting adults tosustain their participation is to ascertain theparticipants’ motives for playing (and their availability)

and use this to shape provision. Provision needs torecognise the diversity of these motives and the factthey may change as each person’s life changes.However, all adults should be encouraged to participate regularly – at least once a week – to maintainthe habit of physical activity. In terms of their health andwell-being, they should:

• achieve at least 30 minutes a day of at leastmoderate-intensity physical activity on five or moredays of the week

• maintain bone health by participating in someweight-bearing activities (eg jogging, dancing).

Above all, adults need to experience enjoyment, have asense of success and generally feel better if they are tobe motivated to continue in, and realise the healthbenefits of, sport and physical activity.

Five Cs Adults should be:




• negotiating appropriate activities or training/playing programmes

• planning, reviewing and adapting practice and goals

Confidence • talking positively about their participation and achievement

• trying new practices without fear of failure

• asking for help or advice if needed


• encouraging and helping others, where appropriate

Character • valuing and respecting others


Creativity • finding solutions to problems.


For example, adults:

Competence • are fit enough totake part for theduration of the session

• set themselvesrealistic targets

• learn additionaltechniques

• apply their skillsappropriatelywithin a game

Confidence • are willing to try a range of activities


• are willing to try new techniques

• enjoy taking part in competition or challenges


THE




• competence – positive view of one’s actions, including social competence and cognitive competence


• connection and caring – positive bonds with peopleand institutions, resulting in successful relationshipsin family, work and community



Table 8: Sustaining Participation (continued)


For example, adults:


• adjust theirstrength to suitthe opponents

• are willing toparticipate with a range of other players

• help others tolearn or applynew skills

• value all of the team members


• are aware of howsport contributesto a healthy life

• practise to gettechniques right


Creativity • modifytechniques tomatch theirfitness or strength.


• modifytechniques to improve.

• help to devise team tactics or new practices.


THE


Lifestyle

Taking part in sport and physical activity may contributeto adults leading an improved lifestyle, such as:

• sleeping better

• feeling less fatigued

• eating a balanced diet

• being more generally physically active

• being a healthy weight

• avoiding the risk factors for ill health, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes andmusculoskeletal problems

• being less stressed and anxious

• avoiding depression

• having positive social interaction

• being able to balance work, home and social pressures

• feeling happier and more satisfied with life

• generally feeling better about themselves.

Additional benefits for older people may include:

• maintaining mobility and independent living

• reducing the likelihood of falls

• reducing the risk of developing cognitive problems.


To support participants to achieve these capabilities,coaches will need to consider the way in which theywork – their style of delivery – as much as the content.While this might vary according to the context,generally, coaches should consider the following practices:


• Introduce yourself and other staff/ helpers to the participants.

• Treat all participants fairly and equitably.

• Get to know and use participants’ (preferred) names.

• Encourage and support the participants to get toknow each other.

• Consult with participants to ascertain their motivesfor taking part and their availability and/or envisagedlevels of commitment.

• Consult with participants to find out what levelthey’ve played at previously.

• Consult with any participants who have additional orspecific requirements.

• Check if there are any health and safety issues tobe aware of (eg previous injuries, illness).

• Recognise the other commitments and pressures inparticipants’ lives (eg family, work).


• Ensure coaches are appropriately qualified and insured.


• Adhere to local or national guidelines forsafeguarding and protecting any vulnerable adults(eg those with profound learning difficulties).

• Aim to make the playing environment welcoming, as well as safe.

• Plan to enable participants to achieve the five Cs,as well as the ‘usual’ technical, tactical, physicaland psychological outcomes.

Coaching:

• Support participants to choose how, when and towhat extent they wish to participate.

• Permit participants to wear any appropriate kit, solong as it is safe and comfortable.



• Differentiate practices to suit each individual’sneeds, interests and aspirations.

• Differentiate activities so all players participatesafely, in accordance with their skills, strength,suppleness and stamina.

• Modify activities so all participants are included, tothe level they wish to be.

• Ensure players know what a particular practice oractivity is for (ie its relevance or benefits)

• Support participants to refine, select and apply theirexisting skills.

• Enable participants to improve and extend theirskills, as desired.

• Enable participants to increase their strength,suppleness and stamina, as desired (and within safe limits).

• Support participants to recognise how an activitycontributes to their health and well-being.

• Support participants to set themselves personalchallenges, within each session and across a longer programme.

• Support participants to take part in appropriatecompetitions, challenges and displays, as desired.

• Ensure participants set realistic goals andexperience an element of success in every session.

• Encourage participants to support and learn fromeach other.

• Support, encourage and establish social events forparticipants, where appropriate.


• Continue to learn, develop and share ideas so youare always improving.

• Support participants to reflect on and review theirprogress and achievements against their personal goals.

• Provide regular individual feedback and encouragement.

• Regularly seek feedback from participants to findout what they enjoy, benefit from and would like to do next.

• Inform participants about other provision (egperformance opportunities, discrete sessions,additional or alternative programmes).

• Inform participants about volunteering opportunities (eg leadership, coaching, officiating and administration).


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Learning and Re-learning to Participate(adults of all ages and adolescents)

This stage addresses the engagement and re-engagement of people of all ages in sportingactivities, arising from a lapse in their participation due,for example, to a negative experience, a missedopportunity, a change in circumstances or aninjury/acquired impairment.

Generally, engagement or re-engagement will occur inone of two ways:

• Personal choice – an individual decides to learn anew sport (adult or adolescent beginner) or returnsto a previous sport (adult or adolescent returner). Itmay include newly disabled participants who returnto sports they played as non-disabled players andwho are partially returning and partially beginning,depending on their impairment and the sport.

• Targeted intervention – individuals are invited andencouraged to participate as part of an interventionthat uses sport to achieve other outcomes around,for example, physical activity, health and well-being,crime reduction or social cohesion.

Objective: To engage or re-engage lapsed participantsof all ages in sporting activities. This includes people who:

• have missed one of the earlier stages due to lack of provision, poor provision or a change in circumstances

• have had a negative experience of sport

• have been injured and/or acquired an impairment

• wish to learn a new sport (adult or adolescent beginners)

• wish to return to a sport (adult or adolescent returners)

• are newly disabled and wish to return to a sportthey played as a non-disabled player

• are being encouraged and/or targeted to participatein sport for wider reasons (eg to improve health andwell-being, increase social cohesion, reduce crime).

Connection to national agendas: The Learning and Re-learning to Participate stage is influenced by a widerange of policies and strategies, including those relating

to sport, education, employment and social cohesion,each of which seeks to create better life opportunitiesfor young people, adults, their families andcommunities. It advocates ‘sport for sport’s sake’ –sport as a means of enjoyment and fulfilment in its ownright – but also sport as a vehicle for wider benefits. Inparticular, it is influenced by the increasing commitmentof the home countries to address health issues andinequalities through sport and physical activity. It issummarised in this quote by Professor Sir LiamDonaldson, the Chief Medical Officer for England.

If people of all ages can be engaged in a new way ofthinking about active lifestyles, better health can be arealistic goal for all. Physical activity needs to be seenas an opportunity – for enjoyment, for improved vitality,for a sense of achievement, for fitness, for optimalweight, and – not least – for health. It needs to be seenas enjoyable, and as fun – not as unnecessary effort.

In this sense, health reflects physical, emotional andsocial well-being.

Where/what/how often: There are two distinctelements to this stage. Individuals may be learning newskills either from choice (eg an adult learning to play anew sport), because of a missed opportunity (eg ayoung teenager catching up on basic skills that werepoorly taught in primary school), because of a change incircumstances (eg a newly disabled athlete taking upwheelchair racing) or through a targeted intervention (egdisaffected youths developing their self-esteem throughclimbing). Alternatively, individuals may be relearningskills they haven’t used for a while, again throughchoice (eg adults returning to a sport they played as ateenager), because of a negative experience in sport (egyoung women taking up dance after withdrawing fromsecondary PE), because of a change in circumstances(eg a newly disabled footballer joining an amputeefootball squad) or through a targeted intervention (egobese and overweight adults swimming for the first timein years). Consequently, individuals’ motivation to takepart will vary widely.

Therefore, it is difficult to generalise about provision.However, it is essential to match provision to eachindividual’s interests and motivation to create andmaintain his or her engagement. The focus should beon adapting the activity to suit the individual, rather thantrying to fit the individual into an activity. This is asrelevant for adult beginners and returners acting on their

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4 Regularity of participation will be determined by the purpose of their participation (eg those seeking to achieve and maintain a healthy weight may need to take part

more often than those involved in diversionary activities). Participation contributes to the recommended levels described earlier.


THE


own initiative as for participants involved in targetedinterventions. For example, a highly motivated, high-achieving sportsperson seeking to learn a new sportafter retirement from a previous sport may require amuch more intensive training and competitionprogramme than regular club players. An unfit,overweight person who starts swimming for healthreasons may need a programme that makes him feelsafe and lets him swim more slowly than general poolusers, but ensures he attends regularly to maximise its benefits.

It is also likely that provision will be most effective whenparticipants are able to work in discrete groups (egwomen only) or with similar participants (eg other adultlearners), unless they prefer individual tuition. Inparticular, provision needs to recognise that adultlearners may have different learning needs and styles tochildren. The very process of learning may seemunfamiliar and threatening, even if they are keen to takepart. Above all, learning and relearning programmesshould be negotiated and agreed at an individual leveland should enable and support learners to set andachieve realistic goals of their own.

Frequency of participation may vary hugely within thisstage. An adult returner, keen to compete in localleagues, may play two or three times a week. A learnermay need frequent but shorter sessions to developbasic skills and confidence. Those people who areinvolved in sport as a means to address other issuesmay attend less frequently. In some cases,overenthusiastic players may need to reduce their levelof activity if it is having an adverse effect on their healthor lifestyle. However, all participants should beencouraged to take part regularly4 – at a rate thatmeets their aspirations – to support them to develop ahabit for sport.

In terms of their health and well-being, all learners andrelearners should:

• achieve the recommended amount of moderate-intensity physical activity each week (see Developing Participation and SustainingParticipation sections)

• take part in activities that create and maintain bone health

• increase activity levels gradually, particularly thosewho are unfit or have an existing medical condition.

In addition, for specific groups/individuals:

• to prevent obesity – many adults may need to takepart in 45–60 minutes of moderate-intensityphysical activity a day, and people who have beenobese and lost weight may need to do 60–90minutes of activity a day in order to maintain theirweight loss

• to encourage weight loss – accumulating severalshort (10-minute) bouts of activity may be moreeffective than doing fewer, longer bouts of activity

• for older people – activities that promote improvedstrength, coordination and balance are particularlybeneficial. As there is a greater risk of injury, higherintensity activities, and activities that involve suddenor complicated movements, should be undertakencautiously, unless the individual is already used tothis type of exercise.

Again, the key factor is to enable people to take part ina range of activities based on their experiences,preferences and goals so they continue to be active.

Table 9: Learning and Re-learning


Adults should be:

• achieving and/ormaintaining a healthy weight

• achieving and/ormaintainingappropriate levels ofstrength, stamina andsuppleness to play thesport at the chosen/required level

• developing and/ormaintaining well-balanced muscle groups andbody alignment

• minimising chances ofinjury or illness.

• recognising the role ofsport in achieving thewider objective



• balancing participationin sport with othercommitments/requirements

• setting personalchallenges and goals

• evaluating successagainst personal goals and any wider objective(s).

• improving/demonstrating goodagility, balance and coordination

• acquiring anddeveloping the skillsrequired to play thesport at thechosen/required level

• knowing when andhow to apply their skills

• knowing how toextend or improve theirskills, if desired.


• modifying their typeand level of activity tosuit their fitness,health, aspirations andany wider objective(s)

• taking part inappropriatecompetition, as desired

• taking on roles other than player.

Five Cs Adults should be:




• negotiating appropriate activities or training/playing programmes

• planning, reviewing and adapting practice and goals

• (developing skills linked to the wider objective)

Confidence • talking positively about their participation and achievement (in sport and the linkedto wider objective, where relevant)

• trying activities/new practices without fear of failure

• continuing beyond the initial programme

• asking for help or advice if needed


• encouraging and helping others, where appropriate


THE




• competence – positive view of one’s actions,including social competence and cognitive competence


• connection and caring – positive bonds with peopleand institutions resulting in successful relationshipsin family, school/work and community



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Character • valuing and respecting others


Creativity • suggesting ideas for playing and/or improving.


For example, young people or adults:

Competence • work to improvetheir fitness toan appropriatelevel

• set themselvesrealistic butstretchingtargets

• learn new skills –sport or wider

• apply their skillsappropriatelywithin agame/wider life

Confidence • are willing to trya range of activities


• are willing todemonstratetheir skills or putthem into action

• willingly take ondifferent roles


• are considerateof their own andothers’ weightand/or strength

• are able to workwith a range of people

• share learningwith/lead others

• value andrespect all groupmembers’contributions


• are aware ofhow sportcontributes to ahealthy life

• practise to get skills right


Creativity • modifytechniques tomatch theirfitness andstrength.


• modify skills toimprove and develop further.

• create or adaptnew practices or games.

Table 9: Learning and Re-learning (continued)

Lifestyle

Taking part in sport and physical activity may contributeto young people and adults leading improved lifestyles(as described in the Developing Participation andSustaining Participation sections) plus, for individuals inwider intervention programmes, such improvements as:

• improved employability

• reduced antisocial behaviour

• reduced involvement in crime

• improved social cohesion/involvement

• better parenting skills

• reduced weight, leading to improved health andquality of life

• other benefits, depending on the nature of the intervention.


To support participants to achieve these capabilities,coaches will need to consider the way in which theywork – their style of delivery – as much as the content.While this might vary according to the context,particularly if the activity is part of a wider intervention, generally, coaches should consider the following practices.


• Introduce yourself and other staff/helpers to the participants.

• Treat all participants fairly and equitably.

• Get to know and use participants’ (preferred) names.

• Encourage and support participants to get to knoweach other (if working in groups).

• Be familiar with the wider outcomes of theprogramme if it is a targeted intervention.

• Consult with participants to ascertain their motivesfor taking part and their envisaged levels of commitment.

• Consult with participants to find out what they’vedone previously that might link to this learningprogramme; this may be sport-specific, generalsporting activity or other learning programmes.

• Consult with any participants who have additional orspecific requirements.

• Check if there are any health and safety issues tobe aware of (eg previous injuries, illness).

• Recognise the other commitments and pressures inparticipants’ lives (eg family, work) and any otherrequirements of the (wider) learning programme.


• Ensure coaches are appropriately qualified andinsured and are CRB checked if working with children.

• Adhere to local or national guidelines forsafeguarding and protecting children and vulnerable adults.


• Agree a learning programme that meets the widerobjectives if it is a targeted intervention.

• Negotiate a personal learning programme with eachparticipant (within the wider programme).

• Plan to enable participants to achieve the five Cs,as well as the ‘usual’ technical, tactical, physicaland psychological outcomes.

• Aim to make the playing environment welcoming, aswell as safe.

Coaching:

• Develop a code of conduct with the participants, ifappropriate; ensure it addresses emotional safetyand well-being, as well as physical safety.



• Permit participants to wear any appropriate kit, solong as it is safe and comfortable.

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• Group participants appropriately and sensitively (egwith other adult learners, by ability).

• Differentiate practices to suit each participant’sneeds, interests, abilities and aspirations.

• Modify activities so all participants are included, tothe level they wish to be.

• Respect each participant’s right not to take part (butbe clear about the consequences if part of atargeted intervention).

• Ensure participants know what a particular practiceor activity is for (ie its relevance or benefits).

• Enable participants to learn new skills specific to thesport or activity.

• Support participants to refine, select and apply theirexisting skills (if relearning).

• Enable participants to improve and extend theirskills, as desired.

• Ensure participants have time to practise the skills(both within and, where appropriate, outsidethe sessions).

• Enable participants to increase their strength,suppleness and stamina, as desired (and safe).

• Ensure individuals increase activity levels gradually,especially those who are unfit or have an existingmedical condition.

• Support participants to recognise how an activitycontributes to their health and well-being.

• Support participants to set themselves personalchallenges, within each session and as part of theirpersonal learning programme.

• Support participants to take part in appropriatecompetitions, challenges and displays, as desired.

• Ensure participants set realistic goals andexperience an element of success in every session.

• Encourage participants to support and learn fromeach other (if working in groups) and/or supportthem to identify a mentor, either within or outsidethe programme.


• Continue to learn, develop and share ideas so youare always improving.

• Support participants to reflect on and review theirprogress and achievements, against their personalgoals (and the wider outcomes).

• Provide regular individual feedback and encouragement.

• Recognise and celebrate each individual’sachievements – sporting or wider.

• Regularly seek feedback from participants to findout what they enjoy, benefit from and would like todo next.

• Review the success of the learning programmeagainst the desired outcomes (and adaptaccordingly if it is to be repeated) if part of atargeted intervention.

• Inform participants about other provision (eg ongoing provision, performance opportunities, discrete sessions, additional oralternative programmes).

• Inform participants about volunteering opportunities (eg leadership, coaching, officiating and administration).


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The work to identify participant capabilities for the moreperformance-oriented populations and segments is notyet sufficiently advanced to report at present. This workhas been initiated and will be used to inform futureupdates of this user guide.

In summarising the preceding section on participantcapabilities, it is useful to highlight and reinforce thatcapabilities help:

• distinguish between populations and segments, interms of relative priorities and development needs(ie coaches should be clear on the importancegiven to developing each capability dependentupon the stage of development or participantsegment within which they are working)

• participants themselves, in terms of raising theirself-awareness of what and how they need to develop

• inform a curriculum for coaches to understand theparticipants’ needs.

Your starting point for identifying your sport-specificparticipant capabilities is:

• the detail of the generic participant capabilities

• emerging sport-specific research on participantcapabilities and best practice.

Also, your current UK Coaching Certificate programmesprovide a useful starting point. These programmesshould outline the sport-specific participant capabilities– physical, mental, technical and tactical skills,knowledge and behaviours – that a coach needs toknow about a participant. This information will need tobe evolved and aligned with your participant segments,but it is a starting point.

It is your job to review this relevant work andadapt/apply it to your sport, as appropriate. Gatheringthe information may involve bringing together a mix ofcurrent participants and coaches from each segment,technical experts in the different areas (eg skilldevelopment specialists and your tutors and trainers). This will help to ensure you set out developmentopportunities and environments that are relevant toeveryone involved. It is a good levelling tool and usefulfor achieving buy-in and ownership to have all involved.

The types of issues that you may have to think about include:

• what the different requirements or demands are in relation to the participant capabilities as theserelate to various segments (eg goal setting mayapply to all participant segments; however, forchildren, you may need less sophisticatedinformation on goal setting than you would for the high-performance segment)

• what the weighting or importance given to eachcapability is in relation to the different participantsegments (eg a children’s coach may need agreater understanding of motivation techniquesthan a talent development coach working with more self-motivated performers).

The preceding explanation and guidelines set out inrelation to the participants’ stages of development andsegments identified are meant as a flexible guide, ratherthan being prescriptive in any way. We all know that fewpeople learn the same things at the same time and inthe same sequence. We all recognise that our pastexperiences, our own views and outlook will play asignificant part in what, how and when we learn things.This notion has to be reflected in system design forparticipant development to be effective.

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This section will offer key steps in building your model.

Audit

Carry out a mapping exercise related to participants’needs, goals and motives, and the stage ofdevelopment and broad participant capabilities that arethe prerequisite for development within and betweeneach participant segment.

Analyse

Work out the similarities related to needs, goals,motives, stage of development and capabilities amongparticipants and divide them into broad populations.

Work out potential flexible pathways through thedifferent development contexts and analyse their connectivity.

Build

Think of different and appropriate developmentopportunities for participants to experience.

Using the existing generic information on each corecomponent of the model as a guide, and the key stagesbelow, you can begin to create your own PDM.

Please note that the PDM is the necessary prerequisiteof the CDM, and, therefore, the PDM must precede andbe used to inform the CDM.

Part of building your model is thinking of how to engagethe whole sport in the process of building and to thinkabout the uses for the model once it is built.

Stage 1

Identify the key principles for your model. Thesehighlight what is important to your sport and will act as

key reference points. These principles should have beenarrived at through a detailed research and consultationprocess. The principles that underpin the model are as follows:

• An individual needs-led approach is to be adopted.

• Development is informed by age, stage and a long-term approach.

• The segmentation of participants is based on need.

• The model has to have an inclusive nature.

• The model has to be amenable to sport-specific adaptation.

• An evidence-based approach is to be adopted.

The Coaching Workforce 2009–2016 documentexplains the principles in more detail.

Stage 2

Identify your current participant populations andsegments and forecast what you want them to be inthe future. This will include an audit of your currentparticipants, as well as a broad analysis of the principlesand issues that relate to participant development.

At this stage, you will be creating yourpopulations and segments based on limited data.However, this is a ‘first step’, basic categorisationexercise that will give you the broad populationsand the more detailed segments.

The broad populations and more detailedsegments you identify may need refining once youhave followed Stages 3 and 4 in more detail.

BUILDING THEPARTICIPANTDEVELOPMENT MODEL

Stage 3

Identify the key skills, knowledge and behaviours for each participant segment – the participant capabilities.

Stage 4

Identify the broad stages of development related tothe participant capabilities within each population and/or segment.

Stage 5

Identify the main potential participant pathways thatmay be taken along the way. These pathways shouldbe flexible and broad to allow for individual needs to bemet and will be determined by the individual participantor coach, based on their skills, interests and goals.

These final two stages are multifaceted in their nature.How participants develop is a complex area engagingmany research disciplines, and subsequent work willfocus on such issues. The models will naturally evolveas a consequence of such work.

Stage 6

Review and refine your initial participant segments,taking into consideration the detailed analysis ofparticipants’ needs, capabilities, stages ofdevelopment, the different development environmentsand other information. This should be done on a timeframe that allows for sufficient evidence to be gainedand consistent patterns to emerge.

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CASE STUDY RELATED TOTHE PARTICIPANTDEVELOPMENT MODEL This section highlights the work one sport (gymnastics)has been doing in relation to the modelling work as anexample. As you can see, British Gymnastics is stillworking to evolve this model and has begun to collectinformation related to Stage 2 of the modelling processoutlined earlier.

Another key observation is related to the buy-inprocess. It is very apparent that modelling has becomea tool for managing change, and considerable thought

has been put into the change management and buy-in

process within governing bodies of sport.

This case study does not explain the detail behind the

final model and associated diagrams produced. It is an

overview of key observations made by the people

involved in building the sport-specific coaching systems

who have been responsible for facilitating the

development of the model in their sport.

Figure 5: Gymnastics Participant Development Model

The Evolution of the Long-termParticipant Development Modelfor Gymnastics

There were several reasons why we wanted to focusour attention on developing a long-term participantdevelopment model:

• We wanted to improve our coaching and sportsystems so gymnasts have the best opportunitiesand support to develop.

• There were two external drivers that also cametogether to initiate the long-term participantdevelopment (LTPD) model for gymnastics:

– meeting the requirements of The UK Coaching Framework

– the writing of the English Gymnastics WholeSport Plan (WSP).

One of our main priorities was to make sure that wehad buy-in from the sport as a whole; we knew thiswould then make any future changes easier toimplement, but that it would also bring together theexpertise to input into those developments. A newdevelopment group was formed within BritishGymnastics called the Strategic Operations Group.

Specific projects were identified for each meeting:

• Meeting 1 – explanation of The UK Coaching Framework

• Meeting 2 – outline of the requirements of theEnglish WSP.

At the first meeting, the generic materials supplied bysports coach UK were explained and discussed. FredPivotti used a generic model for the possible participantpathways in gymnastics.

The following was agreed:

• to adopt the generic PDM model to demonstrateparticipation in gymnastics

• to plot out the possible participant segmentationswithin the participant populations relevant to gymnastics

• to use this agreed model for all future developments.

The four main segmentations for gymnasticparticipation were agreed:

• Foundation

• Participation

• Competition

• High Performance.

A model was created to illustrate what was believed tobe the current landscape of participation populations ingymnastics. The benchmark for this was the age andnumber of participants. It was agreed we had somedata that allowed a certain amount of projection ofnumbers in each segment. We knew at this stage thatfurther research would be needed to give an accuratecurrent picture. This future research will help us to findany gaps in potential population segments.

At the second meeting, Louise Roberts outlined the format and requirements for writing the English Gymnastics WSP.

The main aims of the WSP are to:

• improve the quality of provision

• increase and sustain participation in our sport

• improve performance throughout the pathway.

English Gymnastics had adopted the LTPD modelagreed at the first meeting and it became the basis ofhow the WSP would be put together andcommunicated to stakeholders in gymnastics.

A long-term coach development (LTCD) model wasagreed where there are four main coach roles in linewith meeting the needs of the participant categories.These are:

• Foundation Coach

• Participant Coach

• Competition Coach

• High Performance Coach.

Two main aims emerged. These were to identify theprofiles of:

• participants within each category of the participant pathway

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• the different coaching roles to meet therequirements of the different profiles of the participants.

It became clear that the LTPD and LTCD models shouldbe used as a base for all home nation delivery plansacross the UK. Membership of the Strategic OperationsGroup was then opened to the other home nations. Itwas decided to produce a Vision document that woulddescribe a UK-wide coaching system for gymnasticsbased on the work done on the LTPD and LTCDmodels. The principles and overarching strategieswould then be used to create each home nation delivery plan to implement The UK Coaching Framework.

To summarise, British Gymnastics has been involved inworking out:

• how useful the modelling process is for gymnasticsas a sport and what current initiatives it impacts on immediately

• how British Gymnastics will go about producing theearly versions of these models and who should beinvolved from a buy-in perspective

• what the next stage of the developments is.

So, currently, British Gymnastics has:

1 focused on the link between the WSP and thedelivery plans and how to use the modellingprocess for this

2 brought together the home nations and gymnasticstechnical experts to help produce the models

3 worked out that there is a long way to go until thefinal models are produced and that this work willevolve as more information emerges, both sport-specific and generic.

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Abbott, A., Collins, D., Martindale, R. and Sowerby, K.(2002) Talent identification and development: anacademic review: a report for sportscotland by theUniversity of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: sportscotland.

Abbott, A., Collins, D., Sowerby, K. and Martindale, R.(2007) Developing the Potential of Young People inSport: A Report for sportscotland by The University ofEdinburgh. Edinburgh: sportscotland.

Bailey, R. and Morley, D. (2006) ‘Towards a model oftalent development in physical education’, Sport,Education and Society, 11: 211–230.

Balyi, I. (2002) ‘Long-term athlete development: thesystem and solutions’, Faster, Higher, Stronger, 14(January): 6–9.

Berliner, D. (1994) ‘Expertise: the wonder of exemplaryperformance’ in Mangieri, J. and Collins Black, C. (eds) Creating Powerful Thinking in Students andTeachers. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Côté, J. and Hay, J. (2002) Children’s Involvement inSport: a Developmental Perspective. Boston, MA: Allynand Bacon

Department for Children, Schools and Families (2008a)Building Brighter Futures: Next Steps for the Children’sWorkforce. DCSF Publications: Nottingham. ISBN: 978-1-847751-36-2.

Department for Children, Schools and Families (2008b)‘2020 Children and Young People's WorkforceStrategy’, www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/strategy/childrenandyoungpeoplesworkforce/workforcestrategy/

Department for Education and Skills (2004) High QualityPE and Sport for Young People: A guide to recognisingand achieving high quality PE and sport in schools andclubs. DfES Publications: Nottingham.

Ericsson, K.A., Krampe R., Tesch-Romer, C. (1993)‘The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition ofexpert performance’, Psychological Review100 (3): 363–406.

Jelicic, H., Bobek, D.L., Phelps, E., Lerner, R.M. andLerner, J.V. (2007) ‘Using positive youth development topredict contribution and risk behaviors in earlyadolescence: Findings from the first two waves of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development’, InternationalJournal of Behavioral Development, 31 (3): 263–273.

North, J. (2009) The UK Coaching Workforce 2009–2016. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation.

sports coach UK (2008) The UK Coaching Framework –A 3-7-11 Year Action Plan. Leeds: Coachwise BusinessSolutions/The National Coaching Foundation.ISBN: 978-1-905540-55-6.

sports coach UK (2008) A Guide to Developing UKCoaching Framework Sports Coaching Delivery PlansVersion 2. Leeds: The National Coaching Foundation.

sports coach UK (2009) The Coach DevelopmentModel User Guide. Leeds: Coachwise BusinessSolutions/The National Coaching Foundation.

Stafford, I. (2005) Coaching for Long-term AthleteDevelopment: to improve participation and performancein sport. Leeds: Coachwise Business Solutions/The National Coaching Foundation. ISBN: 978-1-902523-70-9.

Starkes, J. and Ericsson, K.A. (2003) ExpertPerformance in Sports: advances in research on sportexpertise. Leeds: Human Kinetics Europe. ISBN: 978-0-736041-52-2.

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